philippine mythology essay

Philippine Mythology Gods and Goddesses: An Ultimate Guide

Imagine yourself living in the pre-colonial Philippines .

No Christianity, Islam, or any of the modern-day religions. Everything you need to survive is literally in front of you–food, clothes, a roof over your head, you name it.

But while things around you seem to be in perfect order, a tidal wave of confusion starts forming in your mind.

You’re now questioning your very own existence. Questions you never knew you needed to answer are flooding your brain: Why is the sky blue? Where did we come from? Who controls everything?  But with no religion to rely on, how can you possibly make sense of everything?

The answer, according to our ancestors, is  Philippine mythology .

Nope, we won’t talk about the whitewashed deities you grew up watching in movies. While almost everybody is familiar with Zeus, Athena, Aphrodite, Eros, and other legendary gods of Greek mythology, it seems that we are all clueless about their Filipino counterparts. And that’s the reason why we’ve decided to write this article. 

Philippine mythology is much more important than you think. It gave our ancestors a sense of direction and helped them explain everything–from the origin of mankind to the existence of diseases.

For them, it was not just a belief in invisible higher beings. Philippine mythology defined who they were and what they were supposed to do. 

The late anthropologist H. Otley Beyer shared his observation:

“Among the Christianized peoples of the plains, the myths are preserved chiefly as folktales, but in the mountains, their recitation and preservation is a real and living part of the daily religious life of the people. Very few of these myths are written; the great majority of them are preserved by oral tradition only.”

There’s no one-size-fits-all rule in Philippine mythology. In other words, ancient Filipinos from every part of the country didn’t stick to a single version of the creation story nor give uniform names to their deities. As a result, Philippine mythology became so diverse that studying it now is like staring at a list of gazillion  Pokémons. 

It’s impossible to cover every deity in the chart (remember, this is a blog post, not a book). Still, we’ll try to feature the most interesting characters and make this as comprehensive as possible, FilipiKnow  style.

Now, before we go straight to the most exciting part, it’s essential that we first go back to the basics.

Table of Contents

What exactly is philippine mythology.

Philippine mythology is a collection of stories and superstitions about magical beings, a.k.a. deities our ancestors believed controlled everything.

It’s part of the folklore, which covers all kinds of traditional knowledge embedded in our society: arts, folk literature, customs, beliefs, and games , among others.

If you’re going to examine the folklore family tree (see the chart below), you’ll see the folk literature branching out into three groups: folk speech (which includes the  bugtong  or riddles  and salawikain  or proverbs), folk songs, and the folk narratives.

Folk narratives are all about stories. They may be told in prose, verse, or both. They are further divided into three sub-categories: folktales or  kuwentong bayan , legends or alamat , and myths.

The folktales are pure fiction, which you use to entertain bored kids. The legends and myths, meanwhile, are assumed to be true by the storyteller. It’s the timeline that sets them apart.

While legends happened in a much more recent period, myths are believed to have taken place in the “remote past,” meaning a period when the world as we know it today wasn’t fully formed yet.

According to the late Damiana L. Eugenio, the Mother of Philippine Folklore, myths “account for the origin of the world, of mankind, of death, or for characteristics of birds, animals, geographical features, and the phenomena of nature .” 

The stories or adventures of deities fall under this sub-category. Deities are defined as supernatural beings with human characteristics.

These deities are either good or bad, each having a specific function. Renowned anthropologist F. Landa Jocano, the author of  Outline of Philippine Mythology,  explained it further:

“ Some of these deities are always near; others are inhabitants of far-off realms of the Skyworld who take interest in human affairs only when they are invoked during proper ceremonies which compel them to come down to earth.”

In this three-part series, you’ll learn more about these interesting deities from Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao. We’ll examine their stories, special powers, and other details that will tickle the curious child in you. Special thanks to the talented Pinoy graphic artists whose impressive works have helped bring these ancient deities back to life.

Note: All images presented in these articles are modern depictions of our ancient deities. History tells us that the colonizers burned representations of these gods and goddesses created by our ancestors. Therefore, the point of these illustrations is not to “Westernize” Philippine mythology but to make it more appealing and engaging to younger readers who ought to know more about their roots. 

Part I: Luzon Divinities

Based on the early accounts of Spanish conquistador Miguel de Loarca, the ancient Tagalogs believed in one creator god. However, they didn’t have the power to communicate with him directly. An intercessor or “middleman” was required.

This go-between could either be the spirit of their dead relative or any of the lower-ranking deities. Ancient gods were usually worshiped in adobe carvings called  likha,  while the dead ancestors were revered by offering foods or gold adornments to wooden images known as  anito. 

Please take note that the early missionaries differed in how they defined  anito. Father Pedro de San Buenaventura, for example, insisted that the word referred to the act of offering ( “naga-anito” ) and not the spirit itself ( “pinagaanitohan” ).

Aside from the deities and the souls of the departed, the ancient Tagalogs also venerated animals like crocodiles, believing that these wild beasts contained human souls. On the other hand, a  tigmamanukan  bird flying across someone’s path was considered an omen. Depending on the direction of its flight, this bird could foretell whether an expedition would end up a success or disaster.

Also known as Abba , this highest-ranking deity was described as “may kapal sa lahat,” or the creator of everything. His origin is unknown, but his name suggests Hindu influences. According to William Henry Scott,  Bathala  was derived from the Sanskrit  bhattara  which means “noble lord.”

From his abode in the sky called  Kawalhatian,  this deity looks over mankind. He’s pleased when his people follow his rules, giving everything they need to the point of spoiling them (hence, the  bahala na  philosophy). But mind you, this powerful deity could also be cruel sometimes, sending lightning and thunder to those who sin against him.

Interesting fact:  Other indigenous groups in Luzon also believed in a creator god, but they didn’t call him  Bathala.  For instance, the Bontoks and Kankanays of the Central Cordillera considered Lumawig the “creator of all things and the preserver of life.” This deity later sired two pretty daughters–Bugan, the goddess of romance, and Obban , the goddess of reproduction.

Those from Benguet honored Apo as their highest-ranking deity. Ifugaos, meanwhile, called their own Kabunian . The latter was believed to have inhabited the “fifth region of the universe,” and was assisted by other minor gods, among them Tayaban , the firefly-looking god of death; Gatui , the god of practical jokes who was also blamed for causing miscarriages among Ifugao mothers; Hidit, gods of the rituals responsible for giving punishments to those who broke taboos; and Bulol (or bulul ), the famous Ifugao rice god worshiped in the form of small wooden statues resembling their ancestors.

Also Read: The Stunning Rice Terraces of Banaue and Antique

On the other hand, the early people of Zambales named their highest-ranking deity Malayari . Like the  Bathala  of the Tagalogs, this creator god rewarded his worshipers with good health and harvest and punished the unbelievers with disease and famine.

Lesser divinities also assisted Malayari in carrying out his tasks, among them Akasi , the god of health and sickness; Manglubar, the god of powerful living whose task was to “pacify angry hearts” ; and the guardian angel Mangalabar , the god of good grace.

2. Idianale

If Bathala was the boss, the other lesser deities who lived with him in the sky were his assistants. Each of these lower-ranking gods and goddesses had specific responsibilities. One was Idianale ( Idiyanale or Idianali in other sources), the goddess of labor and good deeds.

There are varying accounts as to what specific field Idianale was worshiped for. Historian Gregorio Zaide said that Idianale was the god of agriculture, while other sources suggest that she was the patron of animal husbandry, a branch of agriculture.

Idianale married Dumangan , the god of good harvest, and later gave birth to two more Tagalog deities: Dumakulem and Anitun Tabu.

3. Dumangan

Dumangan was the Tagalog sky god of good harvest , the husband of Idianale , and father to Dumakulem and Anitun Tabu .

In Zambales culture,  Dumangan (or Dumagan )  caused the rice to “yield better grains.” According to F. Landa Jocano, the early people of Zambales also believed Dumagan had three brothers who were just as powerful as him.

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Kalasakas hastened the ripening of the rice stalks, while Kalasokus was responsible for turning the grains yellow. Lastly, the deity Damulag protected the flowers of the rice plants from destructive hurricanes.

4. Anitun Tabu

Among ancient Tagalogs, Anitun Tabu was  known as the “fickle-minded goddess of the wind and rain.” She’s one of the two children of Dumangan and Idianale .

In Zambales, this goddess was known as  Aniton Tauo , one of the lesser deities assisting their chief god, Malayari . Legend has it that Aniton Tauo was once considered superior to other Zambales deities. She became so full of herself that Malayari reduced her rank as a punishment.

The Zambales people offered her the best kind of pinipig  or pounded young rice grains during harvest season. Sacrifices that use these ingredients are known as mamiarag in their local dialect.

5. Dumakulem

Dumakulem was the son of Idianale and Dumangan , and brother of wind goddess Anitun Tabu . The ancient Tagalogs revered him as the guardian of the mountains. He is often depicted as a strong and skillful hunter.

This Tagalog sky god later tied the knot with another principal deity, Anagolay , known as the goddess of lost things. The marriage produced two children: Apolaki , the sun god, and Dian Masalanta , the goddess of lovers.

6. Ikapati/Lakapati

Probably one of the most intriguing deities of Philippine mythology, Ikapati (or Lakapati ) was the Tagalog goddess of fertility. F. Landa Jocano described her as the “goddess of the cultivated land” and the “benevolent giver of food and prosperity.”

Some sources describe  Lakapati  as androgynous, hermaphrodite, and even a “transgender” god . In William Henry Scott’s “Baranggay,” Lakapati is described as a significant fertility deity  represented by a “hermaphrodite image with both male and female parts.”

Also Read: The “Masuso” Pots of the National Museum

Before planting in a new field, the ancient Tagalogs usually offered sacrifices to Lakapati . In a 17th-century report by Franciscan missionary  Father Pedro de San Buenaventura, it was said that a farmer paying homage to this fertility goddess would hold up a child before saying, “Lakapati pakanin mo yaring alipin mo; huwag mong gutumin” (Lakapati, feed this thy slave; let him not hunger).

Being the kindest among the lesser deities of Bathala , Lakapati was loved and respected by the people. She married the god of seasons, Mapulon , and became the mother of  Anagolay, the goddess of lost things.

In Tagalog mythology, Mapulon was the god of seasons . F. Landa Jocano, in the book “Outline of Philippine Mythology,” described Mapulon as one of the lesser divinities assisting Bathala .

Not much is known about this deity, except that he married Ikapati/Lakapati , the fertility goddess, and sired Anagolay , the goddess of lost things.

8. Anagolay

Pre-colonial Tagalogs who were hopelessly looking for their missing stuff prayed to Anagolay , the goddess of lost things. She was the daughter of two major Tagalog deities– Ikapati and Mapulon .

When she reached the right age, she married the hunter Dumakulem. She gave birth to two more deities: Apolaki and Dian Masalanta , the ancient gods of the sun and lovers, respectively.

Interesting fact: In September of 2014, the Minor Planet Center (MPC), the international agency responsible for naming minor bodies in the solar system, officially gave the name (3757) Anagolay to an asteroid first discovered in 1982 by E. F. Helin at the Palomar Observatory.

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The asteroid was named after the ancient Tagalog goddess of lost things. The name, submitted by Filipino student Mohammad Abqary Alon, bested more than a thousand entries in a contest held by the Space Generation Advisory Council (SGAC).

Arguably the Filipino counterpart of the Roman god Mars, Apolaki appeared in several ancient myths.  The Tagalogs revered Apolaki as the sun god and patron of the warriors. He shares almost the same qualities with the Kapampangan sun god of war and death, Aring Sinukuan .

Early people of Pangasinan claimed that Apolaki talked to them. Back when blackened teeth were considered the standard of beauty , some natives told a friar that a disappointed  Apolaki had scolded them for welcoming “foreigners with white teeth.”

In a book by William Henry Scott, the name of this deity is said to have originated from  apo,  which means “lord,” and  laki,  which means “male” or “virile.” Jocano’s  Outline of Philippine Mythology  details how Apolaki came to be: He was the son of Anagolay and Dumakulem , and the brother of Dian Masalanta , the goddess of lovers.

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In other stories, however, Apolaki was, in fact, the son of the supreme god of the ancient Tagalogs, Bathala . The book “Philippine Myths, Legends, and Folktales” by Maximo Ramos features how the sun became brighter than the moon. In the said myth, Bathala sired two children from a mortal woman. He named his son Apolaki and his daughter Mayari.

Both children had eyes so bright that they became the source of light for the rest of the world. When Bathala died, Apolaki and Mayari both wanted to succeed their father. A long, bloody argument ensued as neither wanted to relinquish the throne. The fight reached the boiling point when Apolaki hit Mayari ‘s face with a wooden club, blinding her one eye.

Cooler heads prevailed, and both agreed to take turns in ruling the world. Apolaki now occupies the throne during the daytime while Mayari , the moon goddess, provides the “cool and gentle light” during nighttime, for she is blind in one eye.

10. Dian Masalanta

If the Greeks had Aphrodite, our Tagalog ancestors had Dian Masalanta . The patron goddess of lovers and childbirth, this deity was the sister of the sun god Apolaki to parents Anagolay and Dumakulem .

Also Read:  The 6 Most Tragic Love Stories in Philippine History

Sacrifices were offered to Dian Masalanta to ensure successful pregnancies. The same was done for other lesser deities who ruled specific domains, like Mankukutod, the protector of coconut palms who could cause accidents if the offering was not made. Haik , the sea god, was honored by sea travelers for a safe and prosperous voyage. At the same time, Uwinan Sana , the forest deity, was acknowledged so anyone who entered his “property” wouldn’t be punished for trespassing.

11. Amanikabli

Depending on your book, Amanikabli (Amanikable or Aman Ikabli in other sources) could be the ancient Tagalog patron of hunters or the god of the sea.

In the book Barangay by William Henry Scott and the 1936  Encyclopedia of the Philippines  by Zoilo Galang, Amanikabli was identified as the Tagalog anito of hunters who rewarded his worshipers with good game.

On the other hand, the chief protector of the sea was Aman Sinaya (or Amanisaya in other references), who “gave his devotees a good catch.”  In the same book by William Henry Scott, Aman Sinaya was described as the deity called upon by believers “when first wetting a net or fishhook.” He was also identified as the father of Sinaya, who invented the fishing gear.

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The works of anthropologist F. Landa Jocano beg to differ. According to his relatively more modern version, Amanikabli was one of the lesser deities assisting Bathala in Kawalhatian. He was described as  “the husky, ill-tempered ruler of the sea,” whose hatred towards mankind started when a beautiful mortal woman, aptly named Maganda , rejected his love.

Since then, the sea god had made it his agenda to send “turbulent waves and horrible tempests every now and then to wreck boats and drown men.”

12-14. Mayari, Hana, and Tala

Once upon a time,  Bathala  fell in love with a mortal woman. She died after giving birth to three beautiful daughters. Of course,  Bathala  didn’t want anything wrong to happen to his girls, so he brought them to the sky to live with him.

Before long, these three demigods were given specific roles: Mayari , Hana (or Hanan in other references), and Tala became the Tagalog goddesses of the moon, morning, and star, respectively.

F. Landa Jocano’s  Outline of Philippine Mythology flatteringly described the moon goddess as the “most beautiful divinity in the court of Bathala.” In other Luzon myths, however, the moon deity was anything but a beautiful goddess.

One Pangasinan myth tried to explain the origin of the sun, moon, and stars. The story starts with an all-powerful god called “Ama” giving a fiery palace to each of his two sons: Agueo (“sun”) and Bulan (“moon”). With their courts, these two gods would pass across the world daily to provide light to the people.

Agueo and Bulan are comparable to the Bible’s Cain and Abel. Between the two, Bulan was the naughty one. When he overheard a group of thieves wishing for darkness so they could steal and wreak havoc on mankind, Bulan was thrilled. He then asked his brother, Agueo , to quickly leave the earth so his evil friends could do their business. When Agueo refused, a heated argument took place.

Aware of everything that happened, Bathala  was furious at Bulan . From his abode in the sky, he “seized an enormous rock and hurled it whistling through the air.” It hit Bulan ‘s palace, breaking it into pieces. The flickering fragments became the stars. Bulan had since been banned from joining his brother in circling the world. He still lives in a fiery palace, but its dim light is enough to guide the thieves during nighttime.

Another Mayari story appeared in Maximo Ramos’ “Philippine Myths, Legends, and Folktales” and Dean S. Fansler’s “Filipino Popular Tales.” According to this myth from Pampanga, Mayari was the sister of the sun god, Apolaki, and both of them were gifted with bright eyes, which served as a light for the whole world.

The siblings argued about who deserved to take the throne when their father died. The fight ended with Mayari blinded in one eye after Apolaki hit her with a bamboo club.

Burdened by guilt, the sun god finally agreed to share the leadership with her sister. Apolaki soon became the “sun,” which provides warm light during the day, while Mayari (or the “moon”) rules every night with a cooler and dimmer light due to her blindness.

15-17. Lakanbakod, Lakandanum, and Lakambini

Not all deities of Philippine mythology lived in the sky with Bathala.  Some co-existed with the ancient Tagalogs and were easily invoked during religious ceremonies headed by a catalonan .

Spanish lexicographers called these supernatural beings  anito, Bathala ‘s agents with specific functions. Three of the most interesting minor deities had names that rhyme together:  Lakanbakod, Lakandanum,  and Lakambini .

In William Henry Scott’s “Barangay,”  Lakanbakod ( Lakan Bakod or Lakambacod in other sources) was described as a deity who had  “gilded genitals as long as a rice stalk.” 

Lakanbakod was the “lord of fences,”  a protector of crops powerful enough to keep animals out of farmlands. Hence, he was invoked and offered eels when fencing a plot of land.

Lakambini was just as fascinating. Although the name is almost synonymous with “muse” nowadays, it was not the case during the early times.

Up until the 19th century,  lacanbini  had been the name given to an  anito  whom Fray San Buenaventura described as “diyus-diyosang sumasakop siya sa mga sakit sa lalamunan.”   In simple English, this minor deity was invoked by our ancestors to treat throat ailments.

Among the ancient Kapampangans, Lakandanum was known as the water god depicted as a serpent-like mermaid (naga). Before the Spaniards arrived, they often threw livestock into the river as a peace offering for Lakandanum . Failure to do so resulted in long periods of drought.

Every year during the dry season, the natives would sacrifice for the water god to give them rain. And when the rain started pouring, they would take it as a cue that Lakandanum  had returned, and everyone would be in a festive mood.

The old Kapampangan new year, called  Bayung Danum  (“new water”), started as a celebration in honor of Lakandanum. When  Christianity came into the picture, it was converted into the feast of St. John in Pampanga and the feast of St. Peter in other areas.

18-19. Galang Kaluluwa and Ulilang Kaluluwa

In some Tagalog creation myths,  Bathala  was not the only deity who lived in the universe before humanity was born. He shared the space with two other powerful gods: the serpent  Ulilang Kaluluwa  (“orphaned spirit”), who lived in the clouds, and the wandering god aptly named  Galang Kaluluwa. 

Ulilang Kaluluwa wanted the earth and the rest of the universe for himself. Therefore, he decided to fight when he learned of Bathala , who was eyeing the same stuff. After days of non-stop battle, Bathala became the last man standing. The lifeless body of Ulilang Kaluluwa was subsequently burned.

A few years later, Bathala and Galang Kaluluwa met. The two became friends, with Bathala inviting the latter to stay in his kingdom. But the life of Galang Kaluluwa was cut short by an illness. Upon his friend’s request, Bathala buried the body precisely where Ulilang Kaluluwa was previously burned.

Soon, a mysterious tree grew from the grave. Its fruit and wing-like leaves reminded Bathala of his departed friend, while the hard, unattractive trunk had the same qualities as the evil  Ulilang Kaluluwa. 

As it turned out, the tree is the “tree of life” we greatly value today- the coconut.

The importance of the coconut tree was so that when   Bathala decided to create the first man and woman, he built a house for them using coconut trunks and leaves. As for their daily sustenance, the coconut’s juice and its succulent white meat proved to be nourishing.

Also Read: Philippine Fruits You Probably Don’t Know

It didn’t take long before they discovered more of the tree’s hidden gifts: Its leaves could turn into good mats or brooms, while the fiber could become sturdy ropes, among other things.

20-21. Haliya and the Bakunawa

Haliya is the moon goddess of Bicolano mythology who periodically comes down to earth to bathe in its waters.

Legend has it that the world used to be illuminated by seven moons. The gigantic sea serpent called bakunawa , a mythical creature found in the early Bicolano and Hiligaynon culture, devoured all but one of these moons.

In some myths, the remaining moon was saved after the gods came to the rescue and punished the sea monster. Another story suggests that Haliya was the name of the last moon standing , and she spared herself from being eaten by making noises using drums and gongs–sounds that the bakunawa found repulsive.

Pre-colonial Filipinos blamed the bakunawa for causing the eclipse. Its name, which means “bent serpent,” first appeared in a 1637 dictionary by Fr. Alonso de Mentrida. Bakunawa was deeply embedded in our ancient culture that by the time Fr. Ignacio Alcina penned his 1668 book  Historias de las Islas e Indios de las Bisayas , the name of the sea serpent was already synonymous with the eclipse.

The Hiligaynon people of the Visayas believe that the bakunawa  lives either in an area between the sky and the clouds or inside the  bungalog , an underground passage “near the headwaters of big river systems.”

Believing that an eclipse was a bakunawa attempting to swallow the moon, ancient Visayans tried to ward off the monster by creating sounds. They did this by striking the floors of their houses or by beating cans, drums, and the like.

In a way, our  Tagalog ancestors already believed in the afterlife even before the colonizers introduced us to their Bible. One proof is the pre-colonial custom of burying the dead with a  pabaon,  which could be jewelry, food, or even slaves.

The modern-day heaven and hell also had ancient counterparts. Jocano said the early Tagalogs believed good guys would go to Maca, a place of “eternal peace and happiness.” On the other hand, the evil sinners were thrown into the “village of grief and affliction” called  Kasanaan/Kasamaan. 

The  Kasanaan  is a place of punishment ruled by Sitan , which shares striking similarities with Christianity’s ultimate villain, Satan. However, Jocano said that Sitan was most likely derived from the underworld’s Islamic ruler, Saitan (or Shaitan). This suggests that the Muslim religion already had a grip on our society way before the Spaniards arrived.

The vicious Sitan was also assisted by other lesser deities or mortal agents. First was Mangagaway , the wicked shapeshifter who wore a skull necklace and could kill or heal anyone with her magic wand . She could also prolong one’s death for weeks or months by binding a snake containing her potion around the person’s waist.

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Mansisilat was the homewrecker of Philippine mythology. As the goddess of broken homes, she accepted it as her mission to destroy relationships. She did this by disguising herself as an old beggar or healer who would enter the homes of unsuspecting couples. Using her charms, Mansisilat could magically turn husbands and wives against each other, ending in separation.

Equally frightening were Hukluban and Mankukulam .

William Henry Scott’s Baranggay described the former as “the most powerful kind of witch, able to kill or cause unconsciousness simply by greeting a person.” Jocano added that a Hukluban was also a terrific shapeshifter who could make anything happen–say, burn a house down–by simply uttering it.

The Mankukulam , on the other hand, often wandered around villages pretending to be a priest doctor. In Scott’s book, a mankukulam is described as a “witch  who appears at night as if burning, setting fires that cannot be extinguished, or wallows in the filth under houses, whereupon some householder will sicken and die.”

Part II: Visayan Divinities

Unlike the Tagalogs, ancient Visayans didn’t have a creator god like Bathala, who appeared out of nowhere and decided to create humanity. But what they lacked in “creator god,” they made up for in plenty of origin myths. These stories explain how death, class and race differences, concubinage, war, and theft were introduced to the world.

They worshiped and offered prayers to a variety of invisible beings. These could either be diwata (i.e., gods and goddesses) or the spirits of their ancestors called umalagad .

It is believed that the word  diwata  was derived from the Sanskrit  devata,  which suggests Hindu influences to our pre-Spanish culture.

Our Visayan ancestors also believed in the afterlife, although theirs had no heaven or hell as we understand them today. The 17th-century Augustinian priest Father Méntrida said that because these ancient Visayans did not know hell, “they call the Inferno, Solar (Sulad), and those who dwell in the Inferno, solanun.”

Most of these unfortunate souls were poor Visayans who died without sufficient gold as  pabaon  or whose relatives couldn’t afford the required sacrifice to rescue them.

Couples reunited in the afterlife and continued to do the same activities, although women could no longer conceive. The babies, on the other hand, did not have an afterlife. Instead, they were reincarnated about nine times until, in their final rebirth, they were “buried in a coffin the size of a grain of rice.”

The Visayan underworld and other ancient domains were rife with interesting deities. Let’s run down some colorful characters who made the world less confusing for our ancestors.

1. Tungkung Langit and Alunsina

The Sulod of Central Panay in Western Visayas believed that the universe was divided into three regions: Ibabawnun (upper world), Pagtung-an (middle world), and Idadalmunun (underworld).

Ibabawnun was further divided into two: a place ruled and inhabited by the male diwata , and the other by the female diwata .

Tungkung Langit (literally means “pillar of the skies”) was considered the supreme god or the highest-ranking deity for the male section . Alunsina , meanwhile, was the most powerful female diwata and the goddess of the eastern skies.

Tungkung Langit, just like Bathala , was assisted by several lesser divinities. Among them were  Bangun-bangun , the “deity of universal time who regulated the cosmic movements”;  Bahulangkug , the “diwata who changed seasons”;  Ribun-linti (or Ribung-linti ), the “god of lightning and thunderstorms”;  Sumalongson , the “god of the river and seas”;  Santonilyo , “deity of good graces”; and the most respected and feared of them all,  Munsad Burulakaw.

Alunsina had her own assistants:  Muropuro , the “goddess of the spring, rivers, and lakes”;  Labing Daut , the “goddess-in-charge of rain clouds”; and Tibang-Tibang, the goddess whose primary responsibility was to maintain the balance in the world and make sure that day and night happened in succession.

Deities also ruled Pagtung-an (middle world) and the Idadalmunun (underworld). The underworld was under the jurisdiction of its highest-ranking deity, Panlinugon , who also happened to be the god of earthquakes .

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The couple Paiburong and Bulawanon led other deities in keeping the middle world in perfect order. Their five children helped them; among them were  Layang Sukla , goddess of beauty;  Surangaun , god of the sea; and  Tugang Tubig , god of rivers, streams, and lakes.

An origin myth from Panay suggests that Tungkung Langit and Alunsina , the chief gods of the upper world, were married and settled down in heaven. The story, part of the old myths and legends compiled by anthropologist F. Landa Jocano in 1971, traced the origin of the world and celestial bodies .

After marrying Alunsina , Tungkung Langit worked non-stop to put order in the confusing and still-shapeless world. He was described as a “loving, hard-working god,” while his wife was a “lazy, jealous, and selfish goddess.”

One day, as Tungkung Langit left their home in the sky world to perform his duties, Alunsina ordered the breeze to follow and spy on her husband. When Tungkung Langit found out about it, an extended argument ensued. The fight became so severe and hurtful that Alunsina decided to leave her husband, never to be seen again.

Several lonely months later, Tungkung Langit tried to find his wife everywhere, but to no avail. Desperate, he took Alunsina ‘s jewels and spread them in the sky, hoping she would somehow notice them and be compelled to return.

Sadly, Alunsina never bothered to come back. It is believed among the old folks of Panay that Alunsina ‘s necklace became the stars, while her comb and crown became what we know today as the moon and sun.

They also think that the rain is the tears of Tungkung Langit falling from the sky. Conversely, the thunders could be the supreme god desperately calling for his beloved wife.

2. Kaptan and Magwayen

Other parts of the ancient Visayas believed the world was divided into three regions: Kahilwayan, the sky world; Kamariitan , or the earth; and Kasakitan, or the underworld.

Kaptan was the supreme god of these early Visayans. He lived in Kahilwayan and always passed through the Madyaas mountain in Panay whenever he came down to earth.

Kaptan also had several minor deities under his supervision. The names of these lesser divinities are also the most difficult to remember.

Try it for yourself:  Makliumsaiwan , the “lord of the plains and valleys”;  Maklium-sa-bagidan , the “lord of fire”;  Maklium-sa-tubig , the “lord of the sea”;  Kasaray-sarayan-sa-silgan , the “lord of the streams”;  Magdan-durunuum , the “lord of the hidden lakes”;  Sarangan-sa-bagtiw , the “lord of storms”; and  Suklang-Malayon , the “guardian of happy homes.”

According to an ancient origin myth recorded by Miguel de Loarca from the coastal people of Panay (possibly in Oton, Iloilo), Kaptan married a goddess named Magwayen , and together they ruled the sky world .

And just like what happened to Tungkung Langit and Alunsina , the two argued, ending up with Magwayen leaving her husband. To cope with his sorrow, Kaptan went to his garden called kabilyawan and there he planted a bamboo tube. As the plant grew by leaps and bounds, Kaptan thought of creating a man and a woman who could care for the bamboo.

Before long, the bamboo split in half and came out the first man Kaptan named Si Kalak (“the sturdy one”), and the first woman whom he christened Si Kabay . The two became the ancestors of humanity.

In other ancient stories, Magwayen was considered the goddess of the sea and death. Gregorio Zaide’s  Philippine History and Civilization  mentioned  Maguayen  as the “Visayan Acheron who ferried the souls of the dead from the land of the living to the other world.”

You can find the same information in William Henry Scott’s  Baranggay.  The ancient people of Panay knew Magwayen as the boatman who delivered the soul to the afterlife. Upon its arrival, the soul could be accepted or rejected depending on whether it was decorated with delicate gold jewelry. Those rejected would remain in Sulad or the ancient counterpart of Inferno unless his relatives offered enough sacrifices to save him.

3. Lihangin and Lidagat

Another version of the Visayan origin myth suggests that  Kaptan and Magwayen  were not a couple. Instead, they were both guys, with Kaptan  ruling over the sky world and Magwayen lording over the water.

In the 1904 book,  Philippine Folklore Stories  by John Maurice Miller, Kaptan is said to be the father of Lihangin , the god of the wind, while Magwayen sired the goddess of the sea, Lidagat .

With the permission of their fathers, Lidagat and Lihangin got married and raised four kids: the strong Licalibutan, who had a body made of rock; the always-happy Liadlaw (god of sun), who was covered with gold; the shy and weak Libulan (god of moon) who was made of copper; and the only daughter, Lisuga (god of stars), whose silver body always sparkled.

For a time, the family seemed to be happy and had no issues at all. However, everything changed when Lihangin and Lidagat died. Their eldest son, Licalibutan, became the victim of his own greed.

One day, he planned a surprise attack against the sky world to hopefully seize its control from the supreme god Kaptan, his grandfather. Joining him were Liadlaw and Libulan , who were too afraid of him to even think of backing out. Together, they went to the sky world and blew up the gates protecting the kingdom.

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When Kaptan learned about the attack, he was enraged. The sky god sent three lightning bolts to his grandsons, which all melted instantly . Both Liadlaw and Libulan were reduced into a ball, while Licalibutan ‘s rock-hard body broke into pieces, fell into the sea, and became what is known as land.

Lisuga , unaware of what was happening, also went to the sky world to visit his grandfather. Kaptan , too blinded by his anger, struck the innocent Lisuga with lightning, breaking her into thousand pieces.

When he and Magwayen finally met, things started to sink in for Kaptan . He lost all his grandchildren, including the beautiful Lisuga, who had nothing to do with the conspiracy.

Upon realizing he could no longer revive the four deities, the grief-stricken Kaptan decided to provide their remains with an everlasting light. Hence, Liadlaw became the sun, Libulan became the moon, and Lisuga became what we know today as the stars.

As for the evil Licalibutan, Kaptan didn’t bother to give him light. He thought it was just fair to let him remain as it is–the land that would support the human race. Soon, Magwayen planted a seed on the said land, and it didn’t take long before a bamboo tree started growing.

At this point, the story mirrors what happened in other Visayan origin myths: The tree split open and introduced us to the parents of the human race–the first man, Sicalac , and the first woman, Sicabay .

4. Varangao, Ynaguinid, and Macanduc

When a warrior died in a battle, the ancient Visayans believed they traveled up the rainbow to the sky. In fact, in a Panay epic Labaw Donggon , the rainbow is said to be the blood of these fighters falling to earth. These warriors also turned into gods once they reached the sky world, the kingdom of Kaptan , and would guide any relatives who could avenge their deaths.

Among these warriors-turned-rainbows, a deity called Varangao was considered the most powerful.  He became the god of the rainbow, and the natives prayed to him before going to war or plundering expeditions.

Aside from Varangao, two other names were mentioned by Miguel de Loarca as deities whom the Indios offered prayers for success on the battlefield. They were Ynaguinid and Macanduc , the Visayan gods of war whose dwelling places remain unknown.

5. Dalikmata and Bulalakaw

While Kaptan and other major Visayan deities ruled over more significant, more spectacular domains, other  diwatas  were invoked for specific human conditions. One example is the deity Makabusog (or Makabosog ), who, as his name suggests, “moved men to gluttony.”

Another is the many-eyed goddess  Dalikmata , whom our ancestors offered prayers and sacrifices whenever someone suffered an eye illness. They believed that once Dalikmata was pleased, the eye ailment would soon disappear.

The god Bulalakaw is the exact opposite. Unlike other healing deities, this supernatural being was said to be the giver of illnesses.

There are variations in the origin and nature of this god, with some people of Panay worshiping him as their “bathala” who lived at the summit of Mt. Madyaas. Others believed Bulalakaw was a mythical bird with fiery feathers (another version says the fire is on its tail) that could magically cause illness in a person . The only way to save his life was to appease the bird god with a ritual/offering.

6. The Deities of the Epic “Hinilawod”

Hinilawod is an epic chanted by the Sulod people from Panay Island. It’s one of the longest epics in the world, and has two parts: the first one, containing 2,325 lines, is about the adventures of the demigod Labaw Donggon . The second cycle, meanwhile, focuses on Labaw Donggon ‘s brother, Humadapnon , and has 53,000 lines.

Labaw Donggon was the son of the goddess from the eastern skies, Alunsina , and her mortal husband, Buyung Paubari. Since he was half-god, Labaw Donggon was born with extraordinary strength (think Hercules) and grew up quickly. He later fell in love and had multiple marriages with two beautiful women– Anggoy Ginbitinan , who lived at the mouth of the Halawod River, and Anggoy Doronoon , who was from the underworld.

But not content with his two wives, Labaw Donggon fell in love again, this time with Nagmalitung Yawa , the wife of Saragnayan , the deity responsible for directing the sun’s course. Other sources described Saragnayan as the “Keeper of Light,” while F. Landa Jocano, who recorded the epic himself, called him the “lord of the darkness.”

When Labaw Donggon asked for the hands of his wife, Saragnayan thought it was ridiculous to let go of his beloved without putting up a good fight. A battle ensued, culminating in Labaw Donggon submerging his opponent into the water for seven years.

But the giant Saragnayan survived every attack. Little did Labaw Donggon know a wild boar in a place called Paling Bukid held the life of Saragnayan, and the only way to kill him was to find and kill the pig.

Ultimately, Labaw Donggon was defeated and imprisoned below Saragnayan’s kitchen. He was later rescued by Asu Mangga and Buyung Baranugun, his sons from previous marriages. The two used the  pamlang  or charms given by their mothers to defeat an army of  diwatas  and to kill the wild boar, which served as the lifeline of  Saragnayan . Everything went as planned, and Labaw Donggon escaped.

The first part of the epic ended with Labaw Donggon telling his brothers about Nagmalitung Yawa ‘s two beautiful sisters– Burigadang Pada Sinaklang Bulawan , who was also the goddess of greed, and Lubaylubyok Hanginon Mahuyukhuyukon . The brothers then prepared for another journey, this time to win the hearts of the beautiful maidens.

Contrary to popular belief, the ancient Visayan deity Lalahon was NOT the goddess of volcanoes . The name Lalahon (also called Laon, Lalon, or Lauon) first appeared in Miguel de Loarca’s  Relacion de las Yslas Filipinas in 1582, where she was described as the goddess invoked by the natives for a good harvest.

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It was said that she lived in Malaspina volcano (present-day Mt. Kanlaon) in Negros island. Now, this is where the confusion began. When the original Spanish passage by Loarca was translated for Blair and Robertsons’  The Philippine Islands, 1493-1803 (Volume 5),  the phrase  “que hecha fuego” was mistranslated to  “whence she hurls fire” instead of  “which hurls fire,” leading others to assume that it was the goddess Lalahon , not the volcano where she lived, who spews out fire.

The truth, however, is that the natives worshiped her as the goddess of the good harvest. They believed that Lalahon could send locusts to destroy their crops when displeased.

8. Makaptan

As you may recall, the ancient Visayan world was divided into three regions, the first being Kahilwayan (or sky world), where the supreme god Kaptan lived. The other two were Kamariitan (earth) and Kasakitan (underworld).

Two chief deities were identified as the leader of Kamariitan : Sidapa , the goddess of death, and her husband, Makaptan , the god of sickness.

William Henry Scott’s  Baranggay  describes Makaptan as the “deity who killed the first man with a thunderbolt and visited disease and death on his descendants.”  F. Landa Jocano, in his Outline of Philippine Mythology,  added that the reason Makaptan brought diseases to the natives was that “ he had not eaten anything of this food or drunk any pangasi (rice wine).”  It pissed him off so much that he wanted the people to suffer.

As with other high-ranking deities, Makaptan and his wife had several deities who worked under them. These lesser divinities were supervised by a  powerful god called Danapolay.

Meanwhile, the underworld ( Kasakitan ) was ruled by Makaptan ‘s brother, Sumpoy. When someone died, the soul would be transported to the infernal regions with the help of the boatman named Magyan (in other sources, his name is Magwayen ), also a brother of Makaptan . Once there, Sumpoy would take over and bring the soul to Kanitu-nituhan  where another deity called Sisiburanon awaited.

If the relatives failed to offer sacrifices to save the departed’s soul, Sisiburanon would order the soul to be fed to two ferocious giants of the underworld– Simuran and Siguinarugan .

Note that during those times, all souls usually passed through the underworld before they could enter the sky world. How quickly they would be transferred depended on whether their relatives sacrificed to a deity named Pandaque (or Pandaki ), known as Sidapa ‘s spokesman.

Part III: Mindanao Deities

If you think the Tagalog and Visayan mythology is mind-blowing enough, wait until you see what Mindanao offers. Religion and culture in the south are unique because of the Muslim and Hindu-Javanese influences that shaped them.

As a result, how our Mindanaoan ancestors worshiped the spirits in the pre-colonial era combined their old beliefs and those of the foreigners they came in contact with.

The colorful and fascinating Mindanao mythology would have probably died with our ancestors were it not for the few dedicated people who took the risk to study them.

The first mention of the Bagobos was in a letter written by a missionary named Fr. Matteo Gisbert, S.J. However, at the dawn of the 20th century, two authors went the extra mile and lived with the Bagobo tribe. They immersed themselves in their culture and wrote all the data they collected in their books.

I’m talking about  Laura Estelle Watson Benedict, an anthropologist, and Fay Cooper Cole, author of  “The Wild Tribes of Davao District, Mindanao.”

Thanks to these researchers’ hard work, we now know how our Mindanaoan ancestors made sense of everything. Take, for instance, the Bagobos: they didn’t understand “birth” and “death” as we do today. For them, there was no real death because there was no country for the departed souls, nor did they believe in “birth,” as they assumed the god made the additional creatures and left them so they could raise the babies on their own.

The Mindanao mythology is as colorful as the many tribes that lived on the island. They include the Bagobo, Manobo, Bukidnon, Subanon, and Tiruray. Let’s jump right in and explore the magical world of ancient Mindanao.

1. Pamulak Manobo

Among the Bagobos of Mindanao, a supreme god called  Pamulak  Manobo  was considered the creator of everything .

In Laura Watson Benedict’s “Bagobo Myths,” this diwata (a general term for deities) was also believed to be the creator of the first man and woman– Tuglay and Tuglibon. Another version suggests that the first humans were shaped out of corn meals and given life by Tuglay and Tuglibon , not Pamulak Manobo .

Going back to Benedict’s version of the story, Pamulak Manobo also created an eel ( kasili ) and a crab ( kayumang ). These two creatures are always together, and an earthquake occurs every time the crab bites the eel.

Pamulak Manobo was believed to be in control of other natural occurrences. When it rained, for example, the Bagobos believed it was the great god spitting or throwing water from heaven. On the other hand, the white clouds were actually the smoke from the fire produced by the other gods.

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Like his Luzon and Visayan counterparts, other lower-ranking deities also assisted this Bagobo god. Among them were Mandaragan and his wife Darago , the gods of war who lived inside Mt. Apo; Tigyama , the protector of families; and Tarabumo , the god of agriculture and whom a shrine called parobanian was built for.

There were also bad spirits working for Pamulak Manobo , including Buso , who fed on the flesh of the dead and was described as “huge beings with curly hair, big feet and long nails, small arms, and  possessed two big, pointed front teeth.”

2. Tuglay and Tuglibon

Tuglay and Tuglibon are the most prominent figures in ancient Bagobo culture. In Jocano’s  Oultine of  Philippine Mythology,  they are classified as assistants to Pamulak Manobo and were responsible for the births, marriages, language, and customs of the tribe.

In other sources, however, these two deities were either the world’s creator or co-creator of humanity. One of the Bagobo myths compiled by anthropologist Laura Estelle Watson Benedict shares similarities with Adam and Eve’s biblical story.

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Tuglay and Tuglibon created the world in the myth, while an equally powerful yet unidentified god made the first man and woman. One day, a snake approached the first humans and offered them a fruit. The cunning reptile convinced them to eat the said fruit so they could “open their eyes,” only to find out later that eating it prevented them from seeing the god forever.

In yet another interesting version of the origin myth, Tuglibon (or Tuglibong in other sources) was pounding rice when she noticed the sky was too close to the ground and was interfering with her activity. She scolded the sky and asked it to move up higher. The latter did as he was told, which explains why the sky is where it is now.

As for the origins of their names, the second syllable in Tuglay (i.e., “lay” or “lai”) means “man” in Malay, while the “libon” in Tuglibon means “virgin.”

3. Mebuyan and Lumabat

According to one Bagobo and Manobo myth, there once lived two deities named Lumabat (god of the sky) and Mebuyan (goddess of the underworld). They were siblings but complete opposites of each other.

Lumabat was a terrific hunter who once brought along his dog to catch an elusive deer. The hunt took so long that he was already old and gray when he caught the animal. Still, he returned to his people, eager to show them his power. Lumabat even killed his father eight times, and each time the latter magically came back to life, he became younger and younger.

When it was time for Lumabat to go to heaven, he wanted his sister, Mebuyan, to join him. The latter refused, and they started fighting each other. The Bagobo mythology describes Mebuyan as an ugly deity who decided to go down below the earth, where she now rules a place called  Banua Mebu’yan (Mebuyan’s town) . Here, she welcomes the spirits of the dead Bagobos before they go straight to Gimokudon , the Bagobo equivalent of the underworld.

It is said that Mebuyan has many breasts because she nurses and takes care of all the baby spirits before they join their families in Gimokudon. Adult spirits also stop by Mebuyan’s town, specifically in the black river, where they wash their joints and heads.

The ritual bath, known as pamalugu,  is done so that the spirits will not return to their earthly bodies and disrupt their journey to the underworld.

Note that the Manobo or Bagobo underworld, at least the one ruled by Mebuyan, has a relatively more positive connotation. It’s not a place where you can find a lake of fire and where the unbelievers are punished forever. In the book  “Arakan, Where Rivers Speak of The Manobo’s Living Dreams”  by Kaliwat Theatre Collective, Datu Mangadta Sugkawan gives us an interesting description of Mebuyan and her domain:

“Maibuyan (Mebuyan)….the diwata (deity) of the afterlife who takes care of all the souls before they receive Manama’s (Supreme Being) judgment…. Maibuyan’s entire domain is of pure gold on which the soul could clearly see its reflection. The souls there only talk about good and sensible things. If one starts to talk, everybody else listens. There is no need for food. Maibuyan’s domain in the underworld is where the soul lives a second life after its body–the physical twin–dies.”

Among the Ata-Manobo, a similar deity also existed. Rolando O. Bajo’s  “The Ata-Manobo: At the Crossroads of Tradition and Modernization” introduces us to a god of the afterlife named Moibulan. This deity takes care of the spirits in a place at the bottom of the earth called Sumowow , where the souls can only experience peace and happiness as they await their final judgment.

4. Tagbusan

The Manobos also believed in a supreme god– Tagbusan . This highest-ranking deity “ruled over the destiny of both gods and men.” And just like others of his kind in Philippine mythology, Tagbusan was also helped by other lesser divinities.

Among those who assisted Tagbusan in his day-to-day responsibilities were Kakiadan , the goddess of rice; Taphagan , the goddess of harvest; Tagbanua , the rain god; Umouiui , god of clouds; Sugudun (or Sugujun ), the god of hunters; Libtakan , god of sunrise and sunset; Yumud , god of water; Ibu , the queen or goddess of the underworld; and Apila , god of wrestling and sports.

There were also Manobo deities with evil intentions, like Tagabayau , the goddess who convinced people to engage in adultery or incest, and Agkui , a diwata who urged men to indulge in sexual excesses.

5. Magbabaya

Another essential deity from Mindanao is Magbabaya, considered by the Bukidnon as their highest-ranking deity. Other lesser divinities likewise assisted him:

Domalongdong , the deity of the Northwind;  Ognaling , the deity of Southwind;  Tagaloambung , the deity of Eastwind; and  Magbaya , the divinity of the Westwind.

Other interesting deities of Bukidnon mythology are Ibabasag , patroness of pregnant women;  Ipamahandi , goddess of the accident; and Tao-sa-sulup , god of material goods.

Among these gods and goddesses, a deity named Tigbas was the most respected by the Bukidnon, while the god of calamity, Busao , was the most feared and the last one they offered sacrifices to.

6. Other Mindanao Deities

Mindanao is composed of many tribes, and in each tribe, one can find plenty of deities and supernatural beings. I know it’s impossible to cover them all in one blog post but to live up to my promise of providing an “ultimate guide,” I’ll briefly mention some of them here.

The Tirurays believed that the first man and woman were created by a superhuman named  Sualla (or Tullus-God), who lived in the sky.

The Gianges of Cotabato, meanwhile, prayed to two major deities: Tigianes , creator of the world, and Manama , her governor. They also worshiped Todlay and Todlibun (notice the similarity with the Bagobos’ Tugla y and Tuglibon ), the gods of love and marriage, respectively.

Lastly, the Subanuns of upper Zamboanga were also guided by several deities, the most powerful of which was  Diwata-sa-langit , the god of heaven. The other deities are  Tagma-sa-dagat , lord of the sea;  Tagma-sa-yuta , lord of the earth; Tagma-sa-mangga-bungud , lord of the woods;  Tagmasa-uba , lord of the rivers; and  Tagma-sa-langit , god and protector of the sick.

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Written by Luisito Batongbakal Jr.

in Facts & Figures , Philippine Mythology

Luisito Batongbakal Jr.

Luisito E. Batongbakal Jr. is the founder, editor, and chief content strategist of FilipiKnow, a leading online portal for free educational, Filipino-centric content. His curiosity and passion for learning have helped millions of Filipinos around the world get access to free insightful and practical information at the touch of their fingertips. With him at the helm, FilipiKnow has won numerous awards including the Top 10 Emerging Influential Blogs 2013, the 2015 Globe Tatt Awards, and the 2015 Philippine Bloggys Awards.

Browse all articles written by Luisito Batongbakal Jr.

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Filipino Mythical Creatures: A Guide to Enchanting Legends

The Philippines, an archipelago with over 7,000 islands, is home to a diverse tapestry of cultures, each with its own set of folkloric tales and mythical creatures. These creatures are a testament to the rich imagination and cultural heritage of the Filipino people. Spanning more than 140 ethnic groups, the Philippines’ folklore is a vivid collection of mythological beings, enchanting monsters, and supernatural entities.

From the shape-shifting aswang to the forest-dwelling kapre, these mythical creatures have played a significant role in the country’s storytelling traditions. They are often the main characters in cautionary tales that impart moral lessons and cultural values. The beliefs in these creatures are not only fascinating subjects for study; they remain an integral part of the Philippine social fabric, influencing literature, media, and even daily life conversations.

For travelers and curious minds alike, exploring the mythical creatures of the Philippines is a journey through the mystical and the unknown, offering a unique glimpse into the country’s collective psyche and age-old traditions. Whether conveyed through spine-tingling ghost stories or celebrated in local festivals, these mythical beings are central to understanding the Philippines’ complex cultural landscape.

The Pantheon of Philippine Mythology

The diverse ethnic groups of the Philippines contribute to a rich tapestry of mythological beings. Cultural beliefs in these regions have birthed an extensive pantheon that includes both benevolent and malevolent entities.

Anito and Diwata

In many indigenous Filipino cultures, anitos refer to the spirits of ancestors or nature, revered and communicated with through ancient rituals. Diwatas are akin to what Western culture might consider fairies or minor deities, often associated with guarding natural domains and offering blessings or curses based on human actions. These entities hold a crucial place in the pantheon by acting as intermediaries between humans and the higher gods.

Bathala and the Highest Deities

At the top of this celestial hierarchy is Bathala , the supreme god and creator, ruling over the other gods and the cosmos. Bathala is also seen as the deity of everything that is above—the sky and the heavens. Alongside Bathala are various high-ranking deities, each presiding over specific aspects of the world, such as agriculture, war, or the sea. These deities are deeply revered and are often the central figures of Filipino mythological tales and worship practices.

Nature Spirits and Elemental Beings

Filipino mythology teems with a variety of nature spirits and elemental beings that are believed to inhabit and protect different facets of the natural world. These entities are often revered, feared, and deeply respected in Philippine folklore.

Diwatas of the Land

Diwatas are akin to faeries or nymphs and are considered benevolent guardians of nature. Luminous and ethereal, they are often imagined protecting forests and the creatures within. Folk tales describe them as stunningly beautiful beings, residing in large, ancient trees like the balete, and they are revered for their power to bestow good fortune or inflict curses depending on how they are treated.

Engkantos of the Waters

Engkantos are exquisite water elementals , believed to rule over bodies of water like seas, rivers, and lakes. They are often depicted as mermaid-like spirits or alluring figures emanating an unearthly grace. Traditionally, fishermen and seafarers pay their respects to these engkantos to ensure safe passage and a bountiful catch, mindful of their influence over the aquatic domain.

Nuno and the Earth Dwellers

Nuno sa Punso (Gnomes of the Mound):

• Described as small, elderly beings living in anthills or termite mounds known as “punso.”
• They demand respect from passersby; folklore suggests that one should ask permission before disturbing their homes to avoid misfortune or ailments.

Dwende (Dwarves):

• Similar to gnomes, dwendes are small magical beings that are said to inhabit houses, rural areas, and the woods.
• They are crafty and can be either mischievous or helpful to humans, often exchanging favors for respect or offerings.

Mystical Creatures by Region

Philippine folklore is rich with varied mythical creatures that reflect the unique cultures of the different regions. From the northern highlands of Luzon to the southern islands of Mindanao, each region boasts its own host of enchanting beings.

Luzon’s Mythical Entities

• Kapre : Often seen in large trees like the balete, the kapre is a giant who enjoys smoking a huge tobacco pipe.
• Tikbalang : They say this creature with the body of a man and the head of a horse guards the mountain ways.

Visayas’ Enchanted Beings

• Aswang : Varying from one locale to another, the aswang on this group of islands is known to morph from human to monster at night.
• Tiktik : A type of aswang, the tiktik is notorious for its long, tubular tongue used for sucking the blood of the unborn.

Mindanao’s Folkloric Spirits

• Bagat : Residing in the mountains of Mindanao, this spirit is known for guiding and protecting the land.
• Diwata : These are benevolent spirits or deities that were once said to inhabit the vast forests and deep seas of Mindanao.

Tales of the Aswang

Aswangs are a central figure in Philippine folklore, infamous for their malevolent shapeshifting abilities and their hunger for fear and flesh. Each type of Aswang has its distinct tales and behaviors that strike terror in the hearts of many.

The Vampiric Tiktik

The Tiktik is known for its vampiric nature , characterized by a long proboscis that it uses to suck the blood of the unborn or sleeping victims. They are often described as bird-like creatures that produce a distinct “tik-tik” sound, which grows fainter as they draw closer. This inverse relation between the sound and their proximity confounds their prey, masking their approach before they strike.

Shapeshifting Manananggal

Manananggals are notorious for their ghastly ability to sever their upper torso from their lower body and sprout wings to take flight. By night, they prey on pregnant women, utilizing an elongated tongue to feast on the hearts of fetuses or the blood of someone sleeping. Folktales recount how they can be vanquished by smearing garlic or salt on the lower half of the body they leave behind, preventing them from becoming whole and causing them to perish by sunrise.

Ghoul-like Ghurang

The Ghurang resemble ghouls with their predilection for feasting on corpses and causing mischief. They are said to dig up graves and consume the bodies within, sowing discord and disease. They often take the form of a black, hairy creature, engendering an insidious dread with their appearance and the revulsion associated with grave desecration.

Legendary Giants and Ogres

Within Filipino mythology, giants and ogres are depicted with striking characteristics and behaviors. These beings often serve as warning tales or guardians of the natural world.

Kapre: The Gentle Giant

The Kapre is a Philippine supernatural being that resembles a giant. They are typically described as very tall, dark-skinned, and extremely hairy. Kapres are known to inhabit big trees like the Banyan or old mango trees and are often depicted with a strong affinity for tobacco, smoking large cigars that create a distinct, lingering smoke. Despite their intimidating appearance, they are usually considered harmless. Some stories depict them as mischievous pranksters who enjoy leading travelers astray or disorienting people for their amusement.

Tikbalang: The Horse Demon

The Tikbalang stands out as a fearsome creature in Philippine folklore, notorious for leading travelers off their paths. This ogre-like being has the head and feet of a horse but stands upright like a humanoid on its hind legs. Legends say that Tikbalangs can be very tall, reaching imposing heights that tower over humans, and they are said to have a mane of sharp spines. Folklore suggests that to tame a Tikbalang or to avoid its trickery, one must pluck three of the beast’s mane hairs, which can subdue them and compel them to serve a human.

Mythical Beasts and Monsters

The folklore of the Philippines teems with mythical creatures, each with their own tales and traits that reflect the rich tapestry of Filipino mythology. From fearsome serpents to bull-like beasts with gleaming gems, these entities capture the imagination and cultural heritage of the country.

Bakunawa: The Moon Eater

Bakunawa , often depicted as a gigantic sea serpent, is a prominent figure in Philippine mythology. Believed to cause eclipses, this dragon-like creature is said to rise from the ocean depths to devour the moon, plunging the world into darkness. Various myths describe the Bakunawa as a deity that must be appeased or a foe that heroes must confront to restore the celestial balance.

Sarangay: The Bull with Jewel

The Sarangay is a creature that resembles a bull with a pair of heavy, twisting horns and a jewel embedded in its ears. Its fierce nature and territorial tendencies are well-known in the lore, with the jewel not only signifying its strength but also believed to be a source of magical powers. Those who dare to claim the jewel from a Sarangay often face its wrath, as it fiercely protects its prized possession.

Examining the ‘First Man & Woman From Bamboo’ Philippine Myths

Some Asian cultures believe that humanity emerged from a bamboo stem.  Malaysian legends have a similar story that describes a man who dreams of a beautiful woman while sleeping under  a bamboo plant; he wakes up and breaks the bamboo stem, discovering the woman inside. In the Japanese myth, Taketori Monogatari , which means Tale of the Bamboo Cutter a princess from the moon emerges forth from a shining section of bamboo. In a Philippine creation myth, legend tells that the first man and the first woman each emerged from split bamboo stems on an island created after the battle of the elemental forces, Sky and Ocean. This is the focus of this article.

I get asked several questions each week at The Aswang Project .  Many I can answer off the top of my head, but some involve further research.  I may forward resources to the person asking, or if it is something that truly piques my interest, it will form an article. I’ve had a few very interesting questions regarding the Tagalog and Visayan myth of the first man and woman emerging from bamboo.  Is it an animist belief? Is it Visayan or Tagalog? Are the names Malakas and Maganda traditional in the Tagalog story?

Human Creation in Philippine Myths

To “create” is commonly understood as “to produce something out of nothing.” For instance, when God said,  “Let there be light”, and there was light, he created light out of nothing. Before that there was only darkness and no material existed out of which the light was made.

Creation out of nothing is called a “first creation,” and is found principally in the Judaeo-Christian-Muslim tradition. It requires as creator a perfectly omnipotent being, thoroughly self-sufficient and capable of producing his own creation independent of any other power.

Creation as conceived of by early Filipinos is more in the nature of a “second creation,” therefore the making of a particular object out of some underlying material.

We find this in many Philippine creation stories. The creator makes a specific object: the world, the tree or man. Before the creation, the world, the tree or man were nonexistent; a sub-stratum is used to form them — such as wood, clay or rock. In many traditions these substances were always there, from the very beginning. Creation simply formed them into specific objects.

In most Philippine myths, the creation of people, or their emergence into this world, follows immediately after the creation of the world. Philippine myths explain the origin of the first people on earth in three main ways:

(1) people came to earth from Heaven, or the Skyworld;

(2) the first man and woman emerged, fully formed, from two nodes of a piece of bamboo, from two stumps of the banana plant, hatched from two eggs of a bird, etc.; and

(3) they were created by a god and his helpers out of earth or some other material.

An Ifugao myth tells us that Kabigat of the Skyworld , wishing to populate the Earthworld, caused his two children Wigan and Bugan to be carried by a flood down to earth. He sent after them every thing they would possibly need—a granary with rice, rice wine jars, dogs, chickens, pigs, cats, etc. The brother and sister eventually married, had children, and populated the earth. In a Visayan myth, we are likewise told that in the beginning, no one lived on earth. Then a hunter accidentally bore a hole on the ground of heaven and, looking through the hole, discovered the Earth. He and his companions descended to Earth by means of a rope of birds’ feathers and lived there. Only a fat woman who could not get through the hole was left in heaven (literally mooning us).

In a Bikol myth the first man and woman sprang from two hairs that grew on the cut arm of the god Bulan. In a Mandaya myth, the first man and woman came from two eggs of the limokon bird (a kind of dove). A Sulu Moro story combines the egg motif and the bamboo motif, by saying that the first man came from the egg of a bird. He later found his mate inside the bamboo.

In popularized myths on the creation of the first man and woman, it is usually the man who is created first and then the woman is created to keep man company.  When mentioned in Philippine myth, this may be due to Catholic/ Muslim influence or, in many cases,  simply a reflection of the roles gender played in pre-colonial times.  In an Igorot myth it was the woman who was created first and only when she found it hard to catch a pig for food did Kabunian create a man who could help her.  This likely reflects the generations of the traditional gender roles in that tribe.

Looking at stories of the first man and woman from various animist and polytheistic beliefs around the world, there are striking similarities  – of which would take an anthology to account. I would certainly feel confident saying these myths predate organized religion and were simply incorporated into them if similarities are found. These incorporations have then been syncretized into previously held animist beliefs, leaving the menagerie of human creations myths around the archipelago that have been documented through the centuries.

In order to understand the Tagalog myth, we must first look at its Visayan counterpart.

Visayan, The Man and Woman of the Bamboo:

Relacion de las yslas filipinas:.

The first account of this myth was documented by Miguel de Loarca in 1582.  It outlines the beliefs of the Hiligaynon (particularly those on Panay and Negros at the time).

Those of the coast, called Yligueynes (Hiligaynon), are of the opinion that heaven and earth had no beginning and that there were two gods , one of these called Captan and the other Maguayen and that the land breeze and he sea breeze were married and that the land breeze brought fo1ih a reed and that reed was planted by the god Captan and when it was frown, broke, and there were made from itself two sections which became a man and a woman the man was called Sicalac from which they call all men lalac and the woman they called Sicavay from which they afterward called the woman Babayes. The man told the woman that they should get married because there were no other people in the world; she said that she did not want to because they were brother and sister born of the same reed and there had not been more than one knot between them and that she did not want to marry him for being her brother. Finally they agreed to go and ask advice of the tunas (toninas) of the sea and the doves (palomas) in the air and lastly they went to seek the advice of the shaker of the earth (temblor de la tierra ), who said that it was necessary that they marry so that the world might be peopled and they got married and the first son they had was called Sibo and then a daughter named Samar and these two children had a daughter called Lupluban and this married a son of the first couple called Pandaguan … (who) was the first to invent fish corrals for fishing in the sea and the first time, he caught a shark and brought it ashore thinking that it would not die and when brought ashore it died and upon seeing it dead Pandaguan stared to lament and cry over the shark and to complain to the gods about the death of one when up to that time no one had died …

. . . The mountaineers , who called Tinggian … believe that in the beginning were only the sea and the sky; and that one day a kite, having no place where to alight, determined to set the sea against the sky. Accordingly, the sea declared war against the sky, and threw her waters upward. The sky, seeing this, made a treaty of peace with the sea. Afterward, to avenge himself upon her for having dared to assert herself, they say that he showered upon the sea all the islands of the archipelago, in order to subdue her; and that the sea ran to and fro without being able to rise again .. . Then they relate also the story of the reed; but they say that the kite pecked the reed, and the aforesaid man and woman came out. . . -Miguel de Loarca, trans. A.B. , Llopis Repotente

The Boxer Codex:

This myth was also documented in The Boxer Codex and follows the same cosmogony documented by Loarca. The Boxer Codex, sometimes known as the Manila Manuscript, is a manuscript written c. 1590, which contains illustrations of ethnic groups in the Philippines, ethnic groups across Southeast Asia, East Asia, and Micronesia at the time of their initial contact with the Spaniards with additional Taoist mythological deities and demons, and both real and mythological birds and animals copied from popular Chinese texts and books in circulation at the time.

It is believed that the original owner of the manuscript was Luis Pérez Dasmariñas, son of Governor General Gómez Pérez Dasmariñas, who was killed in 1593 by  Sangleys  or Chinese living in the Philippines. Luis succeeded his father in office as Governor-General of the Philippines. Since Spanish colonial governors were required to submit written reports on the territories they governed, it is likely that the manuscript was written under the orders of the governor.

The manuscript’s earliest known modern owner was Lord Ilchester. The codex was among what remained in his collection when his estate, Holland House in London, suffered from direct German shelling on September 27, 1940 during The Blitz. The manuscript was auctioned in 1947 and came into the possession of Professor Charles Ralph Boxer, an authority on the Far East, and after whom the document is named. It is now owned by the Lilly Library at Indiana University.

This account is prefaced in the manuscript by the statement, “The Bisayans have a belief about the origin and beginning of the world, which is something ridiculous and laughable and full of a thousand inconsistencies.”

It is not entirely clear which area of the Visayas this myth was documented.

In the beginning of time it is said, there was only the sky and there was only the sea. And a bird of prey flew between the sky and the sea without finding a place to rest. For there was no place to alight in the sky and nowhere in the sea.

And tired of flying continuously, the bird thought to create a quarrel between the sky and the sea. Flying upwards, the bird said to the sky: The sea has said that it wishes to rise and submerge you with water. And the sky said: If it does so, that will be unfortunate, for I will hurl upon it rocks and islands. I will drop into the sea so many rocks and islands that it will have to go around these and there will be too little space for the waves to rise high enough to drown me.

This the bird reported at once to the sea, who became so angry that it started throwing its waves up with such force and determination that the sky began to fear. It raised itself up a little higher to keep from being submerged. Do you see what it is trying to do? said the bird, flying from the sea to the sky. Whereupon the aroused sea redoubled its vigor and rose up to even greater heights. And the sky, no longer able to contain itself, began to throw down many rocks and many islands which thundered to the bottom of the sea. With their weight the sea subsided to its former level, for with the rocks and the islands, it could no longer rise to any great height.

The bird of prey gleefully flew down, finding rest at last from its continuous and wearying flight, upon a bit of earth.

While the bird rested on the island, a length of bamboo with two nodes was washed to the shore by the surf, roughly hitting the feet of the tired bird. The bird moved farther down the shore to avoid it but again the bamboo was washed ashore to where the bird was again hitting its feet. Thereupon the maddened bird pounced upon the bamboo and began to peck hard at the nodes.

The strength of the pecking split open the piece of bamboo. And, lo and behold, a brown sturdy creature was revealed sleeping in the hollow of the first node. And from the other node, a creature with supple limbs and flowing hair stepped down. And they stood on the vast and quiet island — the first man and woman upon the world.

The man (whose name was Calgue), approached the woman (whose name was Cabaye). He said: Now surely we must be wedded together so as to multiply and fill the earth with children. But the woman appeared stricken at this proposal. How can we marry, said she, when we are brother and sister, having come, as you can see, from the same bamboo. If we marry we shall be punished by our gods Maguay and Malaon.

Do not be afraid, the man told the first woman. It is all right for us to marry. But if you have any doubt, let us ask the fish in the sea. And agreeing on this, they walked to the edge of the sea and asked the silvery tunnies who replied that it was all right, they had also married, brothers and sisters together, and had multiplied greatly, as the man and woman could see, and they had not been punished by the gods for it.

But still the woman did not want to marry her brother for fear of the wrath of their gods. If you are still uncertain, said the man. then let us see what the birds have to say And they walked into the cool of the forest to ask the opinion of the doves resting in the trees. And the doves gave the same reply as the fishes, saying that it was good that the man and the woman should marry and beget children, for they themselves had done so, for which reason they had multiplied so much on earth, and the gods had not been displeased.

But still the woman would not marry her brother for fear of their gods. She said if she was to marry, it would only be after asking some god of their own, and if he said yes, then they would marry, but not before. So the first man agreed that they should ask their own god Linok who was the god of the earthquake. And Linok replied that it was all right, it was understandable, it was proper that they should marry in order to enlarge the world with their children, and never would the gods rage.

And so at last the woman was convinced, because the fishes and the birds and Linok, the god of the earthquake had said so. And the first man and woman were wedded by Linok. And they were happy, it is said.

A little later, the woman became pregnant, and gave birth all at one time to a large family of boys and girls. These children, however, grew up to be idlers, doing nothing but eating and sleeping all day. They did nothing worthwhile to help in their sustenance, and much less did they help their parents to earn a living. The time came when the children could no longer be supported, but still they never would do a stroke of work. Thereupon the parents became enraged and decided to throw the children out of their house.

The father took a fat stick, and on entering the house and seeing them all still playing and idling, began to shout: Get out of this house or I will beat you to death, each and everyone! And the children scampered away in terror, never having seen the father so angry.

Some of the children fled outside of the house of their father; others ran into the bedroom, some stayed in the living room though cowering. Still others went to the kitchen, hiding themselves among the unwashed pots and the chimneys.

And so it came about that from those who entered the bedroom came descendants who were lords and chiefs, and therefore respected. And from those who stayed in the living room came the warriors and nobles who were free and paid nothing. And from those who hid behind the walls of the house descended the slaves. Those who fled to the kitchen and hid among the sooty pots spawned the Negritos, who live in the mountains of the Philippines. As for those who left their father’s house and never returned nor were ever heard from, came all the other peoples in the world.

And this is the story of the creation of the earth and the beginning of mankind according to the Bisaya.

The Tagalog Creation Story:

Philippine folk tales.

The original documentation of the Tagalog myth appeared in Mabel Cook Cole’s 1916 Philippine Folk Tales .  It is strikingly similar to the Visayan story, so it is unclear if it was misdocumented, mistold, or misinterpreted as a Tagalog tale. Or perhaps, the Tagalogs had their own version that had yet to be documented.  Mabel Cook Cole prefaces this section of myths noting the influences from Christianity, western literature, and other native ideas.

When the world first began there was no land, but only the sea and the sky, and between them was a kite. One day the bird which had nowhere to light grew tired of flying about, so she stirred up the sea until it threw its waters against the sky. The sky, in order to restrain the sea, showered upon it many islands until it could no longer rise, but ran back and forth. Then the sky ordered the kite to light on one of the islands to build her nest, and to leave the sea and the sky in peace.

Now at this time the land breeze and the sea breeze were married, and they had a child which was a bamboo. One day when this bamboo was floating about on the water, it struck the feet of the kite which was on the beach. The bird, angry that anything should strike it, pecked at the bamboo, and out of one section came a man and from the other a woman.

Then the earthquake called on all the birds and fish to see what should be done with these two, and it was decided that they should marry. Many children were born to the couple, and from them came all the different races of people.

After a while the parents grew very tired of having so many idle and useless children around, and they wished to be rid of them, but they knew of no place to send them to. Time went on and the children became so numerous that the parents enjoyed no peace. One day, in desperation, the father seized a stick and began beating them on all sides.

This so frightened the children that they fled in different directions, seeking hidden rooms in the house—some concealed themselves in the walls, some ran outside, while others hid in the fireplace, and several fled to the sea.

Now it happened that those who went into the hidden rooms of the house later became the chiefs of the Islands; and those who concealed themselves in the walls became slaves. Those who ran outside were free men; and those who hid in the fireplace became negroes; while those who fled to the sea were gone many years, and when their children came back they were the white people.

Bathala, the chief god of the Tagalogs , was identified with the tigmamanukin, a small bird. In his Relacion , Fr. Pedro Chirino wrote: “The Tagalogs adored a blue bird as large as a thrush, and called it Bathala , which was among them a term of divinity” ; to which Blair and Robertson added in a note: “The Tagals also called this bird tigmamanukin; its scientific name is Irene cyanogastra Meyer. ” There is a very real possibility that the myth and the motifs in the Tagalog first man and woman myth were genuinely spread.  The opposite is also possible given the almost verbatim account.

Malakas and Maganda

This is where things get very suspect.  The myth is essentially the same as what Mabel Cook Cole documented, but the first man and woman have been given the names Malakas and Maganda.  What becomes even more curious is that the following myth is often sourced from Cole’s documentation even though the names do not appear there.

 In the beginning there was only sky, sea, and a single bird. The bird grew tired and, while looking for a place to rest, stirred up the sea until its waters reached the sky. The sky then showered the sea with islands in order to calm it down, and told the bird to pick an island to build its nest there.

One day, the bird was struck by a bamboo pole, the child of the land and sea breezes. Annoyed the bird struck at the nodes of the bamboo until it split. From one half a man, Malakas (“strong one”) emerged and from the other half a woman, Maganda (“beautiful one”). Then the earthquake called on all the birds and fish to see what should be done with these two, and it was decided that they should marry. They had a great number of children.

One day the couple grew tired of the offspring’s idleness and wanted to get rid of them. Malakas grabbed a stick and started beating their children. This scared them so much that they fled to all directions, seeking hidden rooms in the house. Some concealed themselves in the walls, some ran outside, while others hid in the fireplace, and several fled to the sea.

Those who went into the hidden rooms of the house later became the chiefs of the islands. Those who concealed themselves in the walls became slaves, while those who ran outside were free men. The children who hid in the fireplace became dark-skinned; while those who fled to the sea were gone many years, and when their children came back they had white skins.

MALAKAS and MAGANDA were characters in the play “Malakas and Maganda” , by Antonio O. Bayot featured in “Prize Winning Plays of the Arena Theatre of the Philippines” , 1956.  But the duo  appeared in literature as early as 1931 in Jose Garcia Villa’s  “Malakas: A Story of Old-time Philippines.” These writings  have nothing to do with the creation myth, but the character names were very popular in Philippine plays and literature between this time.  From what I can find, the first documentation of Malakas and Maganda in the creation myth came from Francisco B. Icasiano, known as “Mang Kiko,” who wrote familiar, often humorous essays on the rural life in his column “From My Nipa Hut,” later collected as a book entitled Horizons From My Nipa Hut , 1941.  The essay titled “Barrio Synthesis” recounts this tale (including the names Malakas and Maganda) and has been used in educational textbooks for decades.  It was only a fter this that the Tagalog myth began including these character names, and was then immortalized with the amazing artistic interpretation by Nestor Redondo. as far as I can find, the names Malakas & Maganda do not appear in any reliable source for Philippine myth and folklore prior to this date.

The names attached to this myth became even more popularized when Ferdinand Marcos had Imelda commission paintings for Malacanang Palace. The doors leading to the Grand Staircase were said to  depict the Philippine legend of ‘ Malakas  ‘ ( Strong ) and ‘  Maganda ‘ ( Beautiful ) , the first Filipino man and woman who emerged from a large bamboo stalk.  In an egotistic  and propogandian gesture, Malakas was portrayed as Ferdinand, and Maganda as Imelda.

In Conclusion:

The myth of the ‘man and woman from bamboo’ is certainly a traditional Visayan myth from the time of Spanish contact.  It is not beyond the realm of possibility that the Tagalogs shared a very similar myth, although the original documentation (Cole) clearly gave guidance as to our acceptance of authenticity to the folktales in that particular chapter.  What I can say with almost complete certainty is that the names of the first man and woman, Malakas and Maganda, were included in a 1941 retelling of the myth to reflect popular literature and poetry of the time.  The use of that essay in education solidified it into popular opinion.

SOURCES: Francisco R. Demetrio S.J. , Myths and Symbols, Philippines (National Bookstore Inc. 1978) Farrin Chwalkowski, Symbols in Arts, Religion and Culture: The Soul of Nature (Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2016) Damiana Eugenio, Philippine Folk Literature: The Myths, (UP Press, 2001) Miguel de Loarca, Relacion de las Yslas Filipinas, Arevalo, June, 1582 Mabel Cook Cole, Philippine Folk Tales (Chicago: A. C. McClurg and Company, 1916) Maximo Ramos, The Creation of Man in Philippine Myths , (?) Garcia Villa, Jose. “Malakas: A Story of Old-time Philippines.” New Mexico Quarterly 1, 2 (1931). https://digitalrepository.unm.edu/ nmq/vol1/iss2/13 Francisco B. Icasiano, Horizons From My Nipa Hut , (Nipa Hut Publishing, 1941)

ALSO READ: Tungkung Langit & Alunsina | The ‘Other’ Visayan Creation Story

Jordan Clark is a Canadian born descendant of Scottish immigrants living on the homelands of the Lekwungen speaking peoples. His interest in Philippine myth and folklore began in 2004. Finding it difficult to track down resources on the topic, he founded The Aswang Project in 2006. Shortly after, he embarked on a 5 year journey, along with producing partner Cheryl Anne del Rosario, to make the 2011 feature length documentary THE ASWANG PHENOMENON – an exploration of the aswang myth and its effects on Philippine society. In 2015 he directed “The Creatures of Philippine Mythology” web-series, which features 3 folkloric beings from the Philippines – the TIKBALANG , KAPRE and BAKUNAWA . Episodes are available to watch on YouTube. Jordan recently oversaw the editing for the English language release of Ferdinand Blumentritt’s DICCIONARIO MITOLÓGICO DE FILIPINAS (Dictionary of Philippine Mythology) and is working on two more releases with fellow creators scheduled for release later this year. When his nose isn’t in a book, he spends time with his amazing Filipina wife of 20 years and their smart and wonderful teenaged daughter.

Rediscovering the Value of Philippine Mythology for Philippine Schools: Literature Review

• Alliah Samantha Sugue University of the Philippines Baguio, Baguio City, Philippines
• MERCEDITA REYES [email protected] CENTRAL LUZON STATE UNIVERSITY

The Philippines is one of the countries rich in culture, characterized by different literary art forms, such as indigenous rituals and folk narratives that are passed on to future generations. However, although there have been recurring studies about these literary pieces, some narratives and fields of literary studies are being neglected, such as Philippine Mythology. Yet, the preservation and recognition of Philippine myths may be resolved through the copious integration of these myths into the academe. In this article, the author introduced the state of literature, mainly folk narratives, in Philippine schools and the nature of myths, including the different mythological creatures present in them. There are many discussions concerning the appreciation of these texts from different articles and studies from prominent authors, yet reliving these myths remains not progressive. Schools are one of the most accessible yet trusted sources of facts and important learning, which also are home for young generations who are supposed to be heirs of these value-laden artifacts.

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Copyright (c) 2022 MERCEDITA REYES

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License .

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Home / Essay Samples / Literature / Myths / Malakas And Maganda: Mythical Creatures in the Philippines

Malakas And Maganda: Mythical Creatures in the Philippines

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