research paper topics on english language learners

129 List Of Research Topics In English Language Teaching [updated]

English Language Teaching (ELT) is a field dedicated to teaching English to non-native speakers. It’s important because English is a global language used for communication, business, and education worldwide. Research in ELT helps improve teaching methods, making it easier for students to learn English effectively. This blog will explore a list of research topics in English language teaching.

What Are The Areas Of Research In English Language Teaching?

Table of Contents

Research in English Language Teaching (ELT) encompasses a wide range of areas, including:

• Language Learning: Understanding how people learn English well, like when they learn a new language and if there’s a best time to do it.
• Teaching Ways: Looking into different ways teachers teach, like using conversations, tasks, or mixing language with other subjects.
• Curriculum Design and Syllabus Development: Designing and evaluating language curricula and syllabi to meet the needs of diverse learners and contexts.
• Assessment and Evaluation: Developing and validating assessment tools, exploring alternative assessment methods, and investigating the effectiveness of feedback and error correction strategies.
• Technology in ELT: Exploring the integration of technology in language teaching and learning, including computer-assisted language learning (CALL), mobile-assisted language learning (MALL), and online learning platforms.
• Teacher Education and Professional Development: Investigating pre-service and in-service teacher education programs, reflective practices, and challenges in teacher training.
• Cultural and Sociolinguistic Aspects: Examining the role of culture in language teaching and learning, sociolinguistic competence, and addressing cultural diversity in the classroom.
• Learner Diversity and Inclusive Practices: Researching teaching strategies for diverse learners, including young learners, learners with learning disabilities, and learners from diverse linguistic and cultural backgrounds.
• Policy and Planning in ELT: Analyzing language policies at national and international levels, exploring the implementation of ELT programs, and examining the role of ELT in national development.
• Research Methodologies in ELT: Investigating qualitative, quantitative, and mixed-methods research approaches in ELT research, including action research conducted by teachers in their own classrooms.
• Future Trends and Innovations: Exploring emerging trends and innovations in ELT, such as the impact of globalization, the use of artificial intelligence (AI) in language learning, and innovative teaching strategies.

129 List Of Research Topics In English Language Teaching: Category Wise

Language acquisition and development.

• Second Language Acquisition Theories: Explore different theories explaining how learners acquire a second language.
• Critical Period Hypothesis: Investigate the idea of an optimal age range for language acquisition.
• Multilingualism and Language Development: Study how knowing multiple languages affects language development.
• Cognitive and Affective Factors in Language Learning: Examine the role of cognitive abilities and emotions in language learning.
• Language Learning Strategies: Investigate the strategies learners use to acquire and develop language skills.
• Input Hypothesis: Explore the role of comprehensible input in language acquisition.
• Interaction Hypothesis: Examine the importance of interaction in language learning.
• Fossilization in Second Language Learning: Study why some learners reach a plateau in their language development.

Teaching Methodologies and Approaches

• Communicative Language Teaching (CLT): Analyze the effectiveness of CLT in promoting communication skills.
• Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT): Explore the use of real-world tasks to teach language.
• Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL): Investigate teaching subject content through English.
• Blended Learning in ELT: Study the integration of traditional and online teaching methods.
• Audio-Lingual Method: Assess the effectiveness of drills and repetition in language teaching.
• Grammar-Translation Method: Compare traditional grammar-focused methods with communicative approaches.
• Lexical Approach: Explore teaching vocabulary as a key component of language proficiency.
• Suggestopedia: Investigate the use of relaxation techniques to enhance language learning.

Curriculum Design and Syllabus Development

• Needs Analysis in ELT: Identify the language needs of learners and design appropriate curricula.
• Integrating Language Skills in Curriculum: Examine strategies for integrating reading, writing, listening, and speaking skills.
• Syllabus Types: Compare different types of syllabi, such as structural and task-based.
• Task-Based Syllabus Design: Design syllabi based on real-world tasks to promote language acquisition.
• Content-Based Instruction (CBI): Integrate language learning with academic content in syllabus design.
• Needs Analysis in Specific Contexts: Conduct needs analyses for learners in specific professional or academic contexts.
• Cross-Cultural Communication in Curriculum Design: Incorporate intercultural communication skills into language curricula.

Assessment and Evaluation

• Standardized Testing in ELT: Evaluate the reliability and validity of standardized English language tests.
• Alternative Assessment Approaches: Explore non-traditional assessment methods like portfolios and self-assessment.
• Feedback Strategies in Language Learning: Investigate effective feedback techniques for improving language proficiency.
• Washback Effect of Testing: Study how assessment practices influence teaching and learning.
• Authentic Assessment in ELT: Develop assessment tasks that mirror real-life language use situations.
• Portfolio Assessment: Investigate the use of portfolios to track language learning progress over time.
• Computer Adaptive Testing (CAT): Evaluate the feasibility and effectiveness of adaptive testing methods in ELT.

Technology in ELT

• Computer-Assisted Language Learning (CALL): Assess the impact of computer-based language learning programs.
• Mobile-Assisted Language Learning (MALL): Study the effectiveness of mobile devices in language learning.
• Online Learning Platforms for ELT: Analyze the features and usability of online platforms for language education.
• Virtual Reality (VR) in Language Learning: Explore immersive VR environments for language practice and instruction.
• Artificial Intelligence (AI) Tutoring Systems: Assess the effectiveness of AI-based tutors in providing personalized language instruction.
• Social Media in Language Learning: Study the role of social media platforms in informal language learning contexts.
• Gamification in ELT: Investigate the use of game elements to enhance engagement and motivation in language learning.

Teacher Education and Professional Development

• Pre-service Teacher Education Programs: Evaluate the effectiveness of teacher training programs.
• Reflective Practice in Teaching: Investigate how teachers reflect on their practice to improve teaching.
• Challenges in Teacher Education: Identify challenges faced by educators in training and development.
• Teacher Beliefs and Practices: Examine how teachers’ beliefs about language learning influence their instructional practices.
• Peer Observation in Teacher Development: Explore the benefits of peer observation and feedback for teacher professional growth.
• Mentoring Programs for New Teachers: Evaluate the effectiveness of mentoring programs in supporting novice teachers.
• Continuing Professional Development (CPD) Models: Compare different models of CPD for language teachers and their impact on teaching quality.

Cultural and Sociolinguistic Aspects

• Language and Culture Interrelationship: Explore the relationship between language and culture in ELT.
• Sociolinguistic Competence and Pragmatics: Study how social context influences language use and understanding.
• Gender and Identity in Language Learning: Investigate how gender identity affects language learning experiences.
• Intercultural Competence in Language Teaching: Develop strategies for promoting intercultural communicative competence in language learners.
• Language Policy and Minority Language Education: Analyze the impact of language policies on the education of minority language speakers.
• Gender and Language Learning Strategies: Investigate gender differences in language learning strategies and their implications for instruction.
• Code-Switching in Multilingual Classrooms: Study the role of code-switching in language learning and classroom interaction.

Learner Diversity and Inclusive Practices

• Teaching English to Young Learners (TEYL): Examine effective teaching strategies for children learning English.
• Addressing Learning Disabilities in ELT: Investigate methods for supporting learners with disabilities in language learning.
• ELT for Specific Purposes (ESP): Explore specialized English language instruction for specific fields.
• Differentiated Instruction in Language Teaching: Develop strategies for addressing diverse learner needs in the language classroom.
• Inclusive Pedagogies for Learners with Special Educational Needs: Design instructional approaches that accommodate learners with disabilities in language learning.
• Language Learning Strategies of Autistic Learners: Investigate effective language learning strategies for individuals on the autism spectrum.
• Language Identity and Learner Motivation: Explore the relationship between language identity and motivation in language learning.

Policy and Planning in ELT

• National and International Language Policies: Analyze policies governing English language education at different levels.
• ELT Program Implementation Challenges: Identify challenges in implementing ELT programs in diverse contexts.
• Role of ELT in National Development: Examine the contribution of English language education to national development goals.
• English as a Medium of Instruction (EMI) Policies: Analyze the impact of EMI policies on educational equity and access.
• Language Teacher Recruitment and Deployment Policies: Evaluate policies related to the recruitment and deployment of language teachers in diverse contexts.
• Language Assessment Policy Reform: Propose reforms to language assessment policies to promote fairness and validity.
• Biliteracy Development Policies: Study policies aimed at promoting biliteracy development among bilingual learners.

Research Methodologies in ELT

• Qualitative Research Methods in ELT: Explore qualitative approaches like interviews and case studies in ELT research.
• Quantitative Research Methods in ELT: Investigate quantitative methods such as surveys and experiments in language education research.
• Mixed-Methods Approaches in ELT Research: Combine qualitative and quantitative methods to gain a comprehensive understanding of research questions.
• Ethnographic Approaches to ELT Research: Conduct ethnographic studies to explore language learning and teaching in naturalistic settings.
• Case Study Research in Language Education: Investigate specific language learning contexts or programs through in-depth case studies.
• Corpus Linguistics in ELT Research: Analyze language use patterns and learner language production using corpus linguistic methods.
• Longitudinal Studies of Language Learning: Follow language learners over an extended period to examine developmental trajectories and factors influencing language acquisition.

Future Trends and Innovations

• Emerging Technologies in ELT: Study the integration of technologies like AI and VR in language teaching.
• Innovations in Teaching Strategies: Explore new approaches to teaching language, such as flipped classrooms and gamification.
• Future Directions in ELT Research: Investigate potential areas for future research in English language teaching.
• Wearable Technology in Language Learning: Explore the potential of wearable devices for delivering personalized language instruction.
• Data Analytics for Adaptive Learning: Develop data-driven approaches to adaptive learning in language education.
• Augmented Reality (AR) Applications in ELT: Design AR-enhanced language learning experiences for immersive language practice.
• Global Citizenship Education and Language Learning: Investigate the role of language education in fostering global citizenship skills.
• Eco-Linguistics and Language Education: Explore the intersection of language education and environmental sustainability.
• Metacognition and Language Learning: Explore how learners’ awareness of their own learning processes affects language acquisition.
• Peer Interaction in Language Learning: Investigate the role of peer collaboration and discussion in promoting language development.
• Heritage Language Education: Study strategies for maintaining and revitalizing heritage languages among immigrant and minority communities.
• Language Learning Motivation in Adolescents: Examine factors influencing motivation and engagement in adolescent language learners.
• Phonological Awareness in Language Learning: Investigate the role of phonological awareness in literacy development for language learners.
• Pragmatic Development in Language Learners: Explore how learners acquire pragmatic competence and understanding of language use in context.
• Digital Literacies and Language Learning: Examine how digital literacy skills contribute to language proficiency and communication in the digital age.
• Critical Language Awareness: Investigate approaches to developing learners’ critical awareness of language use and power dynamics.
• Language Teacher Identity: Study how language teachers’ identities shape their beliefs, practices, and interactions in the classroom.
• Collaborative Learning in Language Education: Explore the benefits and challenges of collaborative learning environments for language learners.
• Motivational Strategies in Language Teaching: Develop and evaluate motivational techniques to enhance student engagement and persistence in language learning.
• Heritage Language Maintenance: Investigate factors influencing the maintenance and transmission of heritage languages across generations.
• Phonics Instruction in Language Learning: Examine the effectiveness of phonics-based approaches for teaching reading and pronunciation.
• Language Policy Implementation: Analyze the challenges and successes of implementing language policies at the institutional, regional, and national levels.
• Language Teacher Cognition: Explore language teachers’ beliefs, knowledge, and decision-making processes in the classroom.
• Intercultural Communicative Competence: Develop strategies for fostering learners’ ability to communicate effectively across cultures.
• Critical Pedagogy in Language Education: Explore approaches to teaching language that promote critical thinking, social justice, and equity.
• Language Learning Strategies for Autodidacts: Investigate effective self-directed learning strategies for language learners outside formal educational settings.
• Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) in Higher Education: Examine the implementation and outcomes of CLIL programs in tertiary education.
• Sociocultural Theory and Language Learning: Explore how social and cultural factors influence language acquisition and development.
• Language Socialization: Investigate how individuals learn language within social and cultural contexts, including family, peer groups, and communities.
• Speech Perception and Language Learning: Examine the relationship between speech perception abilities and language proficiency in second language learners.
• Genre-Based Approaches to Language Teaching: Explore the use of genre analysis and genre-based pedagogy to teach language skills in context.
• Learner Autonomy in Language Learning: Investigate strategies for promoting learner autonomy and independence in language education.
• Multimodal Literacy in Language Learning: Examine the integration of multiple modes of communication, such as text, image, and sound, in language instruction.
• Community-Based Language Learning: Study language learning initiatives that engage learners with their local communities and resources.
• English as a Lingua Franca (ELF) Communication: Explore the use of English as a global means of communication among speakers from diverse linguistic backgrounds.

Research in English Language Teaching covers a wide range of topics, from language acquisition theories to the impact of technology on learning. By exploring these topics (from a list of research topics in english language teaching), we can improve how English is taught and learned, making it more effective and accessible for everyone.

Continuous research and collaboration among educators, researchers, and policymakers are essential for the ongoing development of ELT.

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Evidence-based reading interventions for English language learners: A multilevel meta-analysis

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Data included in article/supplementary material/referenced in article.

The number of English Language Learners (ELLs) has been growing worldwide. ELLs are at risk for reading disabilities due to dual difficulties with linguistic and cultural factors. This raises the need for finding practical and efficient reading interventions for ELLs to improve their literacy development and English reading skills. The purpose of this study is to examine the evidence-based reading interventions for English Language Learners to identify the components that create the most effective and efficient interventions. This article reviewed literature published between January 2008 and March 2018 that examined the effectiveness of reading interventions for ELLs. We analyzed the effect sizes of reading intervention programs for ELLs and explored the variables that affect reading interventions using a multilevel meta-analysis. We examined moderator variables such as student-related variables (grades, exceptionality, SES), measurement-related variables (standardization, reliability), intervention-related variables (contents of interventions, intervention types), and implementation-related variables (instructor, group size). The results showed medium effect sizes for interventions targeting basic reading skills for ELLs. Medium-size group interventions and strategy-embedded interventions were more important for ELLs who were at risk for reading disabilities. These findings suggested that we should consider the reading problems of ELLs and apply the Tier 2 approach for ELLs with reading problems.

English language learners, Evidenced-based intervention, Meta-analysis, Reading.

1. Introduction

There is a growing body of literature that recognizes the importance of quality education for learners who study in a language other than their native language ( Estrella et al., 2018 ; Ludwig et al., 2019 ). As cultural, racial, ethnic, and linguistic diversification takes place globally, the number of students studying a second language different from their native language is also increasing worldwide. In the United States, nearly 5 million learners who are not native speakers of English are currently attending public schools, and this figure has increased significantly over the past decade ( NCES, 2016 ). As the number of children whose native language is not English increased, the need for educational support also increased. Furthermore, the implementation of NCLB policy emphasizes the need for quality education for all students included in all schools. Accordingly, NCLB has emerged as a critical policy for learners to study in their second language. In other words, there is an urgent need to ensure that non-native English speakers receive appropriate education due to NCLB, which has not only increased the demand for education but also led to the practice of enhanced education for learners whose English is not their native language.

ELLs (English language learners) refer to the education provided for learners whose native language is not English in English-speaking countries ( National Center for Education Statistics, 2021 ). The education provided to these ELLs is called ESL (English as a second language), ESOL (English to speakers of other languages), EFL (English as a foreign language), and so on. Each term is adopted differently depending on the policy, purpose, and status of operation of the state and/or school district. While a variety of terms have been suggested, this paper uses the term ‘ELLs’ to refer to learners who are not native speakers of English and uses the terms ‘the English education program’ and the ‘ELL program’ to refer to the English education program provided to ELLs.

To ensure quality education, students identified as ELLs can participate in supportive programs to improve their English skills. These ELL programs can be broadly divided into two methods: “pull-out” and “push-in” ( Honigsfeld, 2009 ). In the pull-out program, students are taken to a specific space other than the classroom at regular class time and are separately taught English. In the push-in program, the ELL teacher joins the mainstream ELLs’ classroom and assists them during class time. Through these educational supports, ELLs are required to achieve not only English language improvements addressed in Title III of NCLB but also language art achievements appropriate to their grade level addressed in Title I of NCLB. ELLs are expected to achieve the same level of academic achievement as students of the same grade level, as well as comparable language skills.

A considerable amount of literature has been published on the achievement and learning status of ELLs ( Ludwig, 2017 ; Soland and Sandilos, 2020 ). These studies revealed that despite the intensive, high-quality education support for ELLs, they encounter difficulties learning and academic achievement. The National Reading Achievement Test (NAEP) results show that the achievement gap between non-ELLs and ELLs is steadily expanding in the areas of both mathematics and reading ( Polat et al., 2016 ). Ultimately, ELLs are reported to have the highest risk of dropping out of school ( Sheng et al., 2011 ). These difficulties are not limited to early school age. Fry (2007) reported that the results from a national standardized test of 8th-grade students found that ELLs performed lower than white students in both reading and math. Callahan and Shifrer (2016) analyzed data from a nationally representative educational longitudinal study in 2002 and found that, despite taking into account language, socio-demographic and academic factors, ELLs still have a large gap in high school academic achievement. Additionally, research has suggested that ELLs are less likely to participate in higher education institutions compared to non-ELL counterparts ( Cook, 2015 ; Kanno and Cromley, 2015 ).

Factors found to influence the difficulties of ELLs in learning have been explored in several studies ( Dussling, 2018 ; Thompson and von Gillern, 2020 ; Yousefi and Bria, 2018 ). There are two main reasons for these difficulties. First, ELLs face many challenges in learning a new language by following the academic content required in the school year ( American Youth Policy Forum, 2009 ). Moreover, language is an area that is influenced by sociocultural factors, and learning academic contents such as English language art and math are also influenced by sociocultural elements and different cultural backgrounds, which affects the achievement of ELLs in school ( Chen et al., 2012 ; Orosco, 2010 ). Second, it is reported that the heterogeneity of ELLs makes it challenging to formulate instructional strategies and provide adequate education for them. Due to the heterogeneous traits in the linguistic and cultural aspects of the ELL group, there are limitations in specifying and guiding traits. Therefore, properly reflecting their characteristics is difficult.

The difficulties for ELLs in academic achievement raise the necessity for searching practical and efficient reading interventions for ELLs to improve English language and academic achievement, including ELLs' English language art achievement. These needs and demands led to the conduct of various studies that analyze the difficulties of ELLs. Over the past decade, these studies have provided important information on education for ELLs. The main themes of the studies are difficulties in academic achievement and interventions for ELLs, including reading ( Kirnan et al., 2018 ; Liu and Wang, 2015 ; Roth, 2015 ; Shamir et al., 2018 ; Tam and Heng, 2016 ), writing ( Daugherty, 2015 ; Hong, 2018 ; Lin, 2015 ; nullP ) or both reading and math ( Dearing et al., 2016 ; Shamir et al., 2016 ). The influences of teachers on children's guidance ( Kim, 2017 ; Daniel and Pray, 2017 ; Téllez and Manthey, 2015 ; Wasseell, Hawrylak, Scantlebuty, 2017 ) and the influences of family members ( Johnson and Johnson, 2016 ; Walker, Research on 2017 ) are also examined.

Reading is known to function as an important predictor of success not only in English language art itself but also in overall school life ( Guo et al., 2015 ). This is because reading is conducted throughout the school years, as most of the activities students perform in school are related to reading. Furthermore, reading is considered one of the major fundamental skills in modern society because it has a strong relationship with academic and vocational success beyond school-based learning ( Lesnick et al., 2010 ). In particular, for ELLs, language is one of the innate barriers; thereafter, reading is one of the most common and prominent difficulties in that it is not done in their native language ( Rawian and Mokhtar, 2017 ; Snyder et al., 2017 ). In this respect, several studies have investigated reading for ELLs. These studies explore effective interventions and strategies ( Kirnan et al., 2018 ; Mendoza, 2016 ; Meredith, 2017 ; Reid and Heck, 2017 ) and suggest reading development models or predictors for reading success ( Boyer, 2017 ; Liu and Wang, 2015 ; Rubin, 2016 ). For these individual studies to provide appropriate guidance to field practitioners and desirable suggestions for future research, aggregation of the overall related studies, not only of the individual study, and research reflections based on them are required. Specifically, meta-analysis can be an appropriate research method. Through meta-analysis, we can derive conclusions from previous studies and review them comprehensively. Furthermore, meta-analysis can ultimately contribute to policymakers and decision-makers making appropriate decisions for rational strategies and policymaking.

Although extensive research has been carried out on the difficulties of ELLs and how to support them, a sufficiently comprehensive meta-analysis of these studies has not been carried out. Some studies have focused on specific interventions, such as morphological interventions ( Goodwin and Ahn, 2013 ), peer-mediated learning ( Cole, 2014 ), and video game-based instruction ( Thompson and von Gillern ). Ludwig, Guo, and Georgiou (2019) demonstrated the effectiveness of reading interventions for ELLs. However, they divided reading-related variables into “reading accuracy”, “reading fluency”, and “reading comprehension” and examined the effectiveness of the reading-related attributes in each of the variables. Therefore, the study has limitations for exploring the various aspects of reading and their effectiveness for reading interventions.

Individual studies have their characteristics and significance. However, for individual studies to be more widely adopted in the field and to be a powerful source for future research, it is necessary to analyze these individual studies more comprehensively. Meta-analysis reviews past studies related to the topic by 'integrating' previous studies, analyzes and evaluates them through 'critical analysis', provides implications to the field, and gives rise to intellectual stimulation to future studies by ‘identifying issues’ ( Cooper et al., 2019 ). Through this, meta-analysis can be a useful tool for diagnosing the past where relevant research has been conducted, taking appropriate treatment for the present, and providing intellectual stimulation for future studies.

Therefore, the purposes of this study are to examine evidence-based reading interventions for ELLs presented in the literature to analyze their effects and to identify the actual and specific components for creating the most effective and efficient intervention for ELLs. The findings of this study make a major contribution to research on ELLs by demonstrating the implications for the field and future study.

2.1. Selection of studies

A meta-analysis of peer-reviewed articles on ELL reading interventions published between January 2008 and March 2018 was conducted. According to the general steps of a meta-analysis, data related to reading interventions for English language learners were collected as follows. First, educational and psychological publication databases, such as Google Scholar ( https://scholar.google.co.kr ), ERIC ( https://eric.ed.gov/ ), ELSEVIER ( http://www.elsevier.com ), and Springer ( https://www.springer.com/gp ) were used to find the articles to be analyzed using the search terms “ELLs,” ESL,” “Reading,” “Second language education,” “Effectiveness,” and “Intervention” separately and in combination with each other. We reviewed the results of the web-based search for articles and included all relevant articles on the preliminary list. We selected the final list of the articles to be analyzed by applying inclusion and exclusion criteria to the preliminary list of articles. Studies were included in the final list based on three primary criteria. First, each study should evaluate the effectiveness of a school-based reading intervention using an experimental or quasi-experimental group design. In this process, single case, qualitative, and/or descriptive studies for ELLs were excluded from the analysis. Second, we included all types of reading-related interventions (i.e., phonological awareness, word recognition, reading fluency, vocabulary, and reading comprehension). Third, each study needed to report data in a statistical format to calculate an effect size. Fourth, we only included studies whose subjects were in grades K-12. The preliminary list had 75 articles, but since some of these studies did not meet the inclusion criteria, we excluded them from the final list for analysis. In total, this meta-analysis included 28 studies with 234 effect sizes (see Figure 1 ).

Prisma flow diagram.

2.2. Data analysis

2.2.1. coding procedure.

To identify the relevant components of the evidence-based reading interventions for ELLs, we developed an extensive coding document. Our interest was in synthesizing the effect sizes and finding the variables that affect the effectiveness of reading interventions for ELLs. The code sheet was made based on a code sheet used in Vaughn et al. (2003) and Wanzek et al. (2010) . All studies were coded for the following: (a) study characteristics, including general information about the study, (b) student-related variables, (c) intervention-related variables, (d) implementation-related variables, (e) measurement-related variables, and (f) quantitative data for the calculation of effect sizes.

Within the study characteristics category, we coded the researchers’ names, publication year, and title from each study to identify the general information about each study. For the student-related variables, mean age, grade level(s), number of participants, number of males, number of females, sampling method, exceptionality type (reading ability level), identification criteria in case of learning disabilities, race/ethnicity, and SES were coded. We divided grade level(s) into lower elementary (K-2), upper elementary (3–5), and secondary (6–12). When students with learning disabilities participated in the study, we coded the identification criteria reported in the study. For race/ethnicity, we coded white, Hispanic, black, Asian, and others. Within intervention-related variables, we coded for the title of the intervention, the key instructional components of the intervention, the type of intervention, and the reading components of the intervention. The reading components coded were phonemic awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary, reading comprehension, listening comprehension, and others. If an intervention contained multiple reading components, all reading components included in the intervention were coded. Fourth, within implementation-related variables, we coded group size, duration of the intervention (weeks), the total number of sessions, frequency of sessions per week, length of each session (minutes), personnel who provided the intervention (i.e., teacher, researchers, other), and the setting. Fifth, in measurement-related variables, we coded the title of the measurement, reliability coefficient, validity coefficient, type of measurement, type of reliability, and type of validity. We also coded quantitative data such as the pre- and posttest means, the pre- and posttest standard deviations, and the number of participants in the pre- and posttests for both the treatment and control groups. These coding variables are defined in Table 1 . The research background and sample information are in Appendix 1 .

Table 1

Coding variables.

2.2.2. Coding reliability

The included articles were coded according to the coding procedure described above. Two researchers coded each study separately and reached 91% agreement. Afterward, the researchers reviewed and discussed the differences to resolve the initial disagreements.

2.2.3. Data analysis

First, we calculated 234 effect sizes from the interventions included in the 28 studies. The average effect size was calculated using Cohen's d formula. In addition, we conducted a two-level meta-analysis through multilevel hierarchical linear modeling (HLM) using the HLM 6.0 interactive mode statistical program to analyze the computed effect sizes and find the predictors that affect the effect sizes of reading interventions. HLM is appropriate to quantitatively obtain both overall summary statistics and quantification of the variability in the effectiveness of interventions across studies as a means for accessing the generalizability of findings. Moreover, HLM easily incorporates the overall mean effect size using the unconditional model, and HLM is useful to explain variability in the effectiveness of interventions between studies in the conditional model. The aim of the current study is to provide a broad overview of interventions for ELLs. To achieve this aim, we conducted an unconditional model for overall mean effect size and conducted a conditional model to identify factors that have an impact on the strength of effect sizes. In regard to variables related to the effectiveness of interventions, we conducted a conditional model with student-related, measurement-related, intervention-related, and implementation-related variables. In the case of quantitative meta-analyses, it is assumed that observations are independent of one another ( How and de Leeuw, 2003 ). However, this assumption is usually not applied in social studies if observations are clustered within larger groups ( Bowman, 2003 ) because each effect size within a study might not be homogeneous ( Beretvas and Pastor, 2003 ). Thus, a two-level multilevel meta-analysis using a mixed-effect model was employed because multiple effect sizes are provided within a single education study. To calculate effect size (ES) estimates using Cohen's d, we use the following equation [1]:

The pooled standard deviation, SD pooled , is defined as

In HLM, the unconditional model can be implemented to identify the overall effect size across all estimates and to test for homogeneity. If an assumption of homogeneity is rejected by an insignificant chi-square coefficient in the unconditional model, this means that there are differences within and/or between studies. This assumption must go to the next step to find moderators that influence effect sizes. This step is called a level two model or a conditional model. A conditional model is conducted to investigate the extent of the influence of the included variables.

The level one model (unconditional model) was expressed as [3], and the level two model (the conditional model was expressed as [4].

In equation (3) , δ j represents the mean effect size value for study j, and e j is the within-study error term assumed to be theoretically normally distributed with a mean of 0 and a variance of V j . In the level two model equation [4], γ 0 represents the overall mean effect size for the population, and u j represents the sampling variability between studies presumed to be normally distributed with a mean of 0 and a variance τ .

Regarding publication bias, we looked at the funnel plot with the 'funnel()' command of the metafor R package ( Viechtbauer, 2010 ), and to verify this more statistically, we used the dmetar R package ( Harrer et al., 2019 ). Egger's regression test ( Egger et al., 1997 ) was conducted using the 'eggers.test()' command to review publication bias. Egger's regression analysis showed that there was a significant publication error (t = 3.977, 95% CI [0.89–2.54], p < .001). To correct this, a trim-and-fill technique ( Duval and Tweedie, 2000 ) was used. As a result, the total effect size corrected for publication bias was also calculated. The funnel plot is shown in [ Figure 2 ].

Funnel plot.

We analyzed 28 studies to identify influential variables that count for reading interventions for ELLs. Before performing the multilevel meta-analysis, the effect size of 28 studies was analyzed by traditional meta-analysis. The forest plots for the individual effect sizes of 28 studies are shown in Appendix 2. We present our findings with our research questions as an organizational framework. First, we showed an unconditional model for finding the overall mean effect size. Then, we described the variables that influenced the effect size of reading interventions for ELLs using a conditional model.

3.1. Unconditional model

An unconditional model of the meta-analysis was tested first. In the analysis, restricted maximum likelihood estimation was used. This analysis was conducted to confirm the overall mean effect size and to examine the variability among all samples. The results are shown in Table 2 .

Table 2

Results of the unconditional model analysis.

∗∗∗ p < 0.001, df: degree of freedom.

The intercept coefficient in the fixed model is the overall mean effect size from 234 effect sizes. This means that the effect of reading intervention for English language learners is medium based on Cohen's d. Cohen's d is generally interpreted as small d = 0.2, medium d = 0.5 and large d = 0.8. The variance component indicates the variability among samples. The estimate was 0.589 and remained significant (χ 2 = 1245.90, p < . 001). This statistical significance means that moderator analysis with dominant predictors in a model is required to explore the source of variability.

3.2. Conditional model

Moderator analysis using the conditional model was expected to identify factors that have an impact on the strength of effect sizes. In this study, the moderator analysis was administered by nine critical variable categories: students’ grade, exceptionality, SES, reading area, standardized test, test reliability, intervention type, instructor, and group size. Variables in each category were coded by dummy coding. Dummy coding was used to identify the difference in dependent variables between the categories of independent variables. For example, we used four dummy variables to capture the five dimensions. The parameter estimates capture the differences in effect sizes between the groups that are coded 1 and a reference group that is coded 0. From a mathematical perspective, it does not matter which categorical variable is used as the referenced group ( Frey, 2018 ). We labeled one variable in each category as a reference group to make the interpretation of the results easier. We used an asterisk mark to denote the reference group for each category; if a word has an asterisk next to it, this indicates that it is the reference group for that category.

• 1) Student-related variables

The results of the conditional meta-analysis for students' grade variables are presented in Table 3 . In Table 3 , the significant coefficients mean that mean effect sizes are significantly larger for studies in reference conditions. For student grades, upper elementary students showed significantly larger mean effect sizes than secondary students (2.720, p = 0.000), but preschool students showed significantly lower mean effect sizes than secondary students (-0.103, p = 0.019). The Q statistic was significant for students’ grades ( Q = 27.20, p < 0.001) (see Table 4 ).

Table 3

Results of the moderator analysis for student grade.

df: degree of freedom.

Table 4

Results of the moderator analysis for exceptionality.

For the student-related variables, students with low achievement showed significantly larger mean effect sizes scores than general students (0.707, p = 0.001). However, there was no significant difference between students with low achievement and general students. The Q statistic was significant for students’ exceptionality ( Q = 0.0278, p < 0.001).

Table 5 shows that low and low-middle SES was not significantly different from students with no information about SES (0.055, p = 0.666). Moreover, students with middle and upper SES did not have significantly smaller effect sizes than students with nonresponse (-0.379, p = 0.444). The Q statistic was significant for students’ SES ( Q = 68.50, p < 0.001).

Table 5

Results of the moderator analysis for SES.

• 2) Measurement-related variables

Table 6 shows the results of the moderator analysis for measurement types. The coefficient for the standardized measurement-related variable was not significant. The Q statistic was significant for the standardization of measurement tools ( Q = 5.28, p < 0.001).

Table 6

Results of the moderator analysis for standardization of measurement tools.

Table 7 shows the results of the moderator analysis for the reliability of the measurement tools. The coefficient for the measurement reliability-related variable was significant (0.409, p = 0.003), which means that the effect sizes of measurements that reported reliability (ES = 0.770) were significantly larger than the effect sizes of measurements that had information about reliability (ES = 0.361). The Q statistic was significant for the reliability of the measurement tools ( Q = 5.82, p < 0.001) (see Table 8 ).

Table 7

Results of the moderator analysis for reliability.

Table 8

Results of the moderator analysis for content of the intervention.

• 3) Intervention-related variables

The content of the intervention was divided into phonological awareness, reading fluency, vocabulary, reading comprehension, listening comprehension, and other areas. Studies measured other areas that functioned as a reference group. For the measurement area, all reading areas were significantly larger than other areas. Reading fluency (1.150, p = 0.001), reading comprehension (0.971, p = 0.000) and listening comprehension (0.834, p = 0.002) were significantly larger than those in the other areas. However, phonological awareness and vocabulary were significantly larger than other areas but lower than reading fluency, reading comprehension, and listening comprehension (0.528, p = 0.013; 0.442, p = 0.000). The Q statistic was significant for the content of the intervention ( Q = 24.005, p < 0.001).

For intervention types, strategy instruction, peer tutoring, and computer-based learning were compared to other methods, which were fixed as a reference group. Table 9 shows that strategy instruction was significantly larger than other methods in mean effect sizes (0.523, p = 0.001). However, studies that applied peer tutoring and computer-based learning showed lower than other methods, but these differences were not statistically significant (-0.113, p = 0.736; -0114, p = 0.743). The Q statistic was significant for intervention types ( Q = 73.343, p < 0.001).

Table 9

Results of the moderator analysis for intervention types.

• 4) Implementation-related variables

For instructor-related variables, other instructor-delivered instructions were assigned as a reference group. Table 10 shows that the teacher and researcher groups showed significantly larger than the other instructors. Moreover, the teacher group showed larger than the researcher group (0.909, p = 0.000). The Q statistic was significant for instructor-related variables ( Q = 14.024, p < 0.001).

Table 10

Results of the moderator analysis for instructor.

For group size, mixed groups were fixed as a reference group. Group size variables were divided into a small group (1 or more and 5 or less), a middle group (6 or more and 15 or less), and a large group or class size (16 or more). Table 11 shows that the middle group (6 or more and 15 or less) and the small group (1 or more and 5 or less) were significantly larger than the mixed group (0.881, p = 0.000; 0.451, p = 0.006). However, the difference between the large group and the mixed group was not significant (0.120, p = 0.434). The Q statistic was significant for group size variables ( Q = 17.756, p < 0.001).

Table 11

Results of the moderator analysis for group size.

4. Discussion

The purpose of this meta-analysis was to explore the effects of reading interventions for ELLs and to identify research-based characteristics of effective reading interventions for enhancing their reading ability. To achieve this goal, this study tried to determine the answers to two research questions. What is the estimated mean effect size of reading interventions for ELLs in K-12? To what extent do student-, intervention-, implementation-, and measurement-related variables have effects on improving the reading ability of ELLs in K-12? Therefore, our study was limited to recent K-12 intervention studies published between January 2008 and March 2018 that included phonological awareness, fluency, vocabulary, reading comprehension, and listening comprehension as intervention components and outcome measures. A total of 28 studies were identified and analyzed. To inquiry the two main research questions, a two-level meta-analysis was employed in this study. For the first research question, the unconditional model of HLM was conducted to investigate the mean effect size of reading interventions for ELLs. The conditional model of HLM was conducted to determine which variables have significant effects on reading interventions for ELLs. Below, we briefly summarized the results of this study and described the significant factors that seem to influence intervention effectiveness. These findings could provide a better understanding of ELLs and support implications for the development of reading interventions for ELLs.

4.1. Effectiveness of reading interventions for ELLs

The first primary finding from this meta-analysis is that ELLs can improve their reading ability when provided appropriate reading interventions. Our findings indicated that the overall mean effect size of reading interventions of ELLs yielded an effect size of 0.653, which indicates a medium level of effect. From this result, we can conclude that the appropriate reading interventions generally have impacts on reading outcomes for ELLs in K-12. This is consistent with prior syntheses reporting positive effects of reading interventions for ELLs ( Vaughn et al., 2006 ; Abraham, 2008 ).

Effect size information is important to understand the real effects of the intervention. Therefore, this finding indicated that supplementary reading interventions for ELLs will be developed and implemented. This finding also showed that states are required to develop a set of high-quality reading interventions for ELLs. Language interventions for ELLs have become one of the most important issues in the U.S. Increasing numbers of children in U.S. schools have come from homes in which English is not the primary language spoken. NCES (2016) showed that 4.9 million students, or 9.6% of public school students, were identified as ELLs, which was higher than the 3.8 million students, or 8.1%, identified in 2000 ( NCES, 2016 ). While many students of immigrant families succeed in their academic areas, too many do not. Some ELLs lag far behind native English speakers in the school because of the strong effect of language factors on the instruction or assessment. Although English is not their native language, ELLs should learn educational content in English. This leads to huge inequity in public schools. Thus, improving the English language and literacy skills of ELLs is a major concern for educational policymakers. This finding can support practitioners’ efforts and investments in developing appropriate language interventions for ELLs.

4.2. The effects of moderating variables

The second primary finding of this meta-analysis relates to four variable categories: student-, intervention-, implementation-, and measurement-related variables. Effective instruction cannot be designed by considering one factor. The quality of instruction is the product of many factors, including class size, the type of instructions, and other resources. This finding showed which factors affected the effectiveness of reading interventions. Specifically, we found that the variables that proved to have significant effects on reading outcomes of ELLs were as follows: upper elementary students, reliable measurement tools, reading and listening comprehension-related interventions, strategy instruction, and the middle group consisting of 6 or more and 15 or less. Teachers and practitioners in the field may choose to adopt these findings into their practices. ELL teachers may design their instruction as strategy-embedded instruction in middle-sized groups.

We found that grades accounted for significant variability in an intervention's effectiveness. Specifically, we found that reading interventions were substantially more effective when used with upper elementary students than secondary students. This means that the magnitude of an intervention's effectiveness changed depending on when ELLs received reading interventions. Specifically, the larger effect sizes on upper elementary students than secondary schools showed the importance of early interventions to improve ELLs' language abilities. Students who experience early reading difficulty often continue to experience failure in later grades. ELLs, or students whose primary language is other than English and are learning English as a second language, often experience particular challenges in developing reading skills in the early grades. According to Kieffer (2010) , substantial proportions of ELLs and native English speakers showed reading difficulties that emerged in the upper elementary and middle school grades even though they succeeded in learning to read in the primary grades.

Regarding students’ English proficiency and academic achievement, there was no statistically significant difference between students with low achievement and general students. Given the heterogeneity of the English language learner population, interventions that may be effective for one group of English language learners may not be effective with others ( August and Shanahan, 2006 ). This result is similar to the results achieved by Lovett et al. (2008) . Lovett et al. (2008) showed that there were no differences between ELLs and their peers who spoke English as a first language in reading intervention outcomes or growth intervention. This finding suggests that systematic and explicit reading interventions are effective for readers regardless of their primary language.

For students' socioeconomic status (SES), there was no significant difference between the low-middle group and the nonresponse group. However, we cannot find that students' SES is critical for implementing reading interventions. Low SES is known to increase the risk of reading difficulties because of the limited access to a variety of resources that support reading development and academic achievement ( Kieffer, 2010 ). Many ELLs attend schools with high percentages of students living in poverty ( Vaughn et al., 2009 ). These schools are less likely to have adequate funds and resources and to provide appropriate support for academic achievement ( Donovan and Cross, 2002 ). Snow, Burns and Griffin (1998) highlighted multiple and complex factors that contribute to poor reading outcomes in school, including a lack of qualified teachers and students who come from poverty. Although this study cannot determine the relationship between the effectiveness of reading interventions and the SES of students, more studies are needed. In addition, these results related to students’ characteristics showed that practitioners and teachers can consider for whom to implement some interventions. Researchers should provide a greater specification of the student samples because this information will be particularly critical for English language learners.

Although many of the studies measured a variety of outcomes across all areas of reading, interventions that focused on improving reading comprehension and listening comprehension obtained better effects than other reading outcomes. This result is similar to those discussed in previous findings ( Wanzek and Roberts, 2012 ; Carrier, 2003 ).

With regard to effective intervention types, the findings indicated that strategy instruction was statistically significant for improving the reading skills of ELLs. However, computer-based interventions, which are frequently used for reading instruction for ELLs in recent years, showed lower effect sizes than mixed interventions. Strategy instructions are known as one of the effective reading interventions for ELLs ( Proctor et al., 2007 ; Begeny et al., 2012 ; Olson and Land, 2007 ; Vaughn et al., 2006 ). These strategies included activating background knowledge, clarifying vocabulary meaning, and expressing visuals and gestures for understanding after reading. Some studies have shown that computer-based interventions are effective for ELLs ( White and Gillard, 2011 ; Macaruso and Rodman, 2011 ), but this study does not. Therefore, there is little agreement in the research literature on how to effectively teach reading to ELLs ( Gersten and Baker, 2000 ). Continued research efforts must specify how best to provide intervention for ELLs.

With respect to the implementation of the intervention, teachers and researchers as instructors would produce stronger effects than other instructors. In this study, multiple studies showed that various instructors taught ELLs, including teachers, graduate students, and researchers. The professional development of instructors is more important than that of those who taught ELLs. This finding is consistent with Richards-Tutor et al. (2016) . They also did not find differences between researcher-delivered interventions and school personnel-delivered interventions. Continuing professional development should build on the preservice education of teachers, strengthen teaching skills, increase teacher knowledge of the reading process, and facilitate the integration of newer research on reading into the teaching practices of classroom teachers ( Snow et al., 1998 ). Overall, professional development is the key factor in strengthening the reading skills of ELLs.

This study showed that medium-sized groups of 6 or more and 15 or less had larger effect sizes than the mixed groups. In addition, the medium-sized group showed a larger effect size than the small group of 5 or less. This finding showed that a multi-tiered reading system should be needed in the general classroom. This finding is linked to the fact that the reaction to intervention (RTI) approach is more effective for ELLs. Linan-Thompson et al. (2007) pointed out that RTI offers a promising alternative for reducing the disproportionate representation of culturally and linguistically diverse students in special education by identifying students at risk early and providing preventive instruction to accelerate progress. Regarding interventions for ELLs who are struggling with or at risk for reading difficulties, Ross and Begeny (2011) compared the effectiveness between small group interventions and implementing the intervention in a 1/1 context for ELLs. They showed that nearly all students benefitted from the 1/1 intervention, and some students benefitted from the small group intervention. This finding is commensurate with a previous study investigating the comparative differences between group sizes and suggests research-based support for the introduction of the RTI approach.

However, most implementation-related variables, including duration of intervention, the total number of sessions, frequency per week, length of each session, settings, and instructor, did not have any significant effect on the reading ability of ELLs. That is, ELLs are able to achieve their reading improvement regardless of the duration of intervention, where they received the reading intervention, and who taught them. This finding is similar to those discussed by Snyder et al. (2017) . They also synthesized the related interventions for ELLs and showed that the length of intervention did not seem to be directly associated with overall effect sizes for reading outcomes. This finding is also the same as recent research on intervention duration with native English speakers ( Wanzek et al., 2013 ). Wanzek and colleagues examined the relationship between student outcomes and hours of intervention in their meta-analysis. The findings showed no significant differences in student outcomes based on the number of intervention hours. Elbaum et al. (2000) stated that the intensity of the interventions is most important for effectiveness. Our results somewhat support these researchers’ opinions, but we cannot be certain that a brief intervention would have the same overall effect on reading outcomes as a year-long intervention. Thus, we should consider the intervention intensity, such as student attendance at the sessions, with the duration of the intervention.

4.3. Implications for practice and for research

The most effective and efficient education refers to education that is made up in the right ways, that includes proper content, and that is delivered on time so that the students can benefit the most. To implement this, research to identify a particular framework based on the synthesis of research results through meta-analysis, such as this study, must be conducted. Furthermore, the implications based on the results must be deeply considered. In this respect, important implications for the practice and research of practitioners, researchers, and policymakers on enhancing reading competence for ELLs of this study are as follows.

First, reading interventions for ELLs are expected to be the most efficient when conducted on a medium-sized group of 6–15 students. This indicates that implementing reading interventions for ELLs requires a specially designed group-scale configuration rather than simply a class-wide or one-to-one configuration. Second, the implementation of reading interventions for ELLs is most effective when conducted for older elementary school students. This is in contrast to Morgan and Sideridis (2006) , who demonstrated the characteristics of students with learning disabilities using multilevel meta-analysis and showed that age groups were irrelevant in the effect size of reading interventions for students with learning disabilities. Therefore, it can be seen that the ELLs group, unlike the learning disability group, the students of which have reading difficulty due to their disabilities, is in the normal development process but has reading difficulty due to linguistic differences. Accordingly, it can be seen that the senior year of elementary school, in which a student has been exposed to the academic environment for a sufficiently long time and language is sufficiently developed, is the appropriate time for learning English for ELLs. Third, effective reading interventions for ELLs should be performed with a strategy-embedded instruction program. This is based on the fact that strategic instructions are effective for vocabulary or concepts in unfamiliar languages ( Carlo et al., 2005 ; Chaaya and Ghosn, 2010 ).

The above implications require the implementation of Tier 2 interventions for reading interventions for ELLs in practice. In Tier 2 interventions, students can participate in more intensive learning through specially designed interventions based on their personal needs ( Ortiz et al., 2011 ). In other words, in policymaking and administrative decision-making, intensive education programs for ELLs who have been exposed to the academic environment for a certain period but still have reading difficulties, including having achievements that fall short of the expected level, are needed.

Considering further applications, these findings could guide practitioners and policymakers to develop effective evidence-based reading programs or policies. The significant variables in this study can be considered to develop new programs for ELLs.

Declarations

Author contribution statement.

All authors listed have significantly contributed to the development and the writing of this article.

Funding statement

This work was supported by the Ministry of Education of the Republic of Korea and the National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF-2020S1A3A2A02103411).

Data availability statement

Declaration of interests statement.

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Additional information

No additional information is available for this paper.

Appendix A. Supplementary data

The following is the supplementary data related to this article:

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English Language Learners, self-efficacy, and the achievement gap: understanding the relationship between academic and social-emotional growth

By: James Soland

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Due in part to the challenges associated with learning a new language, English Language Learners (ELLs) typically begin school with lower achievement than their non-ELL peers, and those achievement gaps often close slowly if at all. A separate body of research shows that achievement is associated with social-emotional learning constructs like self-efficacy, yet this relationship has rarely been examined for ELLs. In this study, multivariate models that jointly estimate growth in achievement and self-efficacy during middle school are used to see how underlying developmental processes relate for ELLs. Results indicate that self-efficacy tends to decline for all students despite growth in math and reading, and that achievement and self-efficacy are much lower for ELLs. Further, there is evidence that slower growth in math and reading for ELLs is associated with their low self-efficacy at the beginning of middle school (self-efficacy mediates the association between ELL status and achievement growth). Implications for closing achievement gaps between ELLs and non-ELLs are discussed.

Topics: English Language Learners , Equity , Social-emotional learning

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ORIGINAL RESEARCH article

Investigating the relationship among english language learning strategies, language achievement, and attitude.

• 1 Institute of Education, University of Szeged, Szeged, Hungary
• 2 MTA–SZTE Digital Learning Technologies Research Group, Szeged, Hungary

The main objective of the study was to ascertain whether English as a Foreign Language learners with various levels of English language achievement differ significantly in applying foreign language learning strategies. We also aimed to explore strategy use frequency in connection with attitude toward English language learning. Data were collected from 1,653 lower secondary students in Hungary through a revised version of the previously developed online Self-Regulated Foreign Language Learning Strategy Questionnaire (SRFLLSQ) based on Oxford’s Strategic Self-Regulation (S 2 R) Model. The findings point to statistically significant differences in the frequency of English language strategy use among more and less proficient learners. Quantitative analyses also reported that, in spite of the students stated low or moderate levels of strategy use, it turned out as a statistically significant predictor of foreign language attitude and language achievement. The results draw attention to the relevance of strategy research in foreign language teaching as well as encourages strategy teaching within language instruction.

Introduction

Foreign language learning requires many underlying skills and techniques. Learners have to master a number of complex linguistic, personal, cultural and social skills, and competences and be aware of effective techniques and strategies to help them cope with various challenges during the learning process. The frequent use of learning strategies can help learners to become more competent and effective language users in the classroom and inspire them to achieve higher levels of mastery in the target foreign language ( Wong and Nunan, 2011 ; Oxford, 2016 ). Since the mid-1970s, an immense amount of learning strategy research has attempted to establish the concept and identify strategies that help learners to become more effective language learners ( Oxford, 1990 ; Cohen, 1998 ). It is a widely researched and highly debated area even today ( Thomas and Rose, 2019 ; Thomas et al., 2021 ). The most well-known and widely used taxonomy of language learning strategies (LLS) was developed by Oxford (1990 , 2011 , 2016) . In her recently reconsidered Strategic Self-Regulation (S 2 R) Model based on Vygotsky’s (1978) sociocultural theory of self-regulated learning (SRL) and Zimmerman’s three-phase model ( Zimmerman, 2000 ; Zimmerman and Schunk, 2011 ), she identified four main strategy categories: cognitive, affective, motivational, and social, each of them guided by the master category of “meta-strategies.” These meta-strategies are metacognitive, meta-affective, metamotivational, and metasocial strategies, respectively ( Oxford, 2016 ).

Oxford also developed a measurement tool (Strategy Inventory for Language Learning, SILL) for investigating LLS use, which is employed worldwide; however, it is based on her original conceptualization. Nevertheless, it is essential to relate the latest pedagogical theories to language teaching practice. Self-regulation theory, which was the basis for Oxford’s new taxonomy, has been dominant since the beginning of this century. It is thus crucial to develop state-of-the-art measurement tools which can be used in the classroom by language teachers. In previous research, we have developed and validated a questionnaire based on Oxford’s S 2 R Model (SRFLLSQ; Habók and Magyar, 2018b ). To obtain a more comprehensive view of the role and possible effect of language learning strategies on certain other factors, such as attitude, motivation, and self-efficacy, it is essential to conduct further research. In this study, we aimed to examine LLS in relation to other crucial factors of language learning; we have investigated the relationships among the application of English language learning strategies, language achievement, and attitude toward English among lower secondary students in Hungary.

Literature Review

The concept of language learning strategies.

Language learning strategies have been a research focus since the mid-1970s, as strategic language learning is a key to successfully acquiring a foreign language ( Rubin, 1975 ). A number of definitions of LLS have emerged, with one of the most influential having proved to be that of Rebecca Oxford, who not only established a conceptualization, but also conducted empirical research. In her content-analytic study, Oxford involved 33 distinct definitions and interpretations of the term LLS and thus determine it as follows:

L2 learning strategies are complex, dynamic thoughts, and actions, selected and used by learners with some degree of consciousness in specific contexts in order to regulate multiple aspects of themselves (such as cognitive, emotional, and social) for the purpose of (a) accomplishing language tasks; (b) improving language performance or use; and/or (c) enhancing long-term proficiency. Strategies are mentally guided but may also have physical and therefore observable manifestations. Learners often use strategies flexibly and creatively; combine them in various ways, such as strategy clusters or strategy chains; and orchestrate them to meet learning needs. Strategies are teachable. Learners in their contexts decide which strategies to use. Appropriateness of strategies depends on multiple personal and contextual factors ( Oxford, 2016 , p. 48).

Strategic language learners select their LLS according to their personal preferences, motivational intentions, and situational circumstances. Therefore, it is especially difficult to identify a system for these strategies. This is one of the reasons why an extremely large number of conceptualizations and debates have emerged ( Thomas and Rose, 2019 ; Thomas et al., 2021 ). Thomas et al. (2021) have pointed out that with the emphasis on self-regulation, the field of strategy research has moved away from formal educational settings toward learner autonomy. They argue that this is a hazardous trend because definitions of LLS minimize teachers’ role and classroom contexts that can also be an influencing factor in strategic behavior among students. Thomas and Rose (2019) have therefore suggested a separation of LLS from self-regulation and introduced the Regulated Language Learning Strategies Continuum to make it clear that self-regulation can be conceptually separated in defining LLS. By interpreting LLS as being both other- and self-regulated, Dörnyei and Skehan (2003) argue that strategy use cannot be regarded as either emotional or cognitive or even behavioral, thus opening up another debated area in the field.

The classification of LLS is another key area of argument. Oxford’s original classification of six major fields (memory, cognitive, metacognitive, affective, compensation, and social strategies) was recently reconsidered and restructured on the basis of self-regulation theories. Her Strategic Self-Regulation (S 2 R) Model was developed based on Vygotsky’s (1978) sociocultural theory of self-regulated learning (SRL). In her concept, she identified four main fields—cognitive, affective, motivational, and social strategies—each of them directed by a “master category of meta-strategies.” These meta-strategies are metacognitive, meta-affective, metamotivational, and metasocial strategies ( Oxford, 2016 ). Her taxonomy was again open to a number of debates as some theorists ( Dörnyei, 2005 ; Hajar, 2019 ) argued that success in language learning cannot be assessed through the frequency of strategy use alone.

Research on Language Learning Strategies

Despite the debates, LLS researchers have been devoted to conducting quantitative research on LLS use and its connection with other individual factors, such as gender, learning style, motivation, attitude, and proficiency (e.g., Radwan, 2011 ; Alhaysony, 2017 ; Habók and Magyar, 2018a , 2019 ). The most widespread measurement tool for assessing L2 learners’ strategy use is Oxford’s Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL; Oxford, 1990 ). This questionnaire has been translated into numerous languages and adapted for a vast number of cultures around the world. It is based on her original taxonomy and employs her original six strategy fields. Based on her renewed taxonomy, a number of reconsidered measurement tools have been developed since then, which have approached effective language learning from different perspectives ( Wang et al., 2013 ; Salehi and Jafari, 2015 ; Božinović and Sindik, 2017 ; Köksal and Dündar, 2017 ; Habók and Magyar, 2018b ; An et al., 2021 ).

One major area for researchers has been to find out what set of strategies foreign language learners rely on the most ( Platsidou and Sipitanou, 2015 ; Alhaysony, 2017 ; Charoento, 2017 ; Dawadi, 2017 ; Habók and Magyar, 2018a , b , 2019 , 2020 ; Habók et al., 2021 ). Overall, results have concluded moderate use of LLS among participants. The most frequently used strategies are cognitive, metacognitive, and compensation strategies, while affective and memory strategies are the least preferred. Habók et al. (2021) have pointed out the different strategy preferences in different cultural contexts. Their results reinforced the preferred use of metacognitive strategies in both European and Asian contexts. However, there were statistically significant differences in the affective field with regard to the lower strategy use preference in the European sample.

A great deal of research has investigated strategy use in connection with other aspects ( Platsidou and Kantaridou, 2014 ; Rao, 2016 ; Charoento, 2017 ; Habók and Magyar, 2018a , 2020 ). One of the most often used factors was language achievement, which has been specified and covered in a multitude of ways. Some studies have focused on level of language proficiency or achievement test results ( Raoofi et al., 2017 ; Taheri et al., 2019 ; An et al., 2021 ; Malpartida, 2021 ), others have relied on self-ratings ( Charoento, 2017 ), and still others have involved language course marks ( Habók and Magyar, 2018a ; Sánchez, 2019 ; Bećirović et al., 2021 ). As a result, most research has pointed out that students with higher proficiency use LLS more frequently than those with less ( Rao, 2016 ; Charoento, 2017 ; Raoofi et al., 2017 ; Sánchez, 2019 ). Charoento (2017) highlighted that successful students mainly used metacognitive strategies and less proficient students preferred to use social strategies the most. Sánchez (2019) reported that the application of social, metacognitive, and cognitive strategies was the highest among high achievers. Some research failed to find any significant differences in LLS use between learners with lower and higher English proficiency levels ( Rianto, 2020 ).

A relatively small number of studies have examined how LLS use predicts language proficiency. Some research has pointed out a positive correlation between strategy use and proficiency. Comprehensive work by Taheri et al. (2019) indicated a statistically significant correlation between LLS and second language achievement. Specifically, they confirmed a statistically significant relationship between cognitive, social, and compensation strategies and second language achievement. Platsidou and Kantaridou (2014) also found that language use is predicted by learning strategy use in a statistically significantly way and that it anticipates perceived language performance. Rao (2016) also reinforced that learners’ English proficiency level determines their strategy use and highlighted that students with high proficiency use strategies more frequently than low-level learners. Habók and Magyar (2018a) stated that strategies have a statistically significant effect on proficiency through attitudes. In addition, these effects reflect general school achievement. Bećirović et al. (2021) observed that LLS can influence students’ English as a foreign language (EFL) achievement. Specifically, cognitive strategies have a statistically significant positive effect on EFL achievement, while other strategies showed negative or no significant impact. An et al. (2021) also reported the positive direct effect of SRL strategies on students’ English learning outcomes. Lin et al. (2021) concluded the direct impact of learning strategies on learners’ performance in literal and inferential comprehension.

Another research direction is the investigation of strategy use in relation to other underlying factors, like affective variables, such as motivation, attitude, self-efficacy, and self-concept. Educational research has pointed out that learners’ attitude toward language learning is crucial since it can greatly impact learning results and language learning proficiency ( Platsidou and Kantaridou, 2014 ). Studies have indicated that learners with a positive attitude toward language learning employ LLS more frequently and effectively. Platsidou and Kantaridou (2014) used confirmatory factor analysis to show that attitudes toward language learning predict the use of both direct and indirect learning strategies. Jabbari and Golkar (2014) reported a more frequent use of cognitive, metacognitive, compensation, and social strategies among students with a positive attitude toward language learning. Habók and Magyar (2018a) demonstrated the reverse effect: learners who apply LLS effectively were more likely to have improved learning experiences and positive attitudes toward foreign language learning.

It can be concluded that strategy research is often related to other vital areas of language learning, among which attitude plays an important role. However, only a limited number of researchers have developed measurement tools for investigating self-regulated foreign LLS and measured it in relation to attitude. In addition, most studies have focused on the strategy use of tertiary samples with relatively high levels of proficiency. This study aims to fill this gap and provides an insightful investigation into the connections among strategy use, attitude, and English language achievement among lower secondary students. Based on the relevant literature ( Jabbari and Golkar, 2014 ; Platsidou and Kantaridou, 2014 ; Habók and Magyar, 2018a ), we hypothesized the statistically significant effect of LLS on proficiency through attitude.

Research Questions

The research addresses the following three research questions:

1. Which EFL strategy was the most frequently used by 11-year-old lower secondary students?

2. Were there statistically significant differences among students in their language learning strategy use on the basis of their English language achievement?

3. Which language learning strategy type has a statistically significant impact on learners’ English language achievement and attitude?

Research Methods

Participants.

In Hungary, students start primary school at the age of six. This lasts 4 year. Then, they continue their studies at the lower secondary level. At the age of 14, they move on to upper secondary school. The participants of the present research were 11-year-old lower secondary students in Grade 5 (N total  = 1,653; N boys  = 827, N girls  = 780, N missing  = 46) from 64 schools in Hungary. Hungarian students take EFL in compulsory courses in school, and they usually start learning a foreign language at the age of nine. However, in some schools, they can start at the age of six. Typically, they can choose between English and German, but recently a preference for English has become more common. In upper secondary school, two foreign languages are compulsory, English and German or Italian or Spanish. The second language depends on curricular choice at the school level.

The English proficiency of the participating students was at beginner/elementary level (A1–A2). As for their engagement in learning, there were 17 students in the sample who spent 2 h or less per week on English. Around half of the learners ( N  = 884) devoted 3 h a week to this subject, and few participants dedicated four ( N  = 303) or five ( N  = 357) hours a week to the language. We also found 67 students who dealt with English six or more hours per week. In addition, we did not receive any answers to this question from 25 students.

The revised and improved version of the Self-Regulated Foreign Language Learning Strategy Questionnaire (SRFLLSQ) was employed after our first measurement and validation ( Habók and Magyar, 2018b ). We reviewed the new findings on the theoretical background to foreign LLS research and continued revising the affective field. In addition, based on the relevant literature, we included the field of motivation in the questionnaire. We thus completed the measurement tool with motivational and metamotivational factors based on Oxford’s Strategic S 2 R Model. Finally, the questionnaire covered four strategy areas: metacognitive (eight items), cognitive (six items), meta-affective (eight items), affective (eight items), metasocial (eight items), social (six items), motivational (four items), and metamotivational (four items; see Appendix ). The fifth-grade students provided their responses on a five-point Likert scale, which ranged from 1 (“Never or almost never true of me”) to 5 (“Always or almost always true of me”). The measurement tool was also complemented with a background questionnaire, which asked students about their foreign language school marks, which indicated students’ English language achievement (1 = fail, lowest school mark; 5 = excellent, highest school mark). Students also self-reported their attitudes toward English learning on a five-point Likert scale, which again ranged from 1 to 5.

First, the research was accepted by the IRB at the University of Szeged Doctoral School of Education. It was concluded that the research design follows IRB recommendations. The participating learners’ parents were asked for written informed consent, which was handled by the participating schools. Second, an invitation was sent to schools to register for the measurement. In the call, schools were given information about the purpose of the measurement. Once the schools accepted the invitation, they received further instructions on data collection and a link to log into the Online Diagnostic Assessment System (eDia), which is developed, supervised, and operated by the University of Szeged Centre for Research on Learning and Instruction ( Csapó and Molnár, 2019 ). Students’ participation was voluntary in the research. They logged into the system with an official student assessment code (developed by the Hungarian Educational Authorities), which provided complete anonymity for them. The researchers could not identify the respondents on this basis. The identification code was handled by the school administrators, but the students’ results were not available to them. Thus, complete anonymity was guaranteed. The eDia system is familiar to students because they regularly use it for diagnostic purposes during official school hours. The students had already acquired the necessary ICT skills at primary level, further improved through remote learning. For the present questionnaire, the participants indicated their responses by clicking on radio buttons. The learners were given a school lesson in a personal classroom environment provided by the school. After logging in, the respondents filled in the questionnaire in Hungarian, which is their native language, because they do not yet have the foreign language skills to provide reliable answers in English. This took 20 min to complete the instrument. Teacher assistance was not required while the questionnaire was being completed, but it was available. The students had the option to ask for assistance on any technical problems.

Data Analysis

First, we employed classical test analysis and examined reliability, means, and standard deviations for the questionnaire fields with SPSS Statistics 23.0. In the case of frequency of strategy use, we aimed to find out how strategy use was perceived by our sample. We also compared the students’ strategy use vis-à-vis their English language achievement and attitude using an independent sample t -test. To interpret effect size, we followed Wei et al.’s (2019) and Wei and Hu’s (2019) benchmark: under 0.005 is small, 0.01 is typical or medium, 0.02 is large, and is 0.09 very large. We used R 2 unsquared; thus, the benchmark for the effect size index is 0.07, 0.10, 0.14, and 0.30, which, respectively, represents small, medium, large, and very large cut-off values. We applied path analysis to map the possible relationships and effects of our variables. We studied the goodness-of-fit indices by applying various cut-off values for many fit indices, including the Tucker–Lewis index (TLI), the normed fit index (NFI), the comparative fit index (CFI), the root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA), and Chi-square values ( Kline, 2015 ). TLI, NFI, and CFI were regarded as eligible with a cut-off value of 0.95, and RMSEA values indicated an acceptable fit of 0.8 ( Kline, 2015 ).

Descriptive Analysis

The questionnaire was reliable in all the fields ( Table 1 ). As regards the whole sample, moderate strategy use was observed. The lowest strategy use was noted in the field of metasocial strategies, and the most frequent strategy was found in the affective field. As regards the corresponding factors, the most frequent use was observed in the motivational field (see Table 1 ).

Figure 1 . The path model for EFL strategies on English language achievement through attitude.

Table 1 . Frequency of language learning strategy use in Grade 5.

We also identified the frequency of strategy use among the more and less proficient learners. Students were divided into two categories based on their English language achievement ( Table 2 ). Those with excellent and good school marks were placed in the more proficient learners’ category, while learners with average, fair, or unsatisfactory school marks were grouped into the less proficient learner category. Students ( N  = 810) who received excellent school marks met the requirements of the English language curriculum and performed at a high level. Learners ( N  = 500) with good marks had minor gaps. Those ( N  = 229) with an average school mark had major gaps in their knowledge, and those ( N  = 65) with unsatisfactory school marks had difficulty following the curriculum and varying levels of difficulty in all areas of language learning. Finally, students ( N  = 9) who received an unsatisfactory school mark are at a disadvantage which is difficult to overcome. No data were received from 40 students. Students’ EFL achievement could be regarded as good with a mean of 4.2 (SD = 0.89). As a result, the more proficient learners employed strategies with greater frequency in all of the fields, a statistically significant finding. The affective factor indicated above medium effect size, while the other factors reported small effect sizes.

Table 2 . Frequency of language learning strategy use among less and more proficient learners.

Multivariate Analyses

Finally, we investigated the effect of strategy use on English language achievement and attitudes. As Oxford’s Strategic S 2 R Model considers strategies as being closely directed by their corresponding meta-strategies, we have regarded the strategies and their meta-strategy counterparts as common factors. The correlation coefficient was statistically significant between every strategy factor ( r  = 0.45–0.25, p  < 0.001). Our model showed acceptable fit indices (Chi-square = 35.574, df = 5, p  = 0.000, CFI = 0.995, TLI = 0.977, NFI = 0.994, RMSEA = 0.061). We therefore concluded that English language achievement and attitude are statistically influenced by strategy use ( Figure 1 ).

We found that the meta-affective and affective and metasocial and social categories directly influenced students’ attitude toward English. A direct effect of attitude was observed on English language achievement. In addition, the metacognitive and cognitive categories had a direct effect on English language achievement, while English language achievement was indirectly affected by meta-affective and affective and metasocial and social factors. We could not confirm any significant effect of metamotivational and motivational factors on attitude or English language achievement.

We investigated the strategy use of 11-year-old lower secondary students in Grade 5 in connection with their language achievement and attitude toward the English language. Our first research question asked which LLS was the most frequently used by the sample. We found moderate strategy use with regard to a slightly modest application of the metasocial field, and the most frequent strategy use was observed in the affective field. These aspects of our findings partly correspond with most of the recent research with respect to moderate use of strategies; however, there are profound differences in the strategy preferences of the sample ( Platsidou and Sipitanou, 2015 ; Alhaysony, 2017 ; Charoento, 2017 ; Dawadi, 2017 ; Habók and Magyar, 2018a , b , 2019 , 2020 ; Habók et al., 2021 ). Raoofi et al. (2017) also pointed out the low level of social strategy use in their research. Another important statistically significant finding is that higher proficiency learners used learning strategies with greater frequency than their less proficient peers. This applies to every strategy field in agreement with Charoento’s (2017) results.

Our second research question concerned differences in the use of LLS based on English language achievement. As concerns the sample, we regarded the EFL school mark as an indicator of English language achievement. The mean indicated that a considerable portion of the sample was grouped as more proficient. As a result, these students used LLS with greater frequency in all of the categories, which is a statistically significant finding. These results correspond with other research, which also reinforces this ( Rao, 2016 ; Charoento, 2017 ; Raoofi et al., 2017 ; Sánchez, 2019 ). However, we also found that less proficient learners employed motivational strategies the most frequently, while their more proficient peers most often preferred the affective field, a result which is not reinforced by any previous findings. Apart from this, the strategy uses of both subsamples followed the same order, with social and metasocial strategy use being the least preferred type for both. This may be due to the fact that our sample was mainly at the beginner/elementary level (A1–A2), so they cannot yet initiate conversations with others, even with native speakers. They also cannot understand many words and grammatical structures that are used by more proficient speakers, so social interaction is more difficult for them, even for the more advanced ones.

Our results on the role of LLS in English language achievement and attitude confirmed the statistically significant effect of LLS on background variables. English language achievement was directly influenced by the metacognitive and cognitive fields and attitudes and indirectly affected by the meta-affective and affective fields, as well as the metasocial and social fields. Our model could not confirm any direct or indirect effect of the metamotivational and motivational fields on attitude or English language achievement. This may be because motivational components form distinct factors and their role differs somewhat in predicting language achievement. These results are in line with previous findings ( Platsidou and Kantaridou, 2014 ; Habók and Magyar, 2018a ), which also concluded the outstanding role of attitudes, which is an important predictor of language achievement and reinforces the role of strategy use. In summary, strategy use influences English language achievement through attitude to language learning in a statistically significant way.

The main objective of the study was to find evidence for the role of strategy use in students’ achievement at the beginner/elementary level of English language learning. As a result, the strategy use preferences of the sample differed somewhat from the findings of previous research, as the affective and motivational fields were the ones the students preferred the most. This may be due to the fact that young children are more likely to use strategies that are rather emotional and related to their personality traits than strategies that require deeper understanding, specific learning techniques, and awareness, such as cognitive strategies. The use of social strategies was also quite low, probably owing to the low level of foreign language communication skills in the sample. As regards the different proficiency levels, more frequent strategy use was observed among the more proficient learners, a statistically significant finding. However, the patterns of strategy use were almost the same across the groups. The only difference was that the more proficient learners mostly preferred the affective field, while the less proficient ones mostly employed motivational strategies. This indicates that students at a higher level have more confidence to speak up and show how they feel about learning English. Learners with lower proficiency at this age often try to show that they are motivated, that is, that they are trying and want to achieve good results and present a good image of their own performance. The study also highlighted the importance of attitude; from the results, it can be concluded that, even at the beginner/elementary level, strategy use can affect language achievement and that a student’s attitude is an important predictor and plays an important role as mediator between strategies and language achievement. This can have a positive impact on classroom performance and highlights the importance of teaching students about learning strategies.

Limitations

There are some limitations to consider in the study. First, the questionnaire was administered to fifth-grade students, who were at the beginner/elementary level of their English language learning. Thus, generalizability cannot be confirmed, and more research is needed across higher grades and higher proficiency learners. Second, we had difficulty identifying the affective domain in the first version of the questionnaire. For the fields in the present measurement tool, we have succeeded in identifying the affective and meta-affective domains of LLS. However, they still have to be optimized. Additional research is also called for with regard to the motivational components. Third, other underlying factors should be included in the investigation, such as self-efficacy, self-esteem, and self-concept.

Pedagogical Implications

The study points out that the role of learning strategies is substantial for the students in their language learning. Learning English is a complex process for Hungarian fifth graders. English pronunciation, vocabulary, and grammar are very different from those of Hungarian. For these learners, grammatical rules are often abstract phenomena, and it is difficult for them to associate meaning with the words they say and write. Furthermore, reading and listening comprehension are also influenced by many factors. The results draw attention to the paramount importance of teaching LLS, which can promote greater success among language learners. In addition, it is essential how consciously strategies are employed. Teachers are strongly urged to include strategy training in their courses. Strategy training can be conducted either in the form of an embedded sub-course in any of the subjects or in an independent form as an individual course. Strategy courses integrated into a school subject provide specific help for students learning that specific course material. For example, language learning strategies paid students in learning grammatical formulae or vocabulary in a foreign language, while general strategy courses help students to learn strategies that can be used in other school subjects, such as reading and writing strategies.

Another implication of the study is that motivation and attitude also influence language achievement in a statistically significant way. Creating a learner-friendly and encouraging atmosphere is therefore essential. The findings from our research have provided important insights into these issues for classroom practice.

Data Availability Statement

The datasets presented in this article are not readily available because the datasets are confidential and cannot be shared with third parties. Requests to access the datasets should be directed to AH, [email protected] .

Ethics Statement

The studies involving human participants were reviewed and approved by IRB at the Doctoral School of Education, University of Szeged. Written informed consent to participate in this study was provided by the participants’ legal guardian/next of kin.

Author Contributions

AH and AM designed the study and implemented the data collection, as well as analyzing the data and participating in completing the manuscript. GM supervised the research and provided support. All the authors contributed to the editing and revision of the study and approved the final version of the manuscript.

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher’s Note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

This research was supported by the Research Programme for Public Education Development, Hungarian Academy of Sciences (grant KOZOKT2021-16) and a Hungarian National Research, Development and Innovation Fund grant (under the OTKA K135727 funding scheme).

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Revised Version of the Self-Regulated Foreign Language Learning Strategy Questionnaire (SRFLLSQ).

Keywords: self-regulated foreign language learning, language learning strategies, foreign language attitude, language achievement, lower secondary students

Citation: Habók A, Magyar A and Molnár G (2022) Investigating the Relationship Among English Language Learning Strategies, Language Achievement, and Attitude. Front. Psychol . 13:867714. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.867714

Received: 01 February 2022; Accepted: 15 April 2022; Published: 13 May 2022.

Reviewed by:

Copyright © 2022 Habók, Magyar and Molnár. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Anita Habók, [email protected]

Disclaimer: All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article or claim that may be made by its manufacturer is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

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100 Good English Research Paper Topics & Ideas to Make Successful Submission

Working in the English language always creates a compelling experience in your learning. It will allow you to explore the language and its interesting features. Surprisingly, more than 1.35 billion people speak English globally. According to Statista 2021 findings, English is the most spoken language worldwide. Consider the facts in your mind while working on your English research papers. For that reason, pick the interesting English research paper topics and unbox your understanding smartly.

To make your learning more presentable, you should understand the significance of the English paper topics. If you pick a good topic for drafting your English research papers, you can easily advance your learning. It makes your academic writing more productive and credible. So, browse the suggestions for selecting the easy research paper topics for English projects.

Table of Contents

Educational English Research Paper Topics

To make your work more engaging, you should focus on topic selection. Go through the list of numerous topics for English research papers to expand your learning of the language.

• Present a study on various credible sources of learning the English language.
• Impact of grammatical mistakes on English writing skills.
• Understanding of the English language for non-native speakers.
• Difficulties faced by non-American students in English communication.
• Role of poetry in learning English literature.
• Reflects the interpretation of Shakespeare’s work.
• Discuss mythology as literature.
• How to correlate literature with psychology?
• Discuss stream of consciousness writing style.
• Is there any relation between literature and religion?
• Glorification of romance in literature.
• Feminist perspective in English literature.
• Modern American English Literature.
• Impact of language in society development.
• Verbal English communication for teaching moral values.
• Importance of imagination in poetry writing.
• Fiction Vs Nonfiction: which one is keeping more interesting appeal.
• Poetry work of Samuel Taylor Coleridge and William Wordsworth.
• Romantic philosophy in Walt Whitman’s poetry.
• Impact of counselling and guidance on scholars’ academic performance.
• How to boost students’ interest in academic literature?
• Creativity analysis on poetry composition.
• Today’s communication language barrier.
• Obstacles in modern English literature .
• Explore easy poetic techniques for beginners.

Interesting English Research Paper Topics

Make your English research paper writing more interesting by picking an interesting topic. Unload your thoughts precisely and make your work more worthy to read. Consider good research paper topics for drafting good English projects.

• Significance of distance education.
• How to address learning disabilities in a college education?
• Importance of sex education in college scholars.
• Methods to discrimination in educational administration.
• Effective college administration for successful placement.
• Same-sex Vs mixed-sex education: which one is better?
• Pensive analysis on No Child Left Behind Act.
• Effectiveness of the federal education system as compared to other countries’ education systems.
• Strong methodology to lower bullying in schools.
• Online education Vs physical education: which one is more effective?
• Analysis of the grading system on students’ learning.
• Discuss Montessori Method of Education.
• Examine Intensive English Programs (IEPs) in the US,
• Discuss the role of postsecondary educational institutions in American literacy.
• Legal consequences of plagiarism in academic writing.
• Impact of tuition fees for home students.
• Is student engagement with social media affecting their studies?
• Methods to control sleeping disorders.
• How to develop positivity in college students?
• Role of leadership for handling real-life problems.
• Psychology impacts of COVID on students.
• Role of family relationship on students’ mental abilities.
• Career prospects of literature students.
• How to boost English communication skills for international students?

Research Paper Ideas For English Topics Related to Technology

Unimaginable changes are brought by technical advancement and it is hard to ignore. Capturing the advancement in your research topics for English papers allows you to expand your knowledge. So, think pensively on the following topic ideas.

• Impact of over-used computers on students’ health.
• Role of digital communication in learning the English language.
• Stress management to advance learning abilities.
• Technical barriers in oral and written communication in the English language.
• Digital tools to advance English fluency.
• Future of electric-vehicle.
• Methods to improve speaking attributes.
• Role of online classes in knowledge enhancement.
• The credibility of digital certification.
• How to search for credible resources for writing English papers?
• Role of kinesics in communication.
• Impact of technology exposure on students’ learning skills.
• Importance of technical advancement in advancing academic progress.
• Advantages as well as disadvantages of e-learning.
• International Vs national learning: Pros and cons.
• Scope of digital marketing for small businesses.
• Use of modern technology to improve the quality of education.
• Is social media increasing suicidal thoughts on students’ minds?
• Role of mobile applications in advancing English verbal communication.
• Is digital technology altering consumer attitudes?
• Use of online assignment help in writing a good essay.
• Impact of online tutoring in students’ knowledge enhancement.
• Role of artificial intelligence in educational advancement.
• Efficacy of digital tools to check plagiarism.
• Future aspects of machine learning in the education sector.

English Research Paper Topics For Mini Projects

When you do not need to write lengthy papers, pick the easiest topic for your projects. So, modify your research for selecting appropriate topics for English research papers. It will help to prepare your mini projects and meet the deadlines.

• Interpretation of American English Drama.
• Role of English communication in business management.
• Impact of the internet in students’ psychology.
• Teaching methodology for the English language.
• Significance of soft skills.
• Differentiate between modern vs traditional classrooms.
• Examine active listening techniques.
• Impact of reading in English communication.
• Effect of mother tongue on learning the English language.
• How to control people management and leadership?
• Socio-ideological values of television programs.
• Role of functional English in daily routine.
• Techniques to develop speaking attributes.
• Ways to improve writing skills.
• Tips to compose strong descriptive paragraphs.
• How does pronunciation vary in different learning cultures?
• How to develop interview skills?
• Impact of audiobooks in enhancing learning abilities.
• How to develop a positive mindset?
• Ways to learn time management skills.
• Influence of standardized tests for knowledge evaluation.
• A key motivation for students’ knowledge enhancement.
• Is it practicable to make college education free?
• Positivity learning techniques.
• How to prepare health management for students?

Also, Read: 100+ Compelling Linguistics Research Topics

Tips To Pick the Right Research Topics For English Papers

When it is about sharing your ideas on your research topics, you should be attentive. Your research writing reflects your critical thinking, writing abilities, and creative mindset. Therefore, you must concentrate on research paper ideas for the English projects. For that, go through the following tips to pick the English papers topics.

• Understand your area of interest. If you pick the right topic according to interest, it will be easy for you to project your learning.
• Do not jump straight to any research topic for English papers. Make sure to brainstorm the idea deeply so that you can unlayer your understanding properly.
• Good research topics for English papers reflect your knowledge and time management skills. Choose the topic according to your project submission deadline.
• Paying utmost attention to a particular idea while writing your papers can limit your creativity. So, absorb the other aspects of topics for writing compelling English research papers.
• Before finalizing any English papers topic, make sure to look around. It means you need to write according to your audiences’ interests. Otherwise, you would fail to create a good impression.

Still In Doubts? Turn Your Attention To Expert’s Suggestion!

Are you feeling puzzled while selecting the English research paper topics? Holding your research paper for longer can hurt your performance. So, search for the solutions instead of creating tension in your mind. If you cannot focus on your English research paper writing, ask for experts’ help. Use our noteworthy paper help and share your concerns with our English writers. Their interpretation and proficiency in the English language will help you out. Under their guidance, you will find the right research.

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What the Research Says on Instruction for English Learners Across Subject Areas

It takes multiple years for English learners to gain a high enough level of language proficiency to perform on par with their native English‐speaking peers. English learners cannot wait until they are fluent in English to learn grade‐level content. Instead, they must continue to develop their math and reading skills as well as their knowledge of social studies and science, even while learning English. This can happen through a variety of program models.

Our librarians recently compiled this list of recent studies and articles on teaching practices, programs and protocols for English learner instruction to help students meet the academic demands of state standards and close the achievement gap.

Check out the research-based principles we share in a companion resource titled, “What All Teachers Should Know About Instruction For English Language Learners.” See additional principles that apply to teachers in specific subject areas: language arts , mathematics , social studies and science .

For Teaching in All Classrooms

Teaching academic content and literacy to english learners in elementary and middle school (2014).

This practice guide from the Institute of Education Sciences (IES) and the What Works Clearinghouse (WWC) provides four recommendations that address reading and content area instruction for English learners.

Each recommendation includes extensive examples of activities that can be used to support students as they build the language and literacy skills needed to be successful in school, including examples of how the recommendations align with Common Core and other contemporary state standards. The recommendations also summarize and rate supporting evidence. This guide is geared toward teachers, administrators and other educators who want to improve instruction in academic content and literacy for English learners in elementary and middle school.

High-Leverage Principles of Effective Instruction for English learners. From College and Career Ready Standards to Teaching and Learning in the Classroom: A Series of Resources for Teachers (2016)

The purpose of this resource is to provide teachers of English learner students with effective, high-leverage learning and teaching principles that can be incorporated into daily instructional plans and routines. Instruction that addresses students' needs should include four key considerations included in the resource.

A Review of the Literature on Teaching Academic English to English Language Learners (2014)

Academic English refers to the language used in school to help students acquire and use knowledge. This article reviews current literature to determine what is known about the nature of academic English within the context of K–12 schooling with a focus on English learners. The article raises critical challenges in defining and operationalizing academic English for instruction and suggests areas for further inquiry.

Converging Recommendations for Culturally Responsive Literacy Practices: Students with Learning Disabilities, English Language Learners and Socioculturally Diverse Learners (2015)

This study examines culturally responsive pedagogy across the fields including multicultural literacy education and teaching English learners. Educators are encouraged to adopt a critical and responsive stance that incorporates students' cultural knowledge and lived experiences when implementing these recommendations. Creating classrooms that promote culturally responsive and effective instruction is grounded in the definition of literacy as a social practice and leads to more equitable learning opportunities in all areas.

Principles of Effective English Language Learner Pedagogy (2012)

This literature review identifies the most effective instructional principles for English learners as documented by prominent researchers in the field and existing research reviews. The review lists the most effective principles for English learner instruction and documents the supporting research evidence for those principles.

Unlocking the Research on English Learners: What We Know—and Don't Yet Know—about Effective Instruction (2013)

In calling for students to read complex texts, college and career ready standards place an even greater emphasis on content knowledge and literacy skills than prior state standards. This review of available research will help educators bolster the efforts of English learners to understand more-demanding academic content as they also learn English.

For Teaching Reading, Writing and Language Arts

Effective literacy and english language instruction for english learners in the elementary grades (2007).

This IES/WWC practice guide provides five evidence-based recommendations for improving the reading achievement and English language development of elementary-level English learner students. The target audience for this guide is a broad spectrum of school practitioners such as administrators, curriculum specialists, coaches, staff development specialists and teachers who face the challenge of providing effective literacy instruction for English language learners in the elementary grades. The guide also aims to reach district-level administrators who develop practice and policy options for their schools.

Bridging English Language Learner Achievement Gaps through Effective Vocabulary Development Strategies (2016)

This research paper conducted a review of philosophical and scholarly literature which displayed evidence that vocabulary development is a major section that educators should consider focusing for better achievement with English as Second Language students. Implementing educational practices that promote high-frequency vocabulary learning were found to be effective strategies. The paper includes recommendations for administrators and education professionals in various learning environments.

The Effectiveness of Reading Interventions for English Learners: A Research Synthesis (2016)

This article reviews published experimental studies from 2000 to 2012 that evaluated the effects of providing reading interventions to English learners who were at risk for experiencing academic difficulties, including students with learning disabilities. The interventions in these studies included explicit instruction and 10 used published intervention programs. Moderator variables, such as group size, minutes of intervention and type of personnel delivering the intervention, were not significant predictors of outcomes.

Developing Literacy in English Language Learners: Findings From a Review of the Experimental Research (2014)

This commentary reviews the available data on optimal approaches to reading instruction for ELL students, covering the components of literacy (decoding, oral reading fluency, vocabulary and writing) as well as key issues such as differentiating instruction, repetition and reinforcement, scaffolding and capitalizing on a student's first language strengths. We conclude with implications for school psychologists, who are often among the first professionals to be consulted as schools attempt to identify and provide appropriate educational services for these students.

Effective Practices for Developing Literacy Skills of English Language Learners in the English Language (2012)

This literature review presents instructional strategies that have proven to be effective in envisioning what "all" teachers need to know and be able to do to teach English language arts to English learners. Three areas of effective practice are emphasized. The first area is that teachers should recognize that literacy skills in English learners' native languages might influence the ways in which they process linguistic information in English. The second area highlights the argument that teachers should find ways to facilitate English learners' mastery of academic vocabulary. The third area covers the significance of enhancing English learners metacognitive reading skills. The review also discusses two broad pedagogical skills that emerge from both the normative and empirical studies reviewed and are closely related: (a) the teachers' ability to help ELLs construct meaning from the texts or speech represented in the language arts classroom and (b) the teachers' ability to engage English learners in actively learning to read and write.

For Teaching Math, Science and Social Studies

Sheltered instruction observation protocol - what works clearinghouse intervention report (2013).

The Sheltered Instruction Observation Protocol is a framework for planning and delivering instruction in content areas such as science, history and mathematics to English learners as well as other students. This review focuses on research that examines its impact on the learning of English language learners in grades K-8.

Instruction for English Language Learners in the Social Studies Classroom: A Meta-synthesis (2016)

This paper reviews the extant literature on English learners in the social studies classroom. Discussion of the findings provides three primary implications: (1) the need for linguistically and culturally responsive instruction for English learners in social studies classes, (2) the need for increased training for inservice and preservice social studies teachers in preparation for teaching English learners and (3) the need for future research among English learners in the social studies context.

Language Challenges in Mathematics Education: A literature Review (2016)

It is now accepted that language and mathematics are connected in mathematics learning and teaching and, the potential challenges of language in mathematics have been investigated by a number of researchers. This paper reviews research by applied linguists and mathematics educators to highlight the linguistic challenges of mathematics and suggests pedagogical strategies to help learners in mathematics classrooms. Research on pedagogical practices supports developing mathematics knowledge through attention to the way language is used, suggesting strategies for moving students from informal, everyday ways of talking about mathematics into the registers that construe more technical and precise meanings.

Teacher Education That Works: Preparing Secondary-Level Math and Science Teachers for Success with English Language Learners through Content-Based Instruction (2014)

This article reports on the effects of a program restructuring that implemented coursework specifically designed to prepare pre-service and in-service mathematics, science and ESL teachers to work with English learners in their content and ESL classrooms through collaboration between mainstream STEM and ESL teachers, as well as effective content and language integration. The article presents findings on teachers' attitudes and current practices related to the inclusion of English learners in the secondary-level content classroom and their current level of knowledge and skills in collaborative practice.

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Research Problems and Methods in Teaching English as a Second Language

This article explores potential research topics and methods in teaching English as a second language. It introduces Evidence Based Practice (EBP) in English language teaching. EBP grounded the need to conduct research to improve practice. The identified researchable topics are clustered in terms of: (1) instructions; (2) affective and behavioral concerns; and (3) technology. The research methods explored are: (1) narrative research; (2) ethnography; (3) phenomenology; and (4) grounded theory. This paper is aimed to provide English teachers in exploring scholarly investigations in the domain of English language teaching for second language learners.

Related Papers

Dr.Jeya Santhi.V, PGDELT, Ph.D., PGCTE.

English language is universal and individual. It allows people to communicate across time and distance. At the same time, it serves to define almost everything that makes a person unique. The purpose of teaching English is to encourage the students to understand how the English language varies from region to region, ethnic group to ethnic group, social class to social class, and circumstance to circumstance. However, the purpose of learning English is to get a way of communication with people in different places in which we cannot use our native tongue. So teaching and learning a language is a way of connection between souls, a means of communication. Among the methods in teaching English, some methods have had their heyday and have fallen into relative obscurity; others are widely used now. This paper is an attempt to illustrate the methodology used in teaching English.

tinkerbell Misela

In India there is a broad spectrum of linguistic background, comprising many languages and scores of dialects. English itself continues in everyday use in large number of families but it is not the same as Standard English. The multilingual context offers a variety of problems to the teachers of English. Today's world is a world of rapid technical change. Innovations come out of an ever increasing pace. Due to tremendous progress in information and communication technology, the scenario of contemporary teaching techniques is entirely changed. The teacher of 21 century should shed traditional concepts and techniques of classroom teaching and should adopt the recent and innovative teaching techniques. English language teachers must be innovative, imaginative, and resourceful and have thorough knowledge of the subject and adopt new techniques to change socio, economic status of the country. Due to globalization the world is changing rapidly, hence a teacher has to improve and update knowledge of innovative techniques to meet the demands of changing era. Various innovative materials and strategies will assist for the betterment of students. The present paper explores the use of innovative techniques for teaching English to learners. Novel methods such audio video aids, mimicry, group discussions, dialogue construction, enactment of drama would pave way for learning the language and boost the confidence of the learners. INTRODUTION In the modern neo-liberal scenario of India, the necessity of competence in English has become increasingly vital. The globalization has necessitated the learning of English Language in an international perspective. Moreover the text materials on the subjects of technical education, science and medicine are available in English. The advance of multinational companies in all sectors of economy such as production, distribution and service sectors require personnel with a fair degree of language competence. In this backdrop, the necessity of acquisition of not only spoken English but also written English has become the need of the hour. Salman Rushdie, the renowned novelist says that the English language ceased to be the sole possession of the English some time ago. And it grows from many roots. No one community can claim sole ownership over the English language, which has gone genuinely global. In this precept it is high time to have a holistic approach to learn and teach English as second language. English language learners who are academically proficient in their first or native language represent differing levels of academic experiences, abilities and interests in addition to their language proficiency. Some students read above their grade levels; others struggle with daily instruction. Some have highly supportive home environments for language and literary development; others live without access to books or literary rich environments. Many English language learners spend most of their academic life with teachers who speak only English and who are not prepared to fully understand their varying needs as English language learners. In order for today's teachers to meet the challenge of educating a richly

SMART M O V E S J O U R N A L IJELLH

Abstract Proficiency of a teacher cannot be judged by his/ her presence in the classroom and initiates communication with students in English language. It is the responsibility of an ideal teacher to make his/her students comfortable in his/ her presence first and then tries to know them and helps them to understand his/ her lectures. A teacher must pay attention on both kinds of teaching- theoretical as well as practical knowledge so that he/ she may motivate his/ her students to learn this language with enjoyment and excitement and the students may have better opportunities in their professional caree

Lina Mukhopadhyay

Course Description The course will begin with a historical perspective on English Language Education (also commonly referred to as English Language Teaching) from ancient days of teaching the language like other classical languages as Greek and Latin up to the 21 st century trends. Basic principles and procedures of the most recognized and commonly used approaches and methods for teaching English as a second (or a foreign language) will be presented. These are the Grammar Translation Method, Direct Method, Audio-Lingual Method, Communicative Language Teaching, Content-Based Instruction and other alternative approaches. Each approach or method will be discussed in terms of their theoretical orientation, teaching practices and learning activities designed to reach the specified teaching goals and learning outcomes. Candidates will examine and analyze the teaching methods and compare whether the methods reflect similar or opposing views of language learning principles. Through course readings and sample video lessons, candidates will reflect on what constitutes language use, and the role of teacher and learners in each of the teaching methodologies. The analysis will help them to gain a fuller understanding of the principles and practices behind the choices teachers make regarding particular methods. In all, the course will enable learners to look for the rationale for the different techniques that have been used in the course of language teaching history and learn to critique the practices and materials designed to teach English and many unresolved issues in the domain. The course will not espouse any particular approach to second language teaching but rather present an overview of the many approaches to teaching second and foreign languages.

Professor Rohini Chandrica Widyalankara

This study proposes that the pedagogical procedures within the genre of Teaching English as a Second Language should not only gain from the rich theoretical resources and the vast repertoire of methodological approaches available it should also tap the creative powers of the teaching practitioners. Merging tenets of Behaviorism with Innatism in the Interaction Theory and adapting theories on Second Language Acquisition the second language teaching/learning environment discussed aims to maximize acquisition and lower the affective filters of the learners. Principled Eclecticism provides the methodological foundation for cooperative learning and formative peer assessment with focused corrective feedback provide remedial support and an opportunity for the learners to reevaluate their work and engage in timely adjustments. The session aims at interpsychological cognitive development with peers/teacher and individual intrapsychological cognitive enhancement in language skills.

JEELS (Journal of English Education and Linguistics Studies)

amjad jokhio

This study aims to know teachers’ perception regarding research and throw a shadow of light on this critical issue with respect to teaching pedagogy. For this study, data were collected through survey questionnaire with close ended items from 104 secondary school teachers (SSTs) (grade 6 to 10) and English language centers of Karachi. The data analysis revealed that most of the teachers believed that the knowledge they gain from the teaching is more effective and valuable rather than the knowledge acquired from research. In both categories, majority of the participants declared that they have limited sources available in order to access the Second Language Acquisition (SLA) articles, whereas half of them stated that they do not have enough time to conduct SLA research, a few of them reported as lack of interest, one of the SSTs indicated that research articles are difficult to understand and no ability to conduct research. Furthermore, majority of the teachers agreed that a teacher ...

Ars Artium, vol. 12

Ars Artium , gopal pandey

Ethnographic research is carried out in a natural setting, not in a laboratory. It entails close, in-person communication with participants. The ideas and behaviours of the participants are accurately reflected in ethnographic research. To construct ideas about local cultures, it collects unstructured data in an inductive, participatory, and repetitive manner using analytical techniques. Ethnography is a holistic qualitative approach to research developed by anthropologists in order to understand people within their social and cultural contexts. It requires that researchers be reflective about their impact on the research site and the cultural group. The goals of ethnographic research are to be emic, all-encompassing, contextualized, holistic, and to focus on examining the interactions between intricate parts. Ethnographies often involve the uses of observations, interviews, diaries, field notes and other methods of data collection. Triangulation of data is always at the heart of the ethnographic process. This paper discusses the fundamental philosophical bases, history, and theoretical bases of ethnographic research. The article also describes the primary methodologies, techniques and tools used in ethnographic research. In addition, the article presents an ethnographic research template which can be used by English teachers for classroom purposes.

Prof. Dr. Maya Khemlani David

Much has already been written and talked about teaching English as a Second Language. One would, therefore, be justified in asking: Why publish another volume on the subject? A survey of available works in India convinced us that there was a room for a book for teachers of English that can address the current issues in teaching English in the non-native context. At first, the editors had planned to include views of teachers in the Indian sub-continent only. However, the unprecedented spread and shifts, thanks to globalization, in teaching ESL in terms of teaching methods, curriculum, and application of learning theories made us feel the need to incorporate as many diverse voices as possible. Today, there are more non-native users of English than the native ones. This has resulted in the use of two varieties of language—what David Crystal calls “one spoken in one’s home country and a new kind of English that can be internationally understood”. Keeping this paradigm shift in view, tea...

International Journal of Educational Research

Aleidine Moeller

Journal of Literature, Languages and Linguistics

yewulsew melak

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Teaching English-Language Learners: What Does the Research Tell Us?

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Nearly 3 in 4 American classrooms now includes at least one English-language learner, and these students make up roughly 1 in 10 public school students.

While their numbers continue to rise quickly, the evidence on what works best to help non-native speakers become proficient in English—particularly the more formal academic language needed for school success—has been harder to come by.

What does the federal law say about how schools should approach ELL instruction?

The federal requirement stems from the landmark 1974 case Lau v. Nichols , in which the U.S. Supreme Court found that Chinese-American English-learners in California who were not given educational accommodations to help them learn English did not receive equal access to education.

In essence, this was discrimination due to their language and national origin, a violation of the 1964 Civil Rights Act. Lau ‘s mandate has been preserved in subsequent versions of the main federal K-12 law, including the version approved by Congress late last year which states that school districts must take “affirmative steps” to counter students’ language barriers and ensure ELLs can “participate meaningfully in schools’ educational programs.”

In 2015, the Education Department’s office for civil rights issued a letter updating how districts should approach ELLs. Districts must use instructional practices and programs that are backed by scientific evidence and effective in helping students speak, listen, read, and write English and meet challenging state content standards.

What are the most common types of instruction for students learning English as a second language?

Most U.S. schools use variations on one or all of the following:

Pullout/push-in tutoring : English-learners attend core academic classes in English, while being provided separate instructional support in the language either by an ELL specialist during the class or in a separate session outside of class. This method is most often used for English-learners with at least some proficiency in the language.

Sheltered English instruction : English-learners, particularly those with low English proficiency, are taught in a stand-alone classroom. The teacher may focus several hours of the day on direct language instruction as well as academic content. Within a classroom, students often are grouped by their English proficiency so that lessons can be tailored for different levels. Most of these programs are designed to be short—as little as a single year—but some critics have argued that such programs can delay ELLs’ access to regular content. Among the most common versions of this is the Sheltered Instruction Observation Protocol, or SIOP. Three states—Arizona, California, and Massachusetts—have laws requiring sheltered English instruction and limiting the use of bilingual instruction. (California voters will have an opportunity to overturn the restrictions on bilingual education later this year.)

Bilingual instruction : Students receive ongoing language and subject matter instruction in both their native language and English. These programs may serve ELLs only, in a multiyear “developmental” program or a short-term “transitional” program. By contrast, dual-language immersion programs include both native and non-native speakers. These often begin with most of the content taught in the target, or non-English language. Gradually, the time spent teaching in both languages is evenly split, with the goal of making all students exit the program proficient in both languages. This is most commonly used for programs with a high percentage of ELL students of a single native language, such as Spanish or Chinese.

What does research say about the effectiveness of different ELL instructional methods?

While all three main types of ELL instruction have been in use for decades, there is relatively little rigorous research on the general effectiveness of each method, and evidence is particularly scarce on the most effective methods for specific ELL populations, such as young versus older ELLs, or those of different language groups. This is particularly concerning since federal civil rights law requires districts to take into account an ELL’s English-proficiency level, grade, educational background, and in some cases, native-language background to determine appropriate services.

A series of Stanford University studies, including a 2015 study in the journal Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, found that English-learners in bilingual programs had language arts and math scores that grew as fast or faster than those of ELLs in sheltered English immersion, but students in developmental bilingual programs showed slower growth in math than those in other types of bilingual and sheltered-English instruction.

See where English-language learners live and which home languages they speak.

English-Language-Learner Statistics

Moreover, in 2015, a four-year randomized controlled trial evaluation of the Portland, Ore., dual-language immersion programs found that students who participated in the programs outperformed their other English-learner peers in English-reading skills by a full school year’s worth of learning by the end of middle school.

A rigorous federal research review in 2013 found that no evaluations of sheltered English immersion met its quality standards. There have been a few studies since then, including a cluster-randomized study of Project GLAD, a version of sheltered immersion, which found mixed results for the approach, in part because teachers implemented it very differently from school to school.

“It would be hard right now to do a good [randomized controlled trial] of SIOP because of its broad spread in schools,” said Theresa Deussen, a co-author of the Project GLAD study. “Most teachers don’t use [structured immersion] as a coordinated package of integrated strategies. ... Instead, they think of it as [individual] ‘tools in the toolbox.’”

What instructional practices help ELLs learn academic content?

Regardless of the overall program structure, the Institute of Education Sciences, the Education Department’s research agency, has identified rigorous evidence that the following teaching practices are effective in teaching academic content to ELLs:

• Teach a set of academic vocabulary words intensively, over several days and a variety of activities.
• Integrate instruction in spoken and written English into content-area teaching, such as using science laboratory reports to teach writing in English.
• Provide ongoing, structured chances to develop writing skills.
• Provide small-group interventions for students struggling with specific problems in literacy or language development.

How long does it typically take for English-language learners to become proficient in English?

A landmark study of California ELLs in 2000 found students in both bilingual and sheltered English programs typically took three to five years to become proficient in oral English and five to seven years to become proficient in academic English. This timeline is still generally considered standard by ELL educators, but the new version of the federal K-12 law gives districts three years to bring students to full proficiency and allows them to include former English-learners in the ELL accountability subgroup for up to four years.

A 2015 study by Education Northwest of ELLs entering kindergarten in Washington state found that half reached proficiency in 3.8 years, but 18 percent of the students were not proficient within eight years. The timelines varied significantly by the English level students had upon entering kindergarten, and also by their home language.

English-Language Learners and Schools: Resources for Parents and Educators

• Education Week ’s Learning the Language blog – Daily news and analysis on issues that impact English-language learners, their parents, and their teachers.
• Education Week ’s English-Language Learners Topics page - A collection of news articles, blog posts, and information on English-language learners.
• The White House Initiative for Educational Excellence for Hispanics
• The Council of Great City Schools’ parent guides to the Common Core English/language arts and math standards in Spanish. For math — Guía para los padres , For English/language arts — Guía para los padres
• Seal of Biliteracy - The Seal of Biliteracy is an award given by a school, district, or county office of education in recognition of students who have studied and attained proficiency in two or more languages by high school graduation.
• Californians Together – A research and advocacy group with key information on long-term English-language learners.

For example, Korean-speaking students reached proficiency on average in less than three years, while Spanish-speaking students took on average more than four years. However, the study did not have enough data to suggest why ELLs of different language groups had different rates of learning English.

“It seems like it would be more difficult for a Chinese speaker to learn English than a Spanish speaker, but it doesn’t always hold true,” said Jason Greenberg Motamedi, an Education Northwest senior researcher and the author of the study.

“It may be less the fact that they speak a particular language than other characteristics we can’t see here. ‘Spanish’ may be just standing in for a whole host of other things [such as low income or immigrant status]. Half of the Spanish speakers are second or third generation in Washington. They’ve grown up there, but clearly there are structural barriers that are preventing them from [reaching English proficiency].”

How long it takes students to reach proficiency has a huge bearing on longer-term outcomes.

A 2013 study found English-learners who reached proficiency by the end of kindergarten showed no academic gap with native English speakers, while students who did not reach proficiency by the end of 1st grade showed significant gaps in reading and math compared to native English speakers. While these gaps narrowed in reading over time, they grew in math.

Is effective ELL instruction the same for immigrant and native-born students?

While many English-learners do arrive as immigrants, the vast majority—some 80 percent—are born in the United States and enter U.S. schools at the beginning of their academic careers.

For ELLs who enter the United States before the start of their school years, the instructional approach is generally the same, though Motameti and other researchers’ studies have found that students who enter kindergarten with very low English proficiency take longer to catch up. There have not been significant studies looking at whether particular instructional approaches are more effective for immigrant versus native-born ELLs who start in kindergarten or preschool.

Research suggests older ELLs, particularly “newcomers” who enter in middle and high school, have needs, particularly in content-area language and instruction, that are quite separate from those of ELLs who were born in the United States or who came in early grades.

A 2015 case study of so-called “newcomer schools” in Ohio and New York City suggested that they can be more supportive environments for older ELLs, but may be associated with lower academic achievement. An earlier three-year study by the Center for Applied Linguistics found that the most effective “newcomer schools” provided: flexible course scheduling; teachers skilled and regularly trained in ELL supports; basic adolescent literacy interventions coupled with ELL interventions; content instruction designed to fill gaps in academic learning; and ongoing monitoring of student progress.

The most effective programs also provided significant extended-learning time, including before and after school, on Saturdays, and in summer. They connected immigrant students with family and social services, and provided supports to help students transition to college, careers, and practical life after high school.

Do federal civil rights laws related to ELL instruction apply to charter schools, too?

Yes. The Education Department’s office for civil rights issued guidance in 2014 confirming that charter schools, like any public schools, must take steps to support students learning English and ensure their admissions, disciplinary, and other policies do not disproportionately affect ELLs or their parents. For example, OCR entered a resolution agreement with the BASIS DC Public Charter School after finding that students who did not speak English at home were not appropriately screened for their English-language skills, and teachers incorrectly believed that only the school’s reading lab teacher was responsible for providing ELL services.

Is there a bilingual advantage?

Students who become fully fluent in multiple languages generally perform better academically than either fluent monolingual students or students who are not fully proficient in more than one language. However, researchers are still not sure how much of an advantage there is or what accounts for it.

In the past decade, cognitive and neuroscience studies have suggested that fully bilingual students can switch between cognitive tasks faster than monolingual students. However, a 2014 analysis in the journal Psychological Science found that studies between 1999 and 2012 that found a link between bilingualism and executive control were more likely to be published than those that found either no effect or a negative result. This suggests that journals may be more willing to publish studies that find bilingual benefits.

What can we expect from ELL research in the near future?

More than 45 states now use one of two English-language proficiency assessments: the World-Class Instructional Design and Assessment, or WIDA, or the new ELPA 21 test. Because these two tests have become so common, researchers are in the process of developing crosswalk studies to compare proficiency and achievement across different states. This would enable better comparisons of different state and district approaches to identifying, supporting, and eventually reclassifying English-learners.

“For the first time ever we can get an image of what proficiency development looks like across the nation,” Motameti said. “A year ago or two we couldn’t do that.”

A version of this article appeared in the May 11, 2016 edition of Education Week as Teaching English-Learners: What Does the Research Tell Us?

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211 Research Topics in Linguistics To Get Top Grades

Many people find it hard to decide on their linguistics research topics because of the assumed complexities involved. They struggle to choose easy research paper topics for English language too because they think it could be too simple for a university or college level certificate.

All that you need to learn about Linguistics and English is sprawled across syntax, phonetics, morphology, phonology, semantics, grammar, vocabulary, and a few others. To easily create a top-notch essay or conduct a research study, you can consider this list of research topics in English language below for your university or college use. Note that you can fine-tune these to suit your interests.

Linguistics Research Paper Topics

If you want to study how language is applied and its importance in the world, you can consider these Linguistics topics for your research paper. They are:

• An analysis of romantic ideas and their expression amongst French people
• An overview of the hate language in the course against religion
• Identify the determinants of hate language and the means of propagation
• Evaluate a literature and examine how Linguistics is applied to the understanding of minor languages
• Consider the impact of social media in the development of slangs
• An overview of political slang and its use amongst New York teenagers
• Examine the relevance of Linguistics in a digitalized world
• Analyze foul language and how it’s used to oppress minors
• Identify the role of language in the national identity of a socially dynamic society
• Attempt an explanation to how the language barrier could affect the social life of an individual in a new society
• Discuss the means through which language can enrich cultural identities
• Examine the concept of bilingualism and how it applies in the real world
• Analyze the possible strategies for teaching a foreign language
• Discuss the priority of teachers in the teaching of grammar to non-native speakers
• Choose a school of your choice and observe the slang used by its students: analyze how it affects their social lives
• Attempt a critical overview of racist languages
• What does endangered language means and how does it apply in the real world?
• A critical overview of your second language and why it is a second language
• What are the motivators of speech and why are they relevant?
• Analyze the difference between the different types of communications and their significance to specially-abled persons
• Give a critical overview of five literature on sign language
• Evaluate the distinction between the means of language comprehension between an adult and a teenager
• Consider a native American group and evaluate how cultural diversity has influenced their language
• Analyze the complexities involved in code-switching and code-mixing
• Give a critical overview of the importance of language to a teenager
• Attempt a forensic overview of language accessibility and what it means
• What do you believe are the means of communications and what are their uniqueness?
• Attempt a study of Islamic poetry and its role in language development
• Attempt a study on the role of Literature in language development
• Evaluate the Influence of metaphors and other literary devices in the depth of each sentence
• Identify the role of literary devices in the development of proverbs in any African country
• Cognitive Linguistics: analyze two pieces of Literature that offers a critical view of perception
• Identify and analyze the complexities in unspoken words
• Expression is another kind of language: discuss
• Identify the significance of symbols in the evolution of language
• Discuss how learning more than a single language promote cross-cultural developments
• Analyze how the loss of a mother tongue affect the language Efficiency of a community
• Critically examine how sign language works
• Using literature from the medieval era, attempt a study of the evolution of language
• Identify how wars have led to the reduction in the popularity of a language of your choice across any country of the world
• Critically examine five Literature on why accent changes based on environment
• What are the forces that compel the comprehension of language in a child
• Identify and explain the difference between the listening and speaking skills and their significance in the understanding of language
• Give a critical overview of how natural language is processed
• Examine the influence of language on culture and vice versa
• It is possible to understand a language even without living in that society: discuss
• Identify the arguments regarding speech defects
• Discuss how the familiarity of language informs the creation of slangs
• Explain the significance of religious phrases and sacred languages
• Explore the roots and evolution of incantations in Africa

Sociolinguistic Research Topics

You may as well need interesting Linguistics topics based on sociolinguistic purposes for your research. Sociolinguistics is the study and recording of natural speech. It’s primarily the casual status of most informal conversations. You can consider the following Sociolinguistic research topics for your research:

• What makes language exceptional to a particular person?
• How does language form a unique means of expression to writers?
• Examine the kind of speech used in health and emergencies
• Analyze the language theory explored by family members during dinner
• Evaluate the possible variation of language based on class
• Evaluate the language of racism, social tension, and sexism
• Discuss how Language promotes social and cultural familiarities
• Give an overview of identity and language
• Examine why some language speakers enjoy listening to foreigners who speak their native language
• Give a forensic analysis of his the language of entertainment is different to the language in professional settings
• Give an understanding of how Language changes
• Examine the Sociolinguistics of the Caribbeans
• Consider an overview of metaphor in France
• Explain why the direct translation of written words is incomprehensible in Linguistics
• Discuss the use of language in marginalizing a community
• Analyze the history of Arabic and the culture that enhanced it
• Discuss the growth of French and the influences of other languages
• Examine how the English language developed and its interdependence on other languages
• Give an overview of cultural diversity and Linguistics in teaching
• Challenge the attachment of speech defect with disability of language listening and speaking abilities
• Explore the uniqueness of language between siblings
• Explore the means of making requests between a teenager and his parents
• Observe and comment on how students relate with their teachers through language
• Observe and comment on the communication of strategy of parents and teachers
• Examine the connection of understanding first language with academic excellence

Language Research Topics

Numerous languages exist in different societies. This is why you may seek to understand the motivations behind language through these Linguistics project ideas. You can consider the following interesting Linguistics topics and their application to language:

• What does language shift mean?
• Discuss the stages of English language development?
• Examine the position of ambiguity in a romantic Language of your choice
• Why are some languages called romantic languages?
• Observe the strategies of persuasion through Language
• Discuss the connection between symbols and words
• Identify the language of political speeches
• Discuss the effectiveness of language in an indigenous cultural revolution
• Trace the motivators for spoken language
• What does language acquisition mean to you?
• Examine three pieces of literature on language translation and its role in multilingual accessibility
• Identify the science involved in language reception
• Interrogate with the context of language disorders
• Examine how psychotherapy applies to victims of language disorders
• Study the growth of Hindi despite colonialism
• Critically appraise the term, language erasure
• Examine how colonialism and war is responsible for the loss of language
• Give an overview of the difference between sounds and letters and how they apply to the German language
• Explain why the placement of verb and preposition is different in German and English languages
• Choose two languages of your choice and examine their historical relationship
• Discuss the strategies employed by people while learning new languages
• Discuss the role of all the figures of speech in the advancement of language
• Analyze the complexities of autism and its victims
• Offer a linguist approach to language uniqueness between a Down Syndrome child and an autist
• Express dance as a language
• Express music as a language
• Express language as a form of language
• Evaluate the role of cultural diversity in the decline of languages in South Africa
• Discuss the development of the Greek language
• Critically review two literary texts, one from the medieval era and another published a decade ago, and examine the language shifts

Linguistics Essay Topics

You may also need Linguistics research topics for your Linguistics essays. As a linguist in the making, these can help you consider controversies in Linguistics as a discipline and address them through your study. You can consider:

• The connection of sociolinguistics in comprehending interests in multilingualism
• Write on your belief of how language encourages sexism
• What do you understand about the differences between British and American English?
• Discuss how slangs grew and how they started
• Consider how age leads to loss of language
• Review how language is used in formal and informal conversation
• Discuss what you understand by polite language
• Discuss what you know by hate language
• Evaluate how language has remained flexible throughout history
• Mimicking a teacher is a form of exercising hate Language: discuss
• Body Language and verbal speech are different things: discuss
• Language can be exploitative: discuss
• Do you think language is responsible for inciting aggression against the state?
• Can you justify the structural representation of any symbol of your choice?
• Religious symbols are not ordinary Language: what are your perspective on day-to-day languages and sacred ones?
• Consider the usage of language by an English man and someone of another culture
• Discuss the essence of code-mixing and code-switching
• Attempt a psychological assessment on the role of language in academic development
• How does language pose a challenge to studying?
• Choose a multicultural society of your choice and explain the problem they face
• What forms does Language use in expression?
• Identify the reasons behind unspoken words and actions
• Why do universal languages exist as a means of easy communication?
• Examine the role of the English language in the world
• Examine the role of Arabic in the world
• Examine the role of romantic languages in the world
• Evaluate the significance of each teaching Resources in a language classroom
• Consider an assessment of language analysis
• Why do people comprehend beyond what is written or expressed?
• What is the impact of hate speech on a woman?
• Do you believe that grammatical errors are how everyone’s comprehension of language is determined?
• Observe the Influence of technology in language learning and development
• Which parts of the body are responsible for understanding new languages
• How has language informed development?
• Would you say language has improved human relations or worsened it considering it as a tool for violence?
• Would you say language in a black populous state is different from its social culture in white populous states?
• Give an overview of the English language in Nigeria
• Give an overview of the English language in Uganda
• Give an overview of the English language in India
• Give an overview of Russian in Europe
• Give a conceptual analysis on stress and how it works
• Consider the means of vocabulary development and its role in cultural relationships
• Examine the effects of Linguistics in language
• Present your understanding of sign language
• What do you understand about descriptive language and prescriptive Language?

List of Research Topics in English Language

You may need English research topics for your next research. These are topics that are socially crafted for you as a student of language in any institution. You can consider the following for in-depth analysis:

• Examine the travail of women in any feminist text of your choice
• Examine the movement of feminist literature in the Industrial period
• Give an overview of five Gothic literature and what you understand from them
• Examine rock music and how it emerged as a genre
• Evaluate the cultural association with Nina Simone’s music
• What is the relevance of Shakespeare in English literature?
• How has literature promoted the English language?
• Identify the effect of spelling errors in the academic performance of students in an institution of your choice
• Critically survey a university and give rationalize the literary texts offered as Significant
• Examine the use of feminist literature in advancing the course against patriarchy
• Give an overview of the themes in William Shakespeare’s “Julius Caesar”
• Express the significance of Ernest Hemingway’s diction in contemporary literature
• Examine the predominant devices in the works of William Shakespeare
• Explain the predominant devices in the works of Christopher Marlowe
• Charles Dickens and his works: express the dominating themes in his Literature
• Why is Literature described as the mirror of society?
• Examine the issues of feminism in Sefi Atta’s “Everything Good Will Come” and Bernadine Evaristos’s “Girl, Woman, Other”
• Give an overview of the stylistics employed in the writing of “Girl, Woman, Other” by Bernadine Evaristo
• Describe the language of advertisement in social media and newspapers
• Describe what poetic Language means
• Examine the use of code-switching and code-mixing on Mexican Americans
• Examine the use of code-switching and code-mixing in Indian Americans
• Discuss the influence of George Orwell’s “Animal Farm” on satirical literature
• Examine the Linguistics features of “Native Son” by Richard Wright
• What is the role of indigenous literature in promoting cultural identities
• How has literature informed cultural consciousness?
• Analyze five literature on semantics and their Influence on the study
• Assess the role of grammar in day to day communications
• Observe the role of multidisciplinary approaches in understanding the English language
• What does stylistics mean while analyzing medieval literary texts?
• Analyze the views of philosophers on language, society, and culture

English Research Paper Topics for College Students

For your college work, you may need to undergo a study of any phenomenon in the world. Note that they could be Linguistics essay topics or mainly a research study of an idea of your choice. Thus, you can choose your research ideas from any of the following:

• The concept of fairness in a democratic Government
• The capacity of a leader isn’t in his or her academic degrees
• The concept of discrimination in education
• The theory of discrimination in Islamic states
• The idea of school policing
• A study on grade inflation and its consequences
• A study of taxation and Its importance to the economy from a citizen’s perspectives
• A study on how eloquence lead to discrimination amongst high school students
• A study of the influence of the music industry in teens
• An Evaluation of pornography and its impacts on College students
• A descriptive study of how the FBI works according to Hollywood
• A critical consideration of the cons and pros of vaccination
• The health effect of sleep disorders
• An overview of three literary texts across three genres of Literature and how they connect to you
• A critical overview of “King Oedipus”: the role of the supernatural in day to day life
• Examine the novel “12 Years a Slave” as a reflection of servitude and brutality exerted by white slave owners
• Rationalize the emergence of racist Literature with concrete examples
• A study of the limits of literature in accessing rural readers
• Analyze the perspectives of modern authors on the Influence of medieval Literature on their craft
• What do you understand by the mortality of a literary text?
• A study of controversial Literature and its role in shaping the discussion
• A critical overview of three literary texts that dealt with domestic abuse and their role in changing the narratives about domestic violence
• Choose three contemporary poets and analyze the themes of their works
• Do you believe that contemporary American literature is the repetition of unnecessary themes already treated in the past?
• A study of the evolution of Literature and its styles
• The use of sexual innuendos in literature
• The use of sexist languages in literature and its effect on the public
• The disaster associated with media reports of fake news
• Conduct a study on how language is used as a tool for manipulation
• Attempt a criticism of a controversial Literary text and why it shouldn’t be studied or sold in the first place

Finding Linguistics Hard To Write About?

With these topics, you can commence your research with ease. However, if you need professional writing help for any part of the research, you can scout here online for the best research paper writing service.

There are several expert writers on ENL hosted on our website that you can consider for a fast response on your research study at a cheap price.

As students, you may be unable to cover every part of your research on your own. This inability is the reason you should consider expert writers for custom research topics in Linguistics approved by your professor for high grades.

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• DOI: 10.54691/5ebstm72
• Corpus ID: 271489187

How to Improve High School Students’ L2 Writing Enjoyment

• Published in Frontiers in Sustainable… 24 July 2024
• Education, Linguistics

13 References

Motivation, emotion, learning experience, and second language comprehensibility development in classroom settings: a cross-sectional and longitudinal study, future selves, enjoyment and anxiety as predictors of l2 writing achievement, the effect of perception of teacher characteristics on spanish efl learners’ anxiety and enjoyment, changing how writing is taught, does the effect of enjoyment outweigh that of anxiety in foreign language performance, emotions that facilitate language learning: the positive-broadening power of the imagination, emotion as the amplifier and the primary motive: some theories of emotion with relevance to language learning, the associations among growth mindsets, the ideal l2 writing self, and l2 writing enjoyment and their impacts on l2 english writing performance: a gender difference perspective, contributions of foreign language writing emotions to writing achievement, transfer of ideal l1 and l2 writing selves and their impacts on l2 writing enjoyment and integrated writing performance, related papers.

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Research Spotlight: Joshua Wilson

University of Delaware professor investigates how English learners interact with and benefit from automated essay evaluation technology

When ChatGPT burst onto the scene in November 2022, many educators and parents worried that new writing tools powered by artificial intelligence (AI) would help their students bypass important learning opportunities. Instead, as University of Delaware Associate Professor Joshua Wilson has shown, AI-powered writing and evaluation tools have actually helped students develop their writing skills and have supported teachers in providing meaningful feedback.

Now, in a recent study published in Learning and Instruction , Wilson and his co-authors turn their attention to elementary English learners (EL), investigating how this growing population of students interacts with and benefits from automated writing evaluation (AWE) software. They found that AWE technologies were equally beneficial for ELs as they are for non-ELs. Study participants accessed writing feedback to a similar extent, achieved equal gains in writing quality, focused on consistent dimensions of writing when revising and endorsed the AWE system to similar degrees, regardless of their language status.

“As AI-based feedback applications become increasingly prevalent, it’s critical that researchers examine the consequences of implementing those tools in authentic educational settings, with a particular focus on equity,” said Wilson, who specializes in literacy in UD’s College of Education and Human Development (CEHD). “This study represents a novel step forward in the field of AWE by focusing on students’ multifaceted engagement and by ensuring that there were not systematic differences in engagement that might disadvantage vulnerable subgroups. This approach sets a precedent for other investigations into AI-based feedback applications, ensuring that these technologies support equitable learning outcomes for all students.”

Automated essay evaluation software

AWE refers to a class of educational technology tools that use natural language processing and AI to provide students with automated formative feedback that supports improvements in writing quality. Wilson’s study focuses on MI Write , an AWE system designed to improve the teaching and learning of writing by providing students with automated feedback and writing scores.

When a student drafts an essay and submits it within MI Write, their essay is instantly analyzed by its scoring and feedback algorithms, which then deliver immediate automated feedback directly to the student. In addition to providing the student with a holistic writing score, it also provides a specific writing score and feedback on idea development, organization, style, sentence fluency, word choice and conventions. MI Write also includes peer review capabilities, offers multimedia lessons for skill-building and allows teachers to communicate with students through commenting features.

“[The students] seem more determined and [MI Write is] so catered to them,” said a fourth grade teacher in Wilson’s study. “It’s almost like there’s a person, like somebody [teaching] them, conferencing with them, telling them how they can improve, and it’s all of them at once. Whereas before, I wouldn’t be physically able to accomplish that quickly.”

Benefits for English learners

To assess how ELs interacted with and benefited from AWE technology, Wilson and his co-authors collected data from nearly 3,500 students in grades 3–5 within a Mid-Atlantic district that implemented MI Write in all 14 of its elementary schools during the 2017-18 school year. They collected data from ELs—students whose home language is not English and who qualify for English language services—and from non-ELs.

To investigate interaction with the AWE software, Wilson and his co-authors looked at three dimensions of engagement: 1) behavioral, or the actions students take in response to feedback; 2) cognitive, or the thinking and revision strategies that students use in response to feedback; and 3) affective, or how students feel about and perceive feedback.

Across all three dimensions, Wilson and his co-authors found similar levels of engagement across all students. For example, some students chose not to access the feedback that AWE provided, while others accessed it several times. But these differences in behavioral engagement were not associated with language status. Similarly, ELs made productive revisions to their texts to the same extent as non-ELs and they often focused on the same set of textual features when revising.

In addition, student perceptions of the AWE software were generally positive. And, interestingly, EL survey responses indicated an even higher positive perception of the automated feedback.

“Elementary-aged ELs may be more motivated to master the mechanics of writing, given that their proficiency in writing is both a barrier and a gateway to their academic success across various subjects,” Wilson said. “But, the automated nature of AWE also offers a unique and invaluable advantage for ELs: it enables them to request unlimited feedback without the fear of burdening their teacher or exposing their mistakes. AWE offers ELs autonomy in seeking feedback, which may feel empowering, allowing ELs to refine their writing skills at their own pace.”

Finally, Wilson and his co-authors found that the overall improvements in student writing over the course of the school year was not related to language status. Using MI Write’s essay-scoring system, they found that the average gain scores for ELs and non-ELs were similar after accounting for the number of drafts completed, initial draft quality, demographics and baseline literacy skills.

But, even in light of these positive findings, Wilson emphasizes that it’s important to view AWE as a teaching tool rather than as a replacement for classroom teaching.

“Our study underscores the importance of integrating AWE and AI-based systems within the context of effective teacher-led instruction,” Wilson said. “While there was no evidence that AWE uniquely disadvantaged elementary ELs, it also did not uniquely advantage them or close existing performance gaps. While AI and AWE can significantly enhance personalization and provide valuable support, they should be seen as tools, not solutions. Ensuring equitable outcomes requires a holistic approach that combines technology with skilled teaching.”

This research represents one aspect of Wilson’s larger research program in automated writing evaluation and related technologies. With Mark D. Shermis, Wilson has released a new edited collection, the Routledge International Handbook of Automated Essay Evaluation , which includes articles on large-scale and classroom-based applications of this technology to support teaching and learning.

To learn more about the reliability of automated writing evaluation, read CEHD’s spotlight on Wilson’s work . To learn more about CEHD research in language and literacy, visit its research page .

Article by Jessica Henderson. Photo by Evan Krape.

Header image caption: A teacher at CEHD’s The College School works with a student on a writing assignment using a computer.

About Joshua Wilson

Joshua Wilson is an associate professor in CEHD’s School of Education . His research focuses on ways to improve the teaching and learning of writing, especially through automated writing evaluation systems. His research has been supported by grants from federal, foundation and industry sponsors and has been published in Computers & Education , the Journal of Educational Computing Research , the Journal of Educational Psychology and the Journal of School Psychology , among others. Wilson also facilitates UD’s AI for Teaching and Learning Working Group with three colleagues.

Literacy and Language Faculty at CEHD

Wilson’s research complements the work of CEHD faculty studying literacy and language , including Steve Amendum, Christina M. Budde, Martha Buell, David Coker, Stephanie Del Tufo, Ralph Ferretti, Roberta M. Golinkoff, Myae Han, Rachel Karchmer-Klein, William Lewis, Charles A. MacArthur, Adrian Pasquarella, Kristen D. Ritchey, Carol Vukelich and Sharon Walpole.

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Large language models don’t behave like people, even though we may expect them to

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One thing that makes large language models (LLMs) so powerful is the diversity of tasks to which they can be applied. The same machine-learning model that can help a graduate student draft an email could also aid a clinician in diagnosing cancer.

However, the wide applicability of these models also makes them challenging to evaluate in a systematic way. It would be impossible to create a benchmark dataset to test a model on every type of question it can be asked.

In a new paper , MIT researchers took a different approach. They argue that, because humans decide when to deploy large language models, evaluating a model requires an understanding of how people form beliefs about its capabilities.

For example, the graduate student must decide whether the model could be helpful in drafting a particular email, and the clinician must determine which cases would be best to consult the model on.

Building off this idea, the researchers created a framework to evaluate an LLM based on its alignment with a human’s beliefs about how it will perform on a certain task.

They introduce a human generalization function — a model of how people update their beliefs about an LLM’s capabilities after interacting with it. Then, they evaluate how aligned LLMs are with this human generalization function.

Their results indicate that when models are misaligned with the human generalization function, a user could be overconfident or underconfident about where to deploy it, which might cause the model to fail unexpectedly. Furthermore, due to this misalignment, more capable models tend to perform worse than smaller models in high-stakes situations.

“These tools are exciting because they are general-purpose, but because they are general-purpose, they will be collaborating with people, so we have to take the human in the loop into account,” says study co-author Ashesh Rambachan, assistant professor of economics and a principal investigator in the Laboratory for Information and Decision Systems (LIDS).

Rambachan is joined on the paper by lead author Keyon Vafa, a postdoc at Harvard University; and Sendhil Mullainathan, an MIT professor in the departments of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science and of Economics, and a member of LIDS. The research will be presented at the International Conference on Machine Learning.

Human generalization

As we interact with other people, we form beliefs about what we think they do and do not know. For instance, if your friend is finicky about correcting people’s grammar, you might generalize and think they would also excel at sentence construction, even though you’ve never asked them questions about sentence construction.

“Language models often seem so human. We wanted to illustrate that this force of human generalization is also present in how people form beliefs about language models,” Rambachan says.

As a starting point, the researchers formally defined the human generalization function, which involves asking questions, observing how a person or LLM responds, and then making inferences about how that person or model would respond to related questions.

If someone sees that an LLM can correctly answer questions about matrix inversion, they might also assume it can ace questions about simple arithmetic. A model that is misaligned with this function — one that doesn’t perform well on questions a human expects it to answer correctly — could fail when deployed.

With that formal definition in hand, the researchers designed a survey to measure how people generalize when they interact with LLMs and other people.

They showed survey participants questions that a person or LLM got right or wrong and then asked if they thought that person or LLM would answer a related question correctly. Through the survey, they generated a dataset of nearly 19,000 examples of how humans generalize about LLM performance across 79 diverse tasks.

Measuring misalignment

They found that participants did quite well when asked whether a human who got one question right would answer a related question right, but they were much worse at generalizing about the performance of LLMs.

“Human generalization gets applied to language models, but that breaks down because these language models don’t actually show patterns of expertise like people would,” Rambachan says.

People were also more likely to update their beliefs about an LLM when it answered questions incorrectly than when it got questions right. They also tended to believe that LLM performance on simple questions would have little bearing on its performance on more complex questions.

In situations where people put more weight on incorrect responses, simpler models outperformed very large models like GPT-4.

“Language models that get better can almost trick people into thinking they will perform well on related questions when, in actuality, they don’t,” he says.

One possible explanation for why humans are worse at generalizing for LLMs could come from their novelty — people have far less experience interacting with LLMs than with other people.

“Moving forward, it is possible that we may get better just by virtue of interacting with language models more,” he says.

To this end, the researchers want to conduct additional studies of how people’s beliefs about LLMs evolve over time as they interact with a model. They also want to explore how human generalization could be incorporated into the development of LLMs.

“When we are training these algorithms in the first place, or trying to update them with human feedback, we need to account for the human generalization function in how we think about measuring performance,” he says.

In the meanwhile, the researchers hope their dataset could be used a benchmark to compare how LLMs perform related to the human generalization function, which could help improve the performance of models deployed in real-world situations.

“To me, the contribution of the paper is twofold. The first is practical: The paper uncovers a critical issue with deploying LLMs for general consumer use. If people don’t have the right understanding of when LLMs will be accurate and when they will fail, then they will be more likely to see mistakes and perhaps be discouraged from further use. This highlights the issue of aligning the models with people's understanding of generalization,” says Alex Imas, professor of behavioral science and economics at the University of Chicago’s Booth School of Business, who was not involved with this work. “The second contribution is more fundamental: The lack of generalization to expected problems and domains helps in getting a better picture of what the models are doing when they get a problem ‘correct.’ It provides a test of whether LLMs ‘understand’ the problem they are solving.”

This research was funded, in part, by the Harvard Data Science Initiative and the Center for Applied AI at the University of Chicago Booth School of Business.

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• Ashesh Rambachan
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• Computer science and technology
• Artificial intelligence
• Human-computer interaction
• Laboratory for Information and Decision Systems (LIDS)
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