homework time by race

Racial and ethnic differences in homework time among U.S. teens

Along with intensified competition for college admissions, U.S. teens increasingly spend more time on educational activities. Homework can be a particularly important component of educational time for economically disadvantaged and racial/ethnic minority students who have limited access to private sources of learning beyond the classroom. This study uses data from the American Time Use Survey and the Programme for International Student Assessment to compare homework time by race/ethnicity and examine the factors that explain these differences. We extend existing literature to consider explanations beyond demographic and family background. Our ordinary least squares (OLS) results show that family background accounts for the difference in homework time between Hispanic and White students and partially explains the difference between Black and White students, with students' academic characteristics or school fixed effects explaining the remaining gap. While these factors partially account for Asian students' greater time spent on homework than their White peers, a substantial gap remains.

Homework Time

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High school girls spend about an hour more per week on their homework than their male counterparts, researchers at American University have found.

Their study, published last month in Educational Researcher , analyzed time-diary data from the American Time Use Survey and survey data from the Educational Longitudinal Study of 2002.

The study found a gender gap of about 1.2 hours of nonschool study time per week. Boys on average spent a total of 4.33 hours a week on homework, while girls worked 6.33 hours. Researchers also noted additional gender gaps in both “during school” and “total” work time outside of classes, suggesting that boys tend not to compensate for missed homework during study halls.

The survey data also showed that boys were twice as likely as girls to participate in organized activities like sports on diary-entry days, while girls were two-thirds more likely to spend time caring for children in their households. But the gender differences in how students spent their time after school do not explain the overall differences in study time, researchers said.

A version of this article appeared in the November 04, 2015 edition of Education Week as Homework Time

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More than two hours of homework may be counterproductive, research suggests.

A Stanford education researcher found that too much homework can negatively affect kids, especially their lives away from school, where family, friends and activities matter.   "Our findings on the effects of homework challenge the traditional assumption that homework is inherently good," wrote Denise Pope , a senior lecturer at the Stanford Graduate School of Education and a co-author of a study published in the Journal of Experimental Education .   The researchers used survey data to examine perceptions about homework, student well-being and behavioral engagement in a sample of 4,317 students from 10 high-performing high schools in upper-middle-class California communities. Along with the survey data, Pope and her colleagues used open-ended answers to explore the students' views on homework.   Median household income exceeded $90,000 in these communities, and 93 percent of the students went on to college, either two-year or four-year.   Students in these schools average about 3.1 hours of homework each night.   "The findings address how current homework practices in privileged, high-performing schools sustain students' advantage in competitive climates yet hinder learning, full engagement and well-being," Pope wrote.   Pope and her colleagues found that too much homework can diminish its effectiveness and even be counterproductive. They cite prior research indicating that homework benefits plateau at about two hours per night, and that 90 minutes to two and a half hours is optimal for high school.   Their study found that too much homework is associated with:   • Greater stress : 56 percent of the students considered homework a primary source of stress, according to the survey data. Forty-three percent viewed tests as a primary stressor, while 33 percent put the pressure to get good grades in that category. Less than 1 percent of the students said homework was not a stressor.   • Reductions in health : In their open-ended answers, many students said their homework load led to sleep deprivation and other health problems. The researchers asked students whether they experienced health issues such as headaches, exhaustion, sleep deprivation, weight loss and stomach problems.   • Less time for friends, family and extracurricular pursuits : Both the survey data and student responses indicate that spending too much time on homework meant that students were "not meeting their developmental needs or cultivating other critical life skills," according to the researchers. Students were more likely to drop activities, not see friends or family, and not pursue hobbies they enjoy.   A balancing act   The results offer empirical evidence that many students struggle to find balance between homework, extracurricular activities and social time, the researchers said. Many students felt forced or obligated to choose homework over developing other talents or skills.   Also, there was no relationship between the time spent on homework and how much the student enjoyed it. The research quoted students as saying they often do homework they see as "pointless" or "mindless" in order to keep their grades up.   "This kind of busy work, by its very nature, discourages learning and instead promotes doing homework simply to get points," said Pope, who is also a co-founder of Challenge Success , a nonprofit organization affiliated with the GSE that conducts research and works with schools and parents to improve students' educational experiences..   Pope said the research calls into question the value of assigning large amounts of homework in high-performing schools. Homework should not be simply assigned as a routine practice, she said.   "Rather, any homework assigned should have a purpose and benefit, and it should be designed to cultivate learning and development," wrote Pope.   High-performing paradox   In places where students attend high-performing schools, too much homework can reduce their time to foster skills in the area of personal responsibility, the researchers concluded. "Young people are spending more time alone," they wrote, "which means less time for family and fewer opportunities to engage in their communities."   Student perspectives   The researchers say that while their open-ended or "self-reporting" methodology to gauge student concerns about homework may have limitations – some might regard it as an opportunity for "typical adolescent complaining" – it was important to learn firsthand what the students believe.   The paper was co-authored by Mollie Galloway from Lewis and Clark College and Jerusha Conner from Villanova University.

Clifton B. Parker is a writer at the Stanford News Service .

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Homework in America

• 2014 Brown Center Report on American Education

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Tom loveless tom loveless former brookings expert @tomloveless99.

March 18, 2014

• 18 min read

Part II of the 2014 Brown Center Report on American Education

Homework!  The topic, no, just the word itself, sparks controversy.  It has for a long time. In 1900, Edward Bok, editor of the Ladies Home Journal , published an impassioned article, “A National Crime at the Feet of Parents,” accusing homework of destroying American youth.  Drawing on the theories of his fellow educational progressive, psychologist G. Stanley Hall (who has since been largely discredited), Bok argued that study at home interfered with children’s natural inclination towards play and free movement, threatened children’s physical and mental health, and usurped the right of parents to decide activities in the home.

The Journal was an influential magazine, especially with parents.  An anti-homework campaign burst forth that grew into a national crusade. [i]   School districts across the land passed restrictions on homework, culminating in a 1901 statewide prohibition of homework in California for any student under the age of 15.  The crusade would remain powerful through 1913, before a world war and other concerns bumped it from the spotlight.  Nevertheless, anti-homework sentiment would remain a touchstone of progressive education throughout the twentieth century.  As a political force, it would lie dormant for years before bubbling up to mobilize proponents of free play and “the whole child.” Advocates would, if educators did not comply, seek to impose homework restrictions through policy making.

Our own century dawned during a surge of anti-homework sentiment. From 1998 to 2003, Newsweek , TIME , and People , all major national publications at the time, ran cover stories on the evils of homework.  TIME ’s 1999 story had the most provocative title, “The Homework Ate My Family: Kids Are Dazed, Parents Are Stressed, Why Piling On Is Hurting Students.” People ’s 2003 article offered a call to arms: “Overbooked: Four Hours of Homework for a Third Grader? Exhausted Kids (and Parents) Fight Back.” Feature stories about students laboring under an onerous homework burden ran in newspapers from coast to coast. Photos of angst ridden children became a journalistic staple.

The 2003 Brown Center Report on American Education included a study investigating the homework controversy.  Examining the most reliable empirical evidence at the time, the study concluded that the dramatic claims about homework were unfounded.  An overwhelming majority of students, at least two-thirds, depending on age, had an hour or less of homework each night.  Surprisingly, even the homework burden of college-bound high school seniors was discovered to be rather light, less than an hour per night or six hours per week. Public opinion polls also contradicted the prevailing story.  Parents were not up in arms about homework.  Most said their children’s homework load was about right.  Parents wanting more homework out-numbered those who wanted less.

Now homework is in the news again.  Several popular anti-homework books fill store shelves (whether virtual or brick and mortar). [ii]   The documentary Race to Nowhere depicts homework as one aspect of an overwrought, pressure-cooker school system that constantly pushes students to perform and destroys their love of learning.  The film’s website claims over 6,000 screenings in more than 30 countries.  In 2011, the New York Times ran a front page article about the homework restrictions adopted by schools in Galloway, NJ, describing “a wave of districts across the nation trying to remake homework amid concerns that high stakes testing and competition for college have fueled a nightly grind that is stressing out children and depriving them of play and rest, yet doing little to raise achievement, especially in elementary grades.”   In the article, Vicki Abeles, the director of Race to Nowhere , invokes the indictment of homework lodged a century ago, declaring, “The presence of homework is negatively affecting the health of our young people and the quality of family time.” [iii] 

A petition for the National PTA to adopt “healthy homework guidelines” on change.org currently has 19,000 signatures.  In September 2013, Atlantic featured an article, “My Daughter’s Homework is Killing Me,” by a Manhattan writer who joined his middle school daughter in doing her homework for a week.  Most nights the homework took more than three hours to complete.

The Current Study

A decade has passed since the last Brown Center Report study of homework, and it’s time for an update.  How much homework do American students have today?  Has the homework burden increased, gone down, or remained about the same?  What do parents think about the homework load?

A word on why such a study is important.  It’s not because the popular press is creating a fiction.  The press accounts are built on the testimony of real students and real parents, people who are very unhappy with the amount of homework coming home from school.  These unhappy people are real—but they also may be atypical.  Their experiences, as dramatic as they are, may not represent the common experience of American households with school-age children.  In the analysis below, data are analyzed from surveys that are methodologically designed to produce reliable information about the experiences of all Americans.  Some of the surveys have existed long enough to illustrate meaningful trends.  The question is whether strong empirical evidence confirms the anecdotes about overworked kids and outraged parents.

Data from the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) provide a good look at trends in homework for nearly the past three decades.  Table 2-1 displays NAEP data from 1984-2012.  The data are from the long-term trend NAEP assessment’s student questionnaire, a survey of homework practices featuring both consistently-worded questions and stable response categories.  The question asks: “How much time did you spend on homework yesterday?”  Responses are shown for NAEP’s three age groups: 9, 13, and 17. [iv]

Today’s youngest students seem to have more homework than in the past.  The first three rows of data for age 9 reveal a shift away from students having no homework, declining from 35% in 1984 to 22% in 2012.  A slight uptick occurred from the low of 18% in 2008, however, so the trend may be abating.  The decline of the “no homework” group is matched by growth in the percentage of students with less than an hour’s worth, from 41% in 1984 to 57% in 2012. The share of students with one to two hours of homework changed very little over the entire 28 years, comprising 12% of students in 2012.  The group with the heaviest load, more than two hours of homework, registered at 5% in 2012.  It was 6% in 1984.

The amount of homework for 13-year-olds appears to have lightened slightly. Students with one to two hours of homework declined from 29% to 23%.  The next category down (in terms of homework load), students with less than an hour, increased from 36% to 44%.  One can see, by combining the bottom two rows, that students with an hour or more of homework declined steadily from 1984 to 2008 (falling from 38% to 27%) and then ticked up to 30% in 2012.  The proportion of students with the heaviest load, more than two hours, slipped from 9% in 1984 to 7% in 2012 and ranged between 7-10% for the entire period.

For 17-year-olds, the homework burden has not varied much.  The percentage of students with no homework has increased from 22% to 27%.  Most of that gain occurred in the 1990s. Also note that the percentage of 17-year-olds who had homework but did not do it was 11% in 2012, the highest for the three NAEP age groups.  Adding that number in with the students who didn’t have homework in the first place means that more than one-third of seventeen year olds (38%) did no homework on the night in question in 2012.  That compares with 33% in 1984.  The segment of the 17-year-old population with more than two hours of homework, from which legitimate complaints of being overworked might arise, has been stuck in the 10%-13% range.

The NAEP data point to four main conclusions:

• With one exception, the homework load has remained remarkably stable since 1984.
• The exception is nine-year-olds.  They have experienced an increase in homework, primarily because many students who once did not have any now have some.  The percentage of nine-year-olds with no homework fell by 13 percentage points, and the percentage with less than an hour grew by 16 percentage points.
• Of the three age groups, 17-year-olds have the most bifurcated distribution of the homework burden.   They have the largest percentage of kids with no homework (especially when the homework shirkers are added in) and the largest percentage with more than two hours.
• NAEP data do not support the idea that a large and growing number of students have an onerous amount of homework.  For all three age groups, only a small percentage of students report more than two hours of homework.  For 1984-2012, the size of the two hours or more groups ranged from 5-6% for age 9, 6-10% for age 13, and 10-13% for age 17.

Note that the item asks students how much time they spent on homework “yesterday.”  That phrasing has the benefit of immediacy, asking for an estimate of precise, recent behavior rather than an estimate of general behavior for an extended, unspecified period.  But misleading responses could be generated if teachers lighten the homework of NAEP participants on the night before the NAEP test is given.  That’s possible. [v] Such skewing would not affect trends if it stayed about the same over time and in the same direction (teachers assigning less homework than usual on the day before NAEP).  Put another way, it would affect estimates of the amount of homework at any single point in time but not changes in the amount of homework between two points in time.

A check for possible skewing is to compare the responses above with those to another homework question on the NAEP questionnaire from 1986-2004 but no longer in use. [vi]   It asked students, “How much time do you usually spend on homework each day?” Most of the response categories have different boundaries from the “last night” question, making the data incomparable.  But the categories asking about no homework are comparable.  Responses indicating no homework on the “usual” question in 2004 were: 2% for age 9-year-olds, 5% for 13 year olds, and 12% for 17-year-olds.  These figures are much less than the ones reported in Table 2-1 above.  The “yesterday” data appear to overstate the proportion of students typically receiving no homework.

The story is different for the “heavy homework load” response categories.  The “usual” question reported similar percentages as the “yesterday” question.  The categories representing the most amount of homework were “more than one hour” for age 9 and “more than two hours” for ages 13 and 17.   In 2004, 12% of 9-year-olds said they had more than one hour of daily homework, while 8% of 13-year-olds and 12% of 17-year-olds said they had more than two hours.  For all three age groups, those figures declined from1986 to 2004. The decline for age 17 was quite large, falling from 17% in 1986 to 12% in 2004.  

The bottom line: regardless of how the question is posed, NAEP data do not support the view that the homework burden is growing, nor do they support the belief that the proportion of students with a lot of homework has increased in recent years.  The proportion of students with no homework is probably under-reported on the long-term trend NAEP.  But the upper bound of students with more than two hours of daily homework appears to be about 15%–and that is for students in their final years of high school.

College Freshmen Look Back  

There is another good source of information on high school students’ homework over several decades.  The Higher Education Research Institute at UCLA conducts an annual survey of college freshmen that began in 1966.  In 1986, the survey started asking a series of questions regarding how students spent time in the final year of high school.  Figure 2-1 shows the 2012 percentages for the dominant activities.  More than half of college freshmen say they spent at least six hours per week socializing with friends (66.2%) and exercising/sports (53.0%).  About 40% devoted that much weekly time to paid employment.

Homework comes in fourth pace. Only 38.4% of students said they spent at least six hours per week studying or doing homework. When these students were high school seniors, it was not an activity central to their out of school lives.  That is quite surprising.  Think about it.  The survey is confined to the nation’s best students, those attending college.  Gone are high school dropouts.  Also not included are students who go into the military or attain full time employment immediately after high school.  And yet only a little more than one-third of the sampled students, devoted more than six hours per week to homework and studying when they were on the verge of attending college.

Another notable finding from the UCLA survey is how the statistic is trending (see Figure 2-2).  In 1986, 49.5% reported spending six or more hours per week studying and doing homework.  By 2002, the proportion had dropped to 33.4%.  In 2012, as noted in Figure 2-1, the statistic had bounced off the historical lows to reach 38.4%.  It is slowly rising but still sits sharply below where it was in 1987.

What Do Parents Think?

Met Life has published an annual survey of teachers since 1984.  In 1987 and 2007, the survey included questions focusing on homework and expanded to sample both parents and students on the topic. Data are broken out for secondary and elementary parents and for students in grades 3-6 and grades 7-12 (the latter not being an exact match with secondary parents because of K-8 schools).

Table 2-2 shows estimates of homework from the 2007 survey.  Respondents were asked to estimate the amount of homework on a typical school day (Monday-Friday).  The median estimate of each group of respondents is shaded.  As displayed in the first column, the median estimate for parents of an elementary student is that their child devotes about 30 minutes to homework on the typical weekday.  Slightly more than half (52%) estimate 30 minutes or less; 48% estimate 45 minutes or more.  Students in grades 3-6 (third column) give a median estimate that is a bit higher than their parents’ (45 minutes), with almost two-thirds (63%) saying 45 minutes or less is the typical weekday homework load.

One hour of homework is the median estimate for both secondary parents and students in grade 7-12, with 55% of parents reporting an hour or less and about two-thirds (67%) of students reporting the same.  As for the prevalence of the heaviest homework loads, 11% of secondary parents say their children spend more than two hours on weekday homework, and 12% is the corresponding figure for students in grades 7-12.

The Met Life surveys in 1987 and 2007 asked parents to evaluate the amount and quality of homework.  Table 2-3 displays the results.  There was little change over the two decades separating the two surveys.  More than 60% of parents rate the amount of homework as good or excellent, and about two-thirds give such high ratings to the quality of the homework their children are receiving.  The proportion giving poor ratings to either the quantity or quality of homework did not exceed 10% on either survey.

Parental dissatisfaction with homework comes in two forms: those who feel schools give too much homework and those who feel schools do not give enough.  The current wave of journalism about unhappy parents is dominated by those who feel schools give too much homework.  How big is this group?  Not very big (see Figure 2-3). On the Met Life survey, 60% of parents felt schools were giving the right amount of homework, 25% wanted more homework, and only 15% wanted less.

National surveys on homework are infrequent, but the 2006-2007 period had more than one.  A poll conducted by Public Agenda in 2006 reported similar numbers as the Met Life survey: 68% of parents describing the homework load as “about right,” 20% saying there is “too little homework,” and 11% saying there is “too much homework.”  A 2006 AP-AOL poll found the highest percentage of parents reporting too much homework, 19%.  But even in that poll, they were outnumbered by parents believing there is too little homework (23%), and a clear majority (57%) described the load as “about right.”  A 2010 local survey of Chicago parents conducted by the Chicago Tribune reported figures similar to those reported above: approximately two-thirds of parents saying their children’s homework load is “about right,” 21% saying it’s not enough, and 12% responding that the homework load is too much.

Summary and Discussion

In recent years, the press has been filled with reports of kids over-burdened with homework and parents rebelling against their children’s oppressive workload. The data assembled above call into question whether that portrait is accurate for the typical American family.  Homework typically takes an hour per night.  The homework burden of students rarely exceeds two hours a night.  The upper limit of students with two or more hours per night is about 15% nationally—and that is for juniors or seniors in high school.  For younger children, the upper boundary is about 10% who have such a heavy load.  Polls show that parents who want less homework range from 10%-20%, and that they are outnumbered—in every national poll on the homework question—by parents who want more homework, not less.  The majority of parents describe their children’s homework burden as about right.

So what’s going on?  Where are the homework horror stories coming from?

The Met Life survey of parents is able to give a few hints, mainly because of several questions that extend beyond homework to other aspects of schooling.  The belief that homework is burdensome is more likely held by parents with a larger set of complaints and concerns.  They are alienated from their child’s school.  About two in five parents (19%) don’t believe homework is important.  Compared to other parents, these parents are more likely to say too much homework is assigned (39% vs. 9%), that what is assigned is just busywork (57% vs. 36%), and that homework gets in the way of their family spending time together (51% vs. 15%).  They are less likely to rate the quality of homework as excellent (3% vs. 23%) or to rate the availability and responsiveness of teachers as excellent (18% vs. 38%). [vii]

They can also convince themselves that their numbers are larger than they really are.  Karl Taro Greenfeld, the author of the Atlantic article mentioned above, seems to fit that description.  “Every parent I know in New York City comments on how much homework their children have,” Mr. Greenfeld writes.  As for those parents who do not share this view? “There is always a clique of parents who are happy with the amount of homework. In fact, they would prefer more .  I tend not to get along with that type of parent.” [viii] 

Mr. Greenfeld’s daughter attends a selective exam school in Manhattan, known for its rigorous expectations and, yes, heavy homework load.  He had also complained about homework in his daughter’s previous school in Brentwood, CA.  That school was a charter school.  After Mr. Greenfeld emailed several parents expressing his complaints about homework in that school, the school’s vice-principal accused Mr. Greenfeld of cyberbullying.  The lesson here is that even schools of choice are not immune from complaints about homework.

The homework horror stories need to be read in a proper perspective.  They seem to originate from the very personal discontents of a small group of parents.  They do not reflect the experience of the average family with a school-age child.  That does not diminish these stories’ power to command the attention of school officials or even the public at large. But it also suggests a limited role for policy making in settling such disputes.  Policy is a blunt instrument.  Educators, parents, and kids are in the best position to resolve complaints about homework on a case by case basis.  Complaints about homework have existed for more than a century, and they show no signs of going away.

Part II Notes:

[i]Brian Gill and Steven Schlossman, “A Sin Against Childhood: Progressive Education and the Crusade to Abolish Homework, 1897-1941,” American Journal of Education , vol. 105, no. 1 (Nov., 1996), 27-66.  Also see Brian P. Gill and Steven L. Schlossman, “Villain or Savior? The American Discourse on Homework, 1850-2003,” Theory into Practice , 43, 3 (Summer 2004), pp. 174-181.

[ii] Bennett, Sara, and Nancy Kalish.  The Case Against Homework:  How Homework Is Hurting Our Children and What We Can Do About It   (New York:  Crown, 2006).  Buell, John.  Closing the Book on Homework: Enhancing Public Education and Freeing Family Time . (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2004). Kohn, Alfie.    The Homework Myth:  Why Our Kids Get Too Much of a Bad Thing  (Cambridge, MA: Da Capo Press, 2006).  Kralovec, Etta, and John Buell.  The End of Homework: How Homework Disrupts Families, Overburdens Children, and Limits Learning  (Boston: Beacon Press, 2000).

[iii] Hu, Winnie, “ New Recruit in Homework Revolt: The Principal ,” New York Times , June 15, 2011, page a1.

[iv] Data for other years are available on the NAEP Data Explorer.  For Table 1, the starting point of 1984 was chosen because it is the first year all three ages were asked the homework question.  The two most recent dates (2012 and 2008) were chosen to show recent changes, and the two years in the 1990s to show developments during that decade.

[v] NAEP’s sampling design lessens the probability of skewing the homework figure.  Students are randomly drawn from a school population, meaning that an entire class is not tested.  Teachers would have to either single out NAEP students for special homework treatment or change their established homework routine for the whole class just to shelter NAEP participants from homework.  Sampling designs that draw entact classrooms for testing (such as TIMSS) would be more vulnerable to this effect.  Moreover, students in middle and high school usually have several different teachers during the day, meaning that prior knowledge of a particular student’s participation in NAEP would probably be limited to one or two teachers.

[vi] NAEP Question B003801 for 9 year olds and B003901 for 13- and 17-year olds.

[vii] Met Life, Met Life Survey of the American Teacher: The Homework Experience , November 13, 2007, pp. 21-22.

[viii] Greenfeld, Karl Taro, “ My Daughter’s Homework Is Killing Me ,” The Atlantic , September 18, 2013.

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How Much Homework Do American Kids Do?

Various factors, from the race of the student to the number of years a teacher has been in the classroom, affect a child's homework load.

In his Atlantic essay , Karl Taro Greenfeld laments his 13-year-old daughter's heavy homework load. As an eighth grader at a New York middle school, Greenfeld’s daughter averaged about three hours of homework per night and adopted mantras like “memorization, not rationalization” to help her get it all done. Tales of the homework-burdened American student have become common, but are these stories the exception or the rule?

A 2007 Metlife study found that 45 percent of students in grades three to 12 spend more than an hour a night doing homework, including the six percent of students who report spending more than three hours a night on their homework. In the 2002-2003 school year, a study out of the University of Michigan found that American students ages six through 17 spent three hours and 38 minutes per week doing homework.

A range of factors plays into how much homework each individual student gets:

Older students do more homework than their younger counterparts.

This one is fairly obvious: The National Education Association recommends that homework time increase by ten minutes per year in school. (e.g., A third grader would have 30 minutes of homework, while a seventh grader would have 70 minutes).

Studies have found that schools tend to roughly follow these guidelines: The University of Michigan found that students ages six to eight spend 29 minutes doing homework per night while 15- to 17-year-old students spend 50 minutes doing homework. The Metlife study also found that 50 percent of students in grades seven to 12 spent more than an hour a night on homework, while 37 percent of students in grades three to six spent an hour or more on their homework per night. The National Center for Educational Statistics found that high school students who do homework outside of school average 6.8 hours of homework per week.

Race plays a role in how much homework students do.

Asian students spend 3.5 more hours on average doing homework per week than their white peers. However, only 59 percent of Asian students’ parents check that homework is done, while 75.6 percent of Hispanic students’ parents and 83.1 percent of black students’ parents check.

Teachers with less experience assign more homework.

The Metlife study found that 14 percent of teachers with zero to five years of teaching experience assigned more than an hour of homework per night, while only six percent of teachers with 21 or more years of teaching experience assigned over an hour of homework.

Math classes have homework the most frequently.

The Metlife study found that 70 percent of students in grades three to 12 had at least one homework assignment in math. Sixty-two percent had at least one homework assignment in a language arts class (English, reading, spelling, or creative writing courses) and 42 percent had at least one in a science class.

Regardless of how much homework kids are actually doing every night, most parents and teachers are happy with the way things are: 60 percent of parents think that their children have the “right amount of homework,” and 73 percent of teachers think their school assigns the right amount of homework.

Students, however, are not necessarily on board: 38 percent of students in grades seven through 12 and 28 percent of students in grades three through six report being “very often/often” stressed out by their homework.

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Students spend three times longer on homework than average, survey reveals

Sonya Kulkarni and Pallavi Gorantla | Jan 9, 2022

Graphic by Sonya Kulkarni

The National Education Association and the National Parent Teacher Association have suggested that a healthy number of hours that students should be spending can be determined by the “10-minute rule.” This means that each grade level should have a maximum homework time incrementing by 10 minutes depending on their grade level (for instance, ninth-graders would have 90 minutes of homework, 10th-graders should have 100 minutes, and so on).

As ‘finals week’ rapidly approaches, students not only devote effort to attaining their desired exam scores but make a last attempt to keep or change the grade they have for semester one by making up homework assignments.

High schoolers reported doing an average of 2.7 hours of homework per weeknight, according to a study by the Washington Post from 2018 to 2020 of over 50,000 individuals. A survey of approximately 200 Bellaire High School students revealed that some students spend over three times this number.

The demographics of this survey included 34 freshmen, 43 sophomores, 54 juniors and 54 seniors on average.

When asked how many hours students spent on homework in a day on average, answers ranged from zero to more than nine with an average of about four hours. In contrast, polled students said that about one hour of homework would constitute a healthy number of hours.

Junior Claire Zhang said she feels academically pressured in her AP schedule, but not necessarily by the classes.

“The class environment in AP classes can feel pressuring because everyone is always working hard and it makes it difficult to keep up sometimes.” Zhang said.

A total of 93 students reported that the minimum grade they would be satisfied with receiving in a class would be an A. This was followed by 81 students, who responded that a B would be the minimum acceptable grade. 19 students responded with a C and four responded with a D.

“I am happy with the classes I take, but sometimes it can be very stressful to try to keep up,” freshman Allyson Nguyen said. “I feel academically pressured to keep an A in my classes.”

Up to 152 students said that grades are extremely important to them, while 32 said they generally are more apathetic about their academic performance.

Last year, nine valedictorians graduated from Bellaire. They each achieved a grade point average of 5.0. HISD has never seen this amount of valedictorians in one school, and as of now there are 14 valedictorians.

“I feel that it does degrade the title of valedictorian because as long as a student knows how to plan their schedule accordingly and make good grades in the classes, then anyone can be valedictorian,” Zhang said.

Bellaire offers classes like physical education and health in the summer. These summer classes allow students to skip the 4.0 class and not put it on their transcript. Some electives also have a 5.0 grade point average like debate.

Close to 200 students were polled about Bellaire having multiple valedictorians. They primarily answered that they were in favor of Bellaire having multiple valedictorians, which has recently attracted significant acclaim .

Senior Katherine Chen is one of the 14 valedictorians graduating this year and said that she views the class of 2022 as having an extraordinary amount of extremely hardworking individuals.

“I think it was expected since freshman year since most of us knew about the others and were just focused on doing our personal best,” Chen said.

Chen said that each valedictorian achieved the honor on their own and deserves it.

“I’m honestly very happy for the other valedictorians and happy that Bellaire is such a good school,” Chen said. “I don’t feel any less special with 13 other valedictorians.”

Nguyen said that having multiple valedictorians shows just how competitive the school is.

“It’s impressive, yet scary to think about competing against my classmates,” Nguyen said.

Offering 30 AP classes and boasting a significant number of merit-based scholars Bellaire can be considered a competitive school.

“I feel academically challenged but not pressured,” Chen said. “Every class I take helps push me beyond my comfort zone but is not too much to handle.”

Students have the opportunity to have off-periods if they’ve met all their credits and are able to maintain a high level of academic performance. But for freshmen like Nguyen, off periods are considered a privilege. Nguyen said she usually has an hour to five hours worth of work everyday.

“Depending on the day, there can be a lot of work, especially with extra curriculars,” Nguyen said. “Although, I am a freshman, so I feel like it’s not as bad in comparison to higher grades.”

According to the survey of Bellaire students, when asked to evaluate their agreement with the statement “students who get better grades tend to be smarter overall than students who get worse grades,” responders largely disagreed.

Zhang said that for students on the cusp of applying to college, it can sometimes be hard to ignore the mental pressure to attain good grades.

“As a junior, it’s really easy to get extremely anxious about your GPA,” Zhang said. “It’s also a very common but toxic practice to determine your self-worth through your grades but I think that we just need to remember that our mental health should also come first. Sometimes, it’s just not the right day for everyone and one test doesn’t determine our smartness.”

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Anonymous • Nov 21, 2023 at 10:32 am

It’s not really helping me understand how much.

josh • May 9, 2023 at 9:58 am

Kassie • May 6, 2022 at 12:29 pm

Im using this for an English report. This is great because on of my sources needed to be from another student. Homework drives me insane. Im glad this is very updated too!!

Kaylee Swaim • Jan 25, 2023 at 9:21 pm

I am also using this for an English report. I have to do an argumentative essay about banning homework in schools and this helps sooo much!

Izzy McAvaney • Mar 15, 2023 at 6:43 pm

I am ALSO using this for an English report on cutting down school days, homework drives me insane!!

E. Elliott • Apr 25, 2022 at 6:42 pm

I’m from Louisiana and am actually using this for an English Essay thanks for the information it was very informative.

Nabila Wilson • Jan 10, 2022 at 6:56 pm

Interesting with the polls! I didn’t realize about 14 valedictorians, that’s crazy.

The Bottom Line ‘Equity’ in Education: Equal Opportunity or Equal Outcome?

K-12 public education nationwide is fixated on the term “equity.” It’s been added to many public school mission statements and core values, but the positive-sounding term means something more — and something more destructive — than providing equal opportunity for students.

Identifying and labeling students based on their socioeconomic and ethnic or race group dominates the education conversation, with group academic performance based on these demographics the frequent focus. Any differences in academic performance between demographic groups (especially based on race) are labeled “achievement gaps,” the remedy for which is more equity. But what does equity really mean?

Redefining Equity to Mandate Outcomes

Under the guise of “equity,” the goal of helping all children have an opportunity for success has now become a demand for uniformity in student performance outcomes. Vice President Kamala Harris pushes this redefinition of equity, which traditionally has meant, according to Merriam-Webster, “freedom from bias or favoritism.” In a November 1, 2020, tweet , she stated, “There’s a big difference between equality and equity.” According to Harris, equality is problematic because it suggests “everyone should get the same amount.” Instead, she advocates “equitable treatment,” which to her “means we all end up in the same place.” In essence, Harris advocates for a system in which disparities are eliminated by treating people not equally, but with favoritism or bias — a view that conflicts with the concept of equity as it has traditionally been defined and accepted.

Dr. Ben Carson provides important context to this equity redefinition:

There has been a subtle shift in the conversation: Its focus has moved from equality to equity. That is, instead of pursuing the Rev. Martin Luther King Jr.’s ideal of judging people by the content of their character rather than the color of their skin, equity would reward and punish people because of the color of their skin. Rather than equality of opportunity, equity would mandate equality of outcome. This goal is not only un-American — it is impossible to attain. Dr. Ben Carson

The equity redefinition effort goes hand in hand with Critical Race Theory, which posits all racial disparities are products of discrimination, either past or present. It claims the system alone produces disparities, with government intervention required to correct the disparities. As Ibram Kendi, author of How to Be an Antiracist , puts it, “The only remedy to past discrimination is present discrimination. The only remedy to present discrimination is future discrimination.” This thinking, which has roots in Marxism, is increasingly becoming part of the curriculum in American schools.

A growing number of people argue systemic racism is the primary or even the sole reason for varied achievement results between ethnic or race groups. In essence, they allege that the “basic American value of equality of opportunity — that the rules should apply equally to everyone, regardless of race — is racist, because equality of opportunity doesn’t always produce equality of results . The solution is ‘equity,’ or attempting to achieve equality of results through discrimination.” In turn, the claim of systemic racism is used to support policies that undo equal treatment of children.

Lowering Student Expectations

Part of the new drive for “equity” is the lowering of student expectations. In past decades, it was taken for granted that students should be allowed to pursue reaching their full potential, and that high expectations were foundational to students’ achieving their potential.

Today, however, high achieving students are constrained by low expectations. Nationwide, schools are either removing challenging courses for high-performing students or threatening to do so unless a sharp increase of students of certain skin colors can be found who academically qualify and demonstrate an interest in participating. This includes courses designed for the gifted and talented, including Advanced Placement courses. These offerings are deemed inequitable simply due to differing participation levels by certain socioeconomic or ethnic or race groups.

Karol Markowicz writes , “The idea that because students don’t represent the right racial mix, programs need to be scrapped is noxious. What message does that send black or Hispanic kids in advanced classes? That there aren’t enough people who look like you taking these classes, so you don’t deserve curriculum appropriate for your level?”

Consider for a moment if a school were to cut the basketball program because not enough Asian or white players made the team. Or imagine a cross country or track coach restricted from offering more experienced or advanced runners tougher training workouts geared to their higher capabilities. Though perhaps well-intentioned, the move to eliminate courses designed for high performers will be detrimental to education. The opportunity to foster hard work, determination, perseverance, and mental toughness — valuable qualities for life — are lost in lowering student expectations. 

Disparities Do Not Equal Discrimination

It’s not systemic racism, but instead, our antiquated factory model education system, designed more than one hundred years ago, that is failing students. The model is based on a false premise that students are all the same, and therefore a one-size-fits-all system will produce the desired outcome among all students. 

It’s not systemic racism, but instead, our antiquated factory model education system, designed more than one hundred years ago, that is failing students. Keri D. Ingraham

The approach defies basic logic. Students vary widely in their interests, gifts, creativity, experiences, and home life — all of which contribute toward learning readiness. The uniqueness of each individual also affects the way he or she learn.

Common sense, supported by overwhelming empirical evidence, reveals that educational performance is the result of many factors, some of which start at birth. These include the value of education within the home, the degree of parent involvement in the child’s learning, and the amount of time spent on homework. Thus, the educational culture of the family plays a significant role in student performance.

For example, looking at time spent on homework among ethnic and race groups and socioeconomic groups, the data reveals that Asian students devote roughly twice as much time daily to homework than their white peers. And white students spend almost twice as much time on homework per day than black peers. Low-income students spend less time on homework than students from higher-income households.

According to Thomas Sowell, family makeup also affects the IQ of students. For example, children raised by two parents tend to have higher IQ scores than children raised by only one parent, and firstborn children have higher IQs (as well as future economic success) than their siblings. Parental time and attention to their children is of paramount importance, outweighing factors such as race and socioeconomic status.

Why then is a supposed lack of equity or claim of systemic racism within schools dominating the educational conversation? It provides an easy accusatory excuse for not dealing with the underlying realities that require personal responsibility and accountability on the part of students, parents, and educators for individual student learning results.

So What Can Be Done?

Our K-12 schools are doing a tragic disservice to students by championing a notion of equity aimed at forcing equal outcome instead of equal opportunity.

Again, Dr. Carson gives sage advice:

Rather than harking back to days of racism as a policy, we must continue to promote programs and policies that provide equal opportunity and better outcomes. Rather than teach our children that they are victims of a racist system…we should teach them that they are in charge of their own dignity and their own future. Instead of treating people only as representatives of larger groups, let’s get back to treating people as individuals. Dr. Ben Carson

Following his advice will require high expectations for all students and an educational system in which students are provided personalized learning and advance based on demonstrated subject mastery rather than grade level seat time. The result will be students prepared for life and a viable career, regardless of their socioeconomic status or ethnicity or race. It’s no time to lower the bar. Instead, we should aim to ensure all students reach their unique potential.

While equity may be a popular term, would most Americans agree with the underlining concept represented by its altered definition? Do we want a world in which everyone is guaranteed to have the same outcome, regardless of their abilities, interests, motivation, and work ethic? What will be the outcome in terms of personal responsibility, purpose, drive, and growth if we accept the new view of equity? And what will be the impact on our country if we flip on its head the value of equal opportunity we have historically embraced, and which has made us free and prosperous? The negative implications for individuals, families, communities, and our country are unimaginable.

• achievement gap
• Critical Race Theory
• discrimination
• equal opportunity
• equal outcome
• equitable treatment
• ethnic groups
• gifted and talented
• high achieving students
• homework time
• K-12 education
• lowering student expectations
• public education
• public schools
• race groups
• racial disparities
• redefining equity
• socioeconomic status
• student learning outcomes
• systemic racism
• Thomas Sowell
• time spent on homework
• unique student potential

Is Homework Good for Kids? Here’s What the Research Says

A s kids return to school, debate is heating up once again over how they should spend their time after they leave the classroom for the day.

The no-homework policy of a second-grade teacher in Texas went viral last week , earning praise from parents across the country who lament the heavy workload often assigned to young students. Brandy Young told parents she would not formally assign any homework this year, asking students instead to eat dinner with their families, play outside and go to bed early.

But the question of how much work children should be doing outside of school remains controversial, and plenty of parents take issue with no-homework policies, worried their kids are losing a potential academic advantage. Here’s what you need to know:

For decades, the homework standard has been a “10-minute rule,” which recommends a daily maximum of 10 minutes of homework per grade level. Second graders, for example, should do about 20 minutes of homework each night. High school seniors should complete about two hours of homework each night. The National PTA and the National Education Association both support that guideline.

But some schools have begun to give their youngest students a break. A Massachusetts elementary school has announced a no-homework pilot program for the coming school year, lengthening the school day by two hours to provide more in-class instruction. “We really want kids to go home at 4 o’clock, tired. We want their brain to be tired,” Kelly Elementary School Principal Jackie Glasheen said in an interview with a local TV station . “We want them to enjoy their families. We want them to go to soccer practice or football practice, and we want them to go to bed. And that’s it.”

A New York City public elementary school implemented a similar policy last year, eliminating traditional homework assignments in favor of family time. The change was quickly met with outrage from some parents, though it earned support from other education leaders.

New solutions and approaches to homework differ by community, and these local debates are complicated by the fact that even education experts disagree about what’s best for kids.

The research

The most comprehensive research on homework to date comes from a 2006 meta-analysis by Duke University psychology professor Harris Cooper, who found evidence of a positive correlation between homework and student achievement, meaning students who did homework performed better in school. The correlation was stronger for older students—in seventh through 12th grade—than for those in younger grades, for whom there was a weak relationship between homework and performance.

Cooper’s analysis focused on how homework impacts academic achievement—test scores, for example. His report noted that homework is also thought to improve study habits, attitudes toward school, self-discipline, inquisitiveness and independent problem solving skills. On the other hand, some studies he examined showed that homework can cause physical and emotional fatigue, fuel negative attitudes about learning and limit leisure time for children. At the end of his analysis, Cooper recommended further study of such potential effects of homework.

Despite the weak correlation between homework and performance for young children, Cooper argues that a small amount of homework is useful for all students. Second-graders should not be doing two hours of homework each night, he said, but they also shouldn’t be doing no homework.

Not all education experts agree entirely with Cooper’s assessment.

Cathy Vatterott, an education professor at the University of Missouri-St. Louis, supports the “10-minute rule” as a maximum, but she thinks there is not sufficient proof that homework is helpful for students in elementary school.

“Correlation is not causation,” she said. “Does homework cause achievement, or do high achievers do more homework?”

Vatterott, the author of Rethinking Homework: Best Practices That Support Diverse Needs , thinks there should be more emphasis on improving the quality of homework tasks, and she supports efforts to eliminate homework for younger kids.

“I have no concerns about students not starting homework until fourth grade or fifth grade,” she said, noting that while the debate over homework will undoubtedly continue, she has noticed a trend toward limiting, if not eliminating, homework in elementary school.

The issue has been debated for decades. A TIME cover in 1999 read: “Too much homework! How it’s hurting our kids, and what parents should do about it.” The accompanying story noted that the launch of Sputnik in 1957 led to a push for better math and science education in the U.S. The ensuing pressure to be competitive on a global scale, plus the increasingly demanding college admissions process, fueled the practice of assigning homework.

“The complaints are cyclical, and we’re in the part of the cycle now where the concern is for too much,” Cooper said. “You can go back to the 1970s, when you’ll find there were concerns that there was too little, when we were concerned about our global competitiveness.”

Cooper acknowledged that some students really are bringing home too much homework, and their parents are right to be concerned.

“A good way to think about homework is the way you think about medications or dietary supplements,” he said. “If you take too little, they’ll have no effect. If you take too much, they can kill you. If you take the right amount, you’ll get better.”

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Does homework really work?

by: Leslie Crawford | Updated: December 12, 2023

Print article

You know the drill. It’s 10:15 p.m., and the cardboard-and-toothpick Golden Gate Bridge is collapsing. The pages of polynomials have been abandoned. The paper on the Battle of Waterloo seems to have frozen in time with Napoleon lingering eternally over his breakfast at Le Caillou. Then come the tears and tantrums — while we parents wonder, Does the gain merit all this pain? Is this just too much homework?

However the drama unfolds night after night, year after year, most parents hold on to the hope that homework (after soccer games, dinner, flute practice, and, oh yes, that childhood pastime of yore known as playing) advances their children academically.

But what does homework really do for kids? Is the forest’s worth of book reports and math and spelling sheets the average American student completes in their 12 years of primary schooling making a difference? Or is it just busywork?

Homework haterz

Whether or not homework helps, or even hurts, depends on who you ask. If you ask my 12-year-old son, Sam, he’ll say, “Homework doesn’t help anything. It makes kids stressed-out and tired and makes them hate school more.”

Nothing more than common kid bellyaching?

Maybe, but in the fractious field of homework studies, it’s worth noting that Sam’s sentiments nicely synopsize one side of the ivory tower debate. Books like The End of Homework , The Homework Myth , and The Case Against Homework the film Race to Nowhere , and the anguished parent essay “ My Daughter’s Homework is Killing Me ” make the case that homework, by taking away precious family time and putting kids under unneeded pressure, is an ineffective way to help children become better learners and thinkers.

One Canadian couple took their homework apostasy all the way to the Supreme Court of Canada. After arguing that there was no evidence that it improved academic performance, they won a ruling that exempted their two children from all homework.

So what’s the real relationship between homework and academic achievement?

How much is too much?

To answer this question, researchers have been doing their homework on homework, conducting and examining hundreds of studies. Chris Drew Ph.D., founder and editor at The Helpful Professor recently compiled multiple statistics revealing the folly of today’s after-school busy work. Does any of the data he listed below ring true for you?

• 45 percent of parents think homework is too easy for their child, primarily because it is geared to the lowest standard under the Common Core State Standards .

• 74 percent of students say homework is a source of stress , defined as headaches, exhaustion, sleep deprivation, weight loss, and stomach problems.

• Students in high-performing high schools spend an average of 3.1 hours a night on homework , even though 1 to 2 hours is the optimal duration, according to a peer-reviewed study .

Not included in the list above is the fact many kids have to abandon activities they love — like sports and clubs — because homework deprives them of the needed time to enjoy themselves with other pursuits.

Conversely, The Helpful Professor does list a few pros of homework, noting it teaches discipline and time management, and helps parents know what’s being taught in the class.

The oft-bandied rule on homework quantity — 10 minutes a night per grade (starting from between 10 to 20 minutes in first grade) — is listed on the National Education Association’s website and the National Parent Teacher Association’s website , but few schools follow this rule.

Do you think your child is doing excessive homework? Harris Cooper Ph.D., author of a meta-study on homework , recommends talking with the teacher. “Often there is a miscommunication about the goals of homework assignments,” he says. “What appears to be problematic for kids, why they are doing an assignment, can be cleared up with a conversation.” Also, Cooper suggests taking a careful look at how your child is doing the assignments. It may seem like they’re taking two hours, but maybe your child is wandering off frequently to get a snack or getting distracted.

Less is often more

If your child is dutifully doing their work but still burning the midnight oil, it’s worth intervening to make sure your child gets enough sleep. A 2012 study of 535 high school students found that proper sleep may be far more essential to brain and body development.

For elementary school-age children, Cooper’s research at Duke University shows there is no measurable academic advantage to homework. For middle-schoolers, Cooper found there is a direct correlation between homework and achievement if assignments last between one to two hours per night. After two hours, however, achievement doesn’t improve. For high schoolers, Cooper’s research suggests that two hours per night is optimal. If teens have more than two hours of homework a night, their academic success flatlines. But less is not better. The average high school student doing homework outperformed 69 percent of the students in a class with no homework.

Many schools are starting to act on this research. A Florida superintendent abolished homework in her 42,000 student district, replacing it with 20 minutes of nightly reading. She attributed her decision to “ solid research about what works best in improving academic achievement in students .”

More family time

A 2020 survey by Crayola Experience reports 82 percent of children complain they don’t have enough quality time with their parents. Homework deserves much of the blame. “Kids should have a chance to just be kids and do things they enjoy, particularly after spending six hours a day in school,” says Alfie Kohn, author of The Homework Myth . “It’s absurd to insist that children must be engaged in constructive activities right up until their heads hit the pillow.”

By far, the best replacement for homework — for both parents and children — is bonding, relaxing time together.

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How the Cold War Space Race Led to US Students Doing Tons of Homework

By: Dave Roos

Published: August 13, 2019

Middle-schoolers who trudge home each day with a 50-pound backpack and hours of homework would have had an easier time in 1901. That’s when the anti-homework movement was at its peak and the state of California actually banned all homework for grades below high school.

From the late 19th century through the Great Depression , homework was a popular punching bag of the progressive education movement, a “child-centered” approach championed by psychologist and reformer John Dewey . Not only was homework a waste of time, progressive educators believed, but it was detrimental to children’s health. 

By 1948, only 8 percent of American high school students reported studying for two or more hours each night. Homework might have remained in the educational doghouse if not for the arrival of the Cold War , and specifically, the Soviet Union’s launch of Sputnik in 1957.

To the horror of many Americans, the Space Race was being won by communist scientists from the Soviet Union.

“This elicited widespread fear that we were being undone by our schools,” says Steven Schlossman, a historian at Carnegie Mellon University. “How could it be that the Soviets had gotten there faster? They must have better schools that are training their kids to become scientists on a higher level. America now had to integrate schools into our thinking about national defense policy.”

As far as education was concerned, there was plenty of rethinking to do. Around the late 19th century, with the arrival of waves of immigrants, officials had begun shifting public education policies to best serve the rapidly changing face of America.

Until then, Schlossman says most schoolwork revolved around drill, memorization and recitation. Kids were expected to “say their lessons,” which meant memorizing long passages of history texts and poetry, drilling math problems, and reciting it all out loud in class. All of that memorization and recitation meant hours of practice at home every night. But as America and its students became more diverse, the rigidity of rote memorization seemed insufficient.

If schools were going to offer equal education opportunities for all students, they needed to do it scientifically, and the leading educational minds of the day were fascinated with the emerging fields of psychology and child development.

Progressive's Push Against Homework

Popular turn-of-the-century women’s magazines like The Ladies Home Journal published studies showing that drilling of spelling words didn’t improve children’s overall spelling ability, and its editors promoted more “natural” patterns of child learning and growth. These new ideas about what’s best for kids’ education were picked up by organizations like the National Congress of Mothers, a group formed in 1897 that would become the National Parent Teachers Association (PTA).

It didn’t take long for this increasingly vocal movement of child psychologists and concerned moms to identify public enemy number one.

“The first thing that had to be changed in schooling was this old-fashioned way of doing homework, which was antithetical to children’s natural growth qualities,” says Schlossman. “Homework took on a broader symbolic meaning for ‘out with the old and in with the new.’”

That’s why the California legislature voted in 1901 to abolish all homework for students 14 and younger, a move followed by dozens of large cities and school districts across the country.

The anti-homework argument of the progressive education movement further contended that hours of homework robbed children of outdoor play, considered essential to healthy physical and emotional development.

“For the elementary school child and the junior high school child,” concluded a 1930s study , homework was nothing less than “legalized criminality.” The American Child Health Association equated homework with child labor in 1930, claiming that both practices were “chief causes of the high death and morbidity rates from tuberculosis and heart disease among adolescents.”

By the 1940s, nightly homework levels had dropped to all-time lows.

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More Americans Finish High School During Great Depression

But then came World War II and another set of demographic and societal shifts that would again demand changes in American public education. Starting with the Great Depression when jobs were scarce, more American kids started staying in school through high school, and with the post-war baby boom , unprecedented numbers of students entered the nation’s school systems with expectations of reaching high school and beyond.

“High school was now for everybody,” says Schlossman. “This is really important. The idea of a high-school education as a ladder for success really takes root in post-World War II period.”

Even before Cold War anxieties kicked in in the 1950s, there was a growing sentiment among educators that the high-school curriculum needed an upgrade. Standards needed to be raised and teaching methods rethought. If more kids planned on going to college, homework would have to be part of the equation.

But no single event rocketed homework back into the national conversation quite like the launching of Sputnik 1, humankind’s first artificial satellite to reach Earth’s orbit. The response from the U.S. federal government was swift. In 1958, just a year after Sputnik, Congress passed the National Defense Education Act (NDEA), a $1-billion spending package to bolster high-quality teaching and learning in science, mathematics and foreign languages.

A report from the House of Representatives supporting passage of the NDEA read: “It is no exaggeration to say that America’s progress in many fields of endeavor in the years ahead—in fact, the very survival of our free country—may depend in large part upon the education we provide for our young people now.”

Funding from the NDEA helped develop ambitious new high school curriculums, including what became known as the “new math.” Top academics, scientists and educational psychologists teamed up to create a new American public education mandate that would later be called the “academic excellence” movement. And homework was front and center.

Just as the academic excellence movement promoted a deeper and more hands-on approach to math and science in the classroom, homework at all levels had to be more than memorization and mindless drills. It needed to promote creative problem-solving and analytical thinking.

The NDEA investment had immediate effects. By 1962, 23 percent of high-school juniors reported doing two or more hours of homework a night, nearly twice as many as in 1957, the year of Sputnik.

Still, the Sputnik homework bump didn’t last long. The counterculture movement of the late 1960s encouraged students to question authority, and nothing sticks it to “the man” quite like skipping your homework. By 1972, the percentage of high-schoolers doing two or more hours of homework a day dropped back below 10 percent.

Homework Drive Revived Under Reagan

There was another attempt in the early 1980s to revive homework as part of a second-wave academic excellence movement under the Reagan administration. A report called A Nation at Risk warned in Cold-War terms of the potential fallout from a failed education system.

“...[T]he educational foundations of our society are presently being eroded by a rising tide of mediocrity that threatens our very future as a Nation and a people,” wrote the report’s authors. 

Schlossman says that this second academic excellence push did little to move the needle significantly on homework, flattening out at around 12 percent of high-schoolers clocking two or more hours a day by the mid-1980s.

“The homework movement of the 1980s was cast as a character reform movement, almost like a moral enterprise,” says Schlossman. “It didn’t have the intellectual expectations of the 1950s and 1960s.”

In more recent times, a 2016 analysis by the National Center for Education Statistics found that U.S. high school students spent an average of 7.5 hours on homework each week—averaging about 1.5 hours per day. While that was up from an average of 6.6 hours in 2012, it remained an easier lift that what students took on during the heady days of the Cold War. 

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Red Bull announce strong statement over Newey departure claims

Red Bull have responded to reports that legendary engineer Adrian Newey will be leaving the team.

It was announced on Thursday that the 65-year-old is set to depart the Milton Keynes-based squad due to the situation surrounding team principal Christian Horner .

READ MORE: Hamilton dealt major Newey blow as shock COMPLICATION revealed

Horner was cleared of any wrongdoing following an internal investigation by the team’s parent company after he was accused of ‘inappropriate behaviour’ towards a female colleague.

However, Newey is said to be unsettled by the matter which has caused a power struggle within the team involving the Thai side of the ownership (who backed Horner) and Red Bull GmbH (who initially wanted to remove Horner from his position).

Red Bull's response to Newey departure reports

Newey has built title winning cars with Williams and McLaren and has been a stalwart for Red Bull since he joined the team in 2006, designing the cars that won them their seven drivers’ titles and six constructors’ championships.

It has been reported that the Brit may be allowed to leave the team at the end of the season , with several teams no doubt keeping tabs on the situation.

However, as per Reuters , Red Bull have reiterated that Newey is under contract with the team until the end of 2025.

A spokesman from Red Bull added that they were ‘unaware of him joining any other team’.

Newey has been heavily linked with a move to Ferrari and Aston Martin are believed to have made an ambitious offer to try and land his signature.

READ MORE: F1 team set to axe BOTH star drivers

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NASCAR at Dover race 2024: Start time, TV, live stream, lineup for Würth 400

NASCAR drivers face the Monster Mile this weekend as the Cup Series speeds into Dover Motor Speedway .

This will be the only race this season at Dover, but it does feature the return of the track’s all-time wins leader: Jimmy Johnson . The seven-time Cup Series champion and now Legacy Motor Club co-owner will pilot the No. 84 Toyota for his team at an oval where he has won 11 times – four more than the next closest driver.

But Legacy Motor Club will be without full-time driver Erik Jones after he was diagnosed with a compression fracture in his lower back following a crash last weekend at Talladega Superspeedway. Corey Heim, the team's reserve driver, will substitute for Jones in the No. 43 Toyota.

Sunday’s race, however, could come down to another battle between Hendrick Motorsports and Joe Gibbs Racing, who have combined to win eight of the 10 races held so far this season . The two teams have dominated the Monster Mile for the past decade. Since the 2013 fall race at Dover, Hendrick or Gibbs drivers have won 14 of 18 Cup Series races held at the Delaware track.

Who will celebrate with Miles the Monster on Sunday? Here is all the information you need to get ready for the Würth 400:

What time does the Cup race at Dover start?

The Würth 400 starts at 2 p.m. ET at Dover Motor Speedway in Dover, Delaware.

What TV channel is the Cup race at Dover on?

Fox Sports 1 (FS1) is broadcasting the Würth 400 and has a pre-race show beginning at 1 p.m. ET.

Will there be a live stream of the Cup race at Dover?

The Würth 400 can be live streamed on the  FoxSports website  and on the FoxSports app.

How many laps is the Cup race at Dover?

The Würth 400 is 400 laps around the 1-mile track for a total of 400 miles. The race will feature three segments (laps per stage) — Stage 1: 120 laps; Stage 2: 130 laps; Stage 3: 150 laps.

Who won the most recent race at Dover?

Martin Truex Jr. led 68 of the final 69 laps on May 1, 2023 and held off Ross Chastain by 0.505 seconds for his fourth career win at Dover – the most among active Cup Series drivers.

What is the lineup for the Würth 400 at Dover?

(Car number in parentheses)

1. (8) Kyle Busch, Chevrolet

2. (12) Ryan Blaney, Ford

3. (24) William Byron, Chevrolet

4. (45) Tyler Reddick, Toyota

5. (10) Noah Gragson, Ford

6. (11) Denny Hamlin, Toyota

7. (14) Chase Briscoe, Ford

8. (34) Michael McDowell, Ford

9. (48) Alex Bowman, Chevrolet

10. (16) AJ Allmendinger, Chevrolet

11. (2) Austin Cindric, Ford

12. (4) Josh Berry, Ford

13. (22) Joey Logano, Ford

14. (31) Daniel Hemric, Chevrolet

15. (19) Martin Truex Jr., Toyota

16. (23) Bubba Wallace, Toyota

17. (47) Ricky Stenhouse Jr., Chevrolet

18. (17) Chris Buescher, Ford

19. (54) Ty Gibbs, Toyota

20. (77) Carson Hocevar, Chevrolet

21. (5) Kyle Larson, Chevrolet

22. (1) Ross Chastain, Chevrolet

23. (3) Austin Dillon, Chevrolet

24. (6) Brad Keselowski, Ford

25. (7) Corey LaJoie, Chevrolet

26. (21) Harrison Burton, Ford

27. (84) Jimmie Johnson, Toyota

28. (41) Ryan Preece, Ford

29. (9) Chase Elliott, Chevrolet

30. (38) Todd Gilliland, Ford

31. (99) Daniel Suarez, Chevrolet

32. (43) Corey Heim, Toyota

33. (20) Christopher Bell, Toyota

34. (42) John Hunter Nemechek, Toyota

35. (15) Kaz Grala, Ford

36. (51) Justin Haley, Ford

37. (71) Zane Smith, Chevrolet

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What to watch in sunday’s nascar cup race at dover.

• John Newby ,

NASCAR is at Dover Motor Speedway on Sunday afternoon race (2 p.m. ET on FS1).

This is the lone race at the 1-mile banked concrete oval, which will provide multiple past champions with an opportunity to break winless streaks.

Here are the three things to watch in today’s race:

MORE: Dover starting lineup

More: details for sunday’s race, 1. getting back on track.

Last season, Kyle Busch won twice in his first 10 races with Richard Childress Racing. He added a third win before reaching the midpoint of the season.

This season has been the opposite experience for the two-time Cup Series champion. Busch has only finished inside the top 10 in three races — Atlanta, Circuit of the Americas and Texas. He has finished 20th or worse in five other races while falling to 17th in points.

“I feel like the last couple of weeks, the discussions at RCR, me and Randall (Burnett), everybody, has just kind of been like, ‘Okay, let’s get some sort of a reset going here,’” Busch said after winning the pole.

“We feel like Dover and Kansas are certainly those weeks for us that we definitely want to work towards and put our focus on to get ourselves righted, and it seems to be going well, so far.”

Busch started first for last season’s Cup race at Dover after rain washed out qualifying. He led 25 laps but was penalized for speeding on pit road. He finished 21st.

Sunday is another opportunity for Busch, a three-time Dover winner. He starts from the pole at the track where he has led 1,341 laps in his career.

A strong run could help Busch and Richard Childress Racing get the season back on track. Busch seeks his 64th career win and his 20th consecutive season with a win.

“We already passed the Daytona 500 and I didn’t check that box (of winning), so the next box to check highest on the list is to get a win this year to just continue that streak,” Busch said. “From there, of course you’re never settled or never happy with just one. You want to have more.”

2. A rookie debut

Erik Jones will not be in the No. 43 Legacy Motor Club Toyota Camry on Sunday at Dover. He is recovering from a compression fracture in his back. Instead, Truck Series driver Corey Heim will take over and make his Cup debut.

Heim is the simulation driver and reserve driver for Legacy MC. He is the first driver called upon if Jones or John Hunter Nemechek can’t suit up for any reason.

Heim has familiarity with the team but he had no real experience in a Cup car before Saturday’s practice session. Heim also had little national series experience at Dover considering that his two Xfinity starts ended early due to engine failures.

“I would be lying to you if I wasn’t a little nervous about it, because I’ve never sat in one of these cars before, but my job is to do the best I can for this 43 group until Erik comes back,” Heim said Saturday.

Heim completed his first laps around Dover in Saturday’s practice session. He was the 31st-fastest in practice and then qualified 32nd.

The next step is completing the race and gaining more knowledge for the future.

“I don’t know if I will feel that I’ve got it figured out by the end of the weekend, but any advice is super important,” Heim said. “I’ve been reaching out to as many people as I possibly can to try to gather all of the information and try to have a decent idea.

“With these 20-minute practices, it is pretty brutal to wrap your head around a completely different kind of race car within that time frame, but my job is just to do the best I can for this 43 group and move forward from there.”

3. Comfort level

Jimmie Johnson has faced a steep learning curve with the Next Gen car. He failed to finish all three races he started last season and his best finish through two starts this season is 28th.

The seven-time champion spent his career driving off the right-rear tire, achieving a considerable amount of success in the process. That is no longer possible considering that the Next Gen car forces Johnson to drive off the right-front tire.

Johnson has had to alter his approach, something that other Cup drivers did during the 2022 season. This late start meant that he’s a bit behind though the race at Texas Motor Speedway two weeks ago was a step in the right direction.

“I think I’m making progress,” Johnson said Saturday. “I think running all of the laps at Texas, really taught me a lot. Not only from driving the car, to also improvements we need to make and where we sit as a company right now. “

• Dustin Long ,

Dover is Johnson’s next opportunity to grow more comfortable behind the wheel of the Next Gen car and get reps at a track where he has 11 wins. Completing all the laps will only make him better prepared for races at Kansas and Charlotte in the month of May.

More importantly, the extra time in the Next Gen car will benefit all of Legacy MC.

“In the offseason, we focused hard on mile-and-a-halves and the performance gains that we hoped to improve and thought that running a third car at least nine events at basically all mile-and-a-half tracks would help us develop as an organization,” Johnson said.

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2024 Wurth 400 expert picks, best bets, Dover odds, race time: NASCAR insider backing Alex Bowman

Steven taranto has hit five winners this year and reveals his nascar picks and racing best bets for the nascar at dover motor speedway race.

Martin Truex Jr. will aim for more success at his favorite track when he competes in the 2024 Wurth 400 at Dover Motor Speedway on Sunday. Truex recorded the fourth victory of his NASCAR Cup Series career at Dover when he won this race for the third time last year. The 2017 series champion, who also has posted four wins at Sonoma Raceway, has registered 10 top-five finishes, including nine in his last 12 starts, and a career-high 19 top-10s in 33 outings at the Delaware track. Truex, who also recorded two wins and a pair of runner-up finishes at Dover in the Xfinity Series, has finished either first or second in five of his last seven Cup Series races there.

Truex is 6-1 and Kyle Larson is the 9-2 favorite in the latest 2024 Wurth 400 odds. William Byron, Denny Hamlin and Ross Chastain round out the top five 2024 NASCAR at Dover contenders at 15-2. Sunday's race at "The Monster Mile" is scheduled to start at 2 p.m. ET. Before making any 2024 Wurth 400 picks or NASCAR predictions, you need to see what NASCAR insider Steven Taranto has to say .

Taranto, who moonlights as a sim racer and has 20 career wins in iRacing, is the lead NASCAR writer for CBSSports.com, and he chronicles stock car racing with the same thoroughness and passion that he's had since becoming a full-time race fan in 2001. He has an annual NASCAR medial credential and also publishes a popular weekly NASCAR predictions column, famously calling Chastain and Daniel Suarez's breakthrough wins in 2022.

Taranto is off to a red-hot start for SportsLine in 2024, nailing five winners in his best bets already, including 16-1 longshot Byron at the Daytona 500 and 14-1 longshot Chase Elliott at Texas two weeks ago. Anyone following his NASCAR picks has seen some huge returns.

Now, Taranto has analyzed the field and odds for Sunday's Wurth 400. He's sharing his best bets at SportsLine .

2024 Wurth 400 expert picks

For the 2024 Wurth 400, Taranto is high on Alex Bowman, even though he's a 16-1 longshot. The 30-year-old native of Arizona has made 71 consecutive starts without a victory since capturing the checkered flag at Las Vegas on March 6, 2022. However, he has come close to ending the drought a number of times this year as he is tied with five other drivers for the most top-five finishes with four, including a runner-up performance in the season-opening Daytona 500.

Bowman was fifth at Talladega last week and has posted four of his five top-10 finishes this campaign over his last six starts. He has performed well at Dover during his Cup Series career, winning this race in 2021 while registering four other top-fives in 12 outings. Most of Bowman's success at the track has been recent, as he has finished fifth or better in five of his last six starts.

Another surprise: Taranto is fading Christopher Bell, who also has fared well at Dover of late. After finishing no better than 21st in his first three Cup Series starts at the track, the 29-year-old Oklahoman was fourth in this race in 2022 and sixth in last year's edition. Bell also excelled at "The Monster Mile" while competing in NASCAR's other two series, as he posted top-five finishes in three of his four Xfinity Series outings - including back-to-back victories in 2018 and 2019 - and was third in one of his two Truck Series races there.

Bell performed well over his first seven Cup Series starts this year, finishing third in the Daytona 500 and winning at Phoenix to begin a stretch of four consecutive top-10 finishes. Things have not gone very well for him lately, however, as he has been 17th or worse in each of his last three starts. Last weekend at Talladega, Bell was involved in an accident that prevented him from completing the race and forced him to settle for a last-place result.  See what other NASCAR picks he likes at SportsLine .

How to make 2024 Wurth 400 predictions

Taranto has also identified four other drivers in his 2024 NASCAR at Dover best bets. He's also high on a massive NASCAR longshot who's going off at more than 40-1. You can only see who they are here .

So who wins the Wurth 400 2024, and which massive longshot could stun NASCAR? Visit SportsLine now to see the 2024 NASCAR at Dover picks and best bets from a NASCAR insider who has already nailed five winners this year , and find out.

2024 Wurth 400 odds

See full NASCAR at Dover picks at SportsLine

Kyle Larson 9-2 Martin Truex Jr. 6-1 William Byron 15-2 Ross Chastain 15-2 Denny Hamlin 15-2 Christopher Bell 12-1 Chase Elliott 12-1 Ty Gibbs 12-1 Ryan Blaney 14-1 Alex Bowman 16-1 Kyle Busch 18-1 Chris Buescher 20-1 Brad Keselowski 20-1 Tyler Reddick 22-1 Joey Logano 25-1 Josh Berry 45-1 Bubba Wallace 45-1 Chase Briscoe 60-1 Noah Gragson 90-1 Corey Heim 100-1 Carson Hocevar 100-1 Ryan Preece 100-1 Daniel Suarez 100-1 Austin Dillon 125-1 Jimmie Johnson 125-1 Michael McDowell 125-1 John Hunter Nemechek 125-1 Ricky Stenhouse Jr. 125-1 A.J. Allmendinger 250-1 Austin Cindric 250-1 Justin Haley 250-1 Corey LaJoie 250-1 Todd Gilliland 400-1 Zane Smith 400-1 Harrison Burton 750-1 Daniel Hemric 1000-1 Kaz Grala 2500-1

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NASCAR Cup Series at Dover: Starting lineup, TV schedule for Sunday's race

The NASCAR Cup Series continue the 2024 season with Sunday's Wurth 400 at Dover Motor Speedway, one of the most unique tracks on the schedule.

Kyle Busch is on the pole for Sunday's race. Saturday's practice session included two crashes, including a very hard hit by Kaz Grala coming off of Turn 4. The qualifying session that followed included a spin by Christopher Bell, who suffered rear-end damage.

Martin Truex Jr. is the defending race winner.

Here's the full starting lineup for Sunday's Wurth 400.

PICKS FOR SUNDAY'S RACE: NASCAR Dover predictions 2024: Expert picks for Cup Series race at Dover Motor Speedway

NASCAR Dover TV schedule, start time for Wurth 400

Green Flag Time:   Approx. 1 p.m. CT on Sunday, April 28 (prerace coverage begins at 12 p.m. CT Sunday)

Track:   Dover Motor Speedway (1-mile oval) in Dover, Delaware

Length:   400 laps, 400 miles

Stages:   120 laps, 130 laps, 150 laps

TV coverage:   FS1

Radio:   PRN

Streaming:  FUBO   (free trial available) ; FOX Sports app (subscription required); GoPRN.com and SiriusXM on Channel 90 for audio (subscription required)

The Wurth 400 will be broadcast nationally on FS1. Streaming options for the race include the FOX Sports app and  FUBO , which offers a  free trial  to potential subscribers.

Wurth 400 starting lineup

1. Kyle Busch, No. 8 Richard Childress Racing Chevrolet

2. Ryan Blaney, No. 12 Team Penske Ford

3. William Byron, No. 24 Hendrick Motorsports Chevrolet

4. Tyler Reddick, No. 45 23XI Racing Toyota

5. Noah Gragson, No. 10 Stewart-Haas Racing Ford

6. Denny Hamlin, No. 11 Joe Gibbs Racing Toyota

7. Chase Briscoe, No. 14 Stewart-Haas Racing Ford

8. Michael McDowell, No. 34 Front Row Motorsports Ford 

9. Alex Bowman, No. 48 Hendrick Motorsports Chevrolet

10. AJ Allmendinger, No. 16 Kaulig Racing Chevrolet

11. Austin Cindric, No. 2 Team Penske Ford

12. Josh Berry, No. 4 Stewart-Haas Racing Ford

13. Joey Logano, No. 22 Team Penske Ford

14. Daniel Hemric, No. 31 Kaulig Racing Chevrolet

15. Martin Truex Jr., No. 19 Joe Gibbs Racing Toyota

16. Bubba Wallace, No. 23 23XI Racing Toyota

17. Ricky Stenhouse Jr., No. 47 JTG Daugherty Racing Chevrolet

18. Chris Buescher, No. 17 Roush Fenway Keselowski Racing Ford

19. Ty Gibbs, No. 54 Joe Gibbs Racing Toyota

20. Carson Hocevar, No. 77 Spire Motorsports Chevrolet

21. Kyle Larson, No. 5 Hendrick Motorsports Chevrolet

22. Ross Chastain, No. 1 Trackhouse Racing Chevrolet

23. Austin Dillon, No. 3 Richard Childress Racing Chevrolet

24. Brad Keselowski, No. 6 Roush Fenway Keselowski Racing Ford

25. Corey Lajoie, No. 7 Spire Motorsports Chevrolet

26. Harrison Burton, No. 21 Wood Brothers Racing Ford

27. Jimmie Johnson, No. 84 Legacy Motor Club Toyota

28. Ryan Preece, No. 41 Stewart-Haas Racing Ford

29. Chase Elliott, No. 9 Hendrick Motorsports Chevrolet

30. Todd Gilliland, No. 38 Front Row Motorsports Ford 

31. Daniel Suarez, No. 99 Trackhouse Racing Chevrolet

32. Corey Heim, No. 43 Legacy Motor Club Toyota

33. Christopher Bell, No. 20 Joe Gibbs Racing Toyota

34. John Hunter Nemechek, No. 42 Legacy Motor Club Toyota

35. Kaz Grala, No. 15 Rick Ware Racing Chevrolet

36. Justin Haley, No. 51 Rick Ware Racing Chevrolet

37. Zane Smith, No. 71 Spire Motorsports Chevrolet

‘RuPaul’s Drag Race All Stars’ Season 9 Queens Revealed, Will Compete for Charity for the First Time

By Adam B. Vary

Adam B. Vary

Senior Entertainment Writer

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Category is: All Star Charity Extravaganza! 

Paramount+ and World of Wonder have officially announced the Season 9 cast of “RuPaul’s Drag Race All Stars,” which will consist of eight alumni of “RuPaul’s Drag Race” stretching from its first season to Season 14. It’s the first season of “All Stars” — other than the all-winners seventh season — to feature just eight queens.

Popular on Variety

The returning queens for “All Stars” Season 9 are:

Angeria Paris VanMichaels (Season 14) : This Atlanta-based queen won two main challenges during her season — including the challenge in which she coined her catch phrase, “you ug-aly bitch” — en route to the finale, where she tied for third. She’s playing for the National Black Justice Collective, “America’s leading national civil rights organization dedicated to the empowerment of Black lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer+ and same gender loving (LGBTQ+/SGL) people, including people living with HIV/AIDS,” according to a release.

Gottmik (Season 13): The first trans man to compete on “Drag Race” became a major fan favorite for her performance as Paris Hilton in the Snatch Game challenge, which earned Gottmik one of two main challenges wins; she ultimately came in third on the show. She’s playing for Trans Lifeline, “a grassroots hotline, advocacy and micro-grants non-profit offering direct emotional and financial support to trans people in crisis.”

Nina West (Season 11): The Columbus, Ohio queen won two main challenges, came in sixth place in her season, and won Miss Congeniality from her fellow contestants. Since the show, she played Edna Turnblad in the national tour of “Hairspray,” and played the drag icon Divine in 2022’s “Weird; The Al Yankovic Story.” She’s playing for The Trevor Project, “the leading suicide prevention and crisis intervention organization for LGBTQ+ young people.”

Plastique Tiara (Season 11): While Plastique has the lowest showing in her original season among the “All Stars” Season 9 queens — winning one main challenge and coming in eighth place — she has since amassed the largest social media following of anyone from the show, according to a release, including 11.6 million followers on TikTok. She’s also starred in “RuPaul’s Drag Race Live.” She’s playing for The Asian American Foundation, which was created “in response to the rise in anti-Asian hate and to address the long-standing underinvestment in Asian American, Native Hawaiian and Pacific Islander communities.”

Roxxxy Andrews (Season 5, “All Stars” Season 2): One of the most iconic “Drag Race” alumni as the first queen to debut the double-wig reveal in a lip sync, Roxxxy earned a spot in two finales: She was a runner-up in Season 5 with two main challenge wins, and came in fourth place in Season 2 of “All Stars.” She’s playing for Miracle of Love, which provides “accessible HIV/AIDS prevention programming and supportive assistance to service the multicultural needs of communities in Central Florida.”

Shannel (Season 1, “All Stars” Season 1): The first queen ever to step foot inside the “Drag Race” werk room, Shannel came in fourth in her season, and then tied for third in Season 1 of “All Stars.” She’s playing for the Anxiety and Depression Association of America, “a global nonprofit committed to advancing research and helping people overcome anxiety, depression, OCD, PTSD, bipolar disorder and related conditions.”

Vanessa Vanjie (Season 10, Season 11): Her cry of “Miss Vanjie” after being the first queen eliminated from Season 10 made Vanjie an overnight viral sensation, so much so she was invited back for following season, where she came in fifth place. She’s playing for the ASPCA, the animal rights group that “has been on the frontlines to save, transform and protect the lives of millions of dogs, cats, equines and farm animals in the fight against animal cruelty and homelessness.”

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