personal definition of health essay

Essay on Health for Students and Children

500+ words essay on health.

Essay on Health: Health was earlier said to be the ability of the body functioning well. However, as time evolved, the definition of health also evolved. It cannot be stressed enough that health is the primary thing after which everything else follows. When you maintain good health , everything else falls into place.

Similarly, maintaining good health is dependent on a lot of factors. It ranges from the air you breathe to the type of people you choose to spend your time with. Health has a lot of components that carry equal importance. If even one of them is missing, a person cannot be completely healthy.

Constituents of Good Health

First, we have our physical health. This means being fit physically and in the absence of any kind of disease or illness . When you have good physical health, you will have a longer life span. One may maintain their physical health by having a balanced diet . Do not miss out on the essential nutrients; take each of them in appropriate quantities.

Secondly, you must exercise daily. It may be for ten minutes only but never miss it. It will help your body maintain physical fitness. Moreover, do not consume junk food all the time. Do not smoke or drink as it has serious harmful consequences. Lastly, try to take adequate sleep regularly instead of using your phone.

Next, we talk about our mental health . Mental health refers to the psychological and emotional well-being of a person. The mental health of a person impacts their feelings and way of handling situations. We must maintain our mental health by being positive and meditating.

Subsequently, social health and cognitive health are equally important for the overall well-being of a person. A person can maintain their social health when they effectively communicate well with others. Moreover, when a person us friendly and attends social gatherings, he will definitely have good social health. Similarly, our cognitive health refers to performing mental processes effectively. To do that well, one must always eat healthily and play brain games like Chess, puzzles and more to sharpen the brain.

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Physical Health Alone is Not Everything

There is this stigma that surrounds mental health. People do not take mental illnesses seriously. To be completely fit, one must also be mentally fit. When people completely discredit mental illnesses, it creates a negative impact.

For instance, you never tell a person with cancer to get over it and that it’s all in their head in comparison to someone dealing with depression . Similarly, we should treat mental health the same as physical health.

Parents always take care of their children’s physical needs. They feed them with nutritious foods and always dress up their wounds immediately. However, they fail to notice the deteriorating mental health of their child. Mostly so, because they do not give it that much importance. It is due to a lack of awareness amongst people. Even amongst adults, you never know what a person is going through mentally.

Thus, we need to be able to recognize the signs of mental illnesses . A laughing person does not equal a happy person. We must not consider mental illnesses as a taboo and give it the attention it deserves to save people’s lives.

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What Health and Wellness Mean to Me: A Personal Perspective

First officially recognized by President Gerald Ford in 1976, Black History Month is celebrated in the United States each February. 1  This year, 2022, amidst a global pandemic and uniquely confronted with glaring evidence of concerning health disparities in the Black community, the theme for Black History Month is  Black Health and Wellness .

I enter this space as a cishet 2  married Black woman and mother who holds a master’s degree in nursing and a “good government job.” My privilege allows me to write this blog while in my dining room of the house I own in Howard County, Maryland. My space allows me to consider what health and wellness means to me.

My definitions of health and wellness are highly personal, experienced from my place of privilege. To me, health means more than simply being free from disease. Health is multidimensional. From where I sit, health means a state in which a person’s physical, emotional, mental, financial, and spiritual goals have been reached.

For me, wellness is a journey to health. Wellness is my personal choice to take actions to honor my health needs in ways that are most sustainable and caring for me. Wellness incorporates finding balance and learning to trust my instincts and body. I make decisions each day that align with personal goals and needs, as an act of self-care and a great step toward better health. Some of those decisions include transitioning to a standing desk and taking more walks. I feel better when I focus on incorporating more rest and sleep. As a person who tends to be more introverted, finding the balance between social and alone time is of high value to me.

As a person with a family, my personal journey toward health and wellness includes ensuring those I care for and love are well-positioned to achieve their own definitions of health through daily wellness. In my home, we enjoy trying different foods. We spend much of our time in the warmer months outside in our community. We enjoy walking by our community lakes, swimming at the pool or the beach, yard work, etc. My sons and daughter each participate in team athletics, leaving my husband and I with many hours of practice time to focus on our own health. I often use this time to take long walks, enjoy nature, read a book, and generally take time for self-focus and reflection, or even time to enjoy music or podcasts.

As a registered nurse (RN), I feel it is my duty to work to improve the health and wellness of everyone I encounter. I spent my clinical career serving the Baltimore, Maryland, community as an emergency room nurse for many years. I witnessed numerous accounts of people struggling just to survive, never mind achieve health and wellness. There were problems with access to care, discrepancies in health literacy, repercussions of violence and substance misuse, and evidence of food access inequality. Even in those dire circumstances, I found that taking the time to gain an understanding of my patients’ concerns and the barriers they faced placed me in a unique position to help them in a way that would be beneficial in a truly meaningful way. Sometimes, it was as simple as giving them a list of pharmacies in their zip code or explaining why it was important to take medications at specific times of day. Other times, it involved a more complex approach. Whatever the approach, it was always important to validate what my patients needed and find an individual approach to assist.

Black History Month 2022 provides us with an opportunity to truly focus our lens on what health and wellness mean to us individually and as members of, or allies for, the Black community. We should each take the time to review evidence and determine actions that we can take daily to improve our health and wellness.

The  National Institute of Minority Health Disparities  has a wealth of public health information. When considering the COVID-19 pandemic, we can accompany loved ones needing to obtain a vaccine. We can each work to dispel the myths about the vaccine by providing resources such as the  Addressing COVID-19 Misinformation Toolkit . Striving for a world in which everyone’s unique health needs and wellness journeys are possible is more than worth my focus and energy.

https://africanamericanhistorymonth.gov

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How should we define health?

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• Peer review
• Machteld Huber , senior researcher 1 ,
• J André Knottnerus , president, Scientific Council for Government Policy 2 ,
• Lawrence Green , editor in chief, Oxford Bibliographies Online—public health 3 ,
• Henriëtte van der Horst , head 4 ,
• Alejandro R Jadad , professor 5 ,
• Daan Kromhout , vice president, Health Council of the Netherlands 6 ,
• Brian Leonard , professor 7 ,
• Kate Lorig , professor 8 ,
• Maria Isabel Loureiro , coordinator for health promotion and protection 9 ,
• Jos W M van der Meer , professor 10 ,
• Paul Schnabel , director 11 ,
• Richard Smith , director 12 ,
• Chris van Weel , head 13 ,
• Henk Smid , director 14
• 1 Louis Bolk Institute, Department of Healthcare and Nutrition, Hoofdstraat 24, NL-3972 LA Driebergen, Netherlands
• 2 Department of General Practice, Maastricht University, Scientific Council for Government Policy, Postbus 20004, NL-2500 EA The Hague, Netherlands
• 3 Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Medicine, University of California at San Francisco, USA
• 4 Department of General Practice, VU Medical Center, Amsterdam, Netherlands
• 5 Centre for Global eHealth Innovation, Toronto General Hospital, Toronto, Canada
• 6 Department of Public Health Research, Wageningen University, The Hague, Netherlands
• 7 Pharmacology Department, National University of Ireland, Galway, Ireland
• 8 Stanford Patient Education Research Center, Palo Alto, CA, USA
• 9 National School of Public Health/New University of Lisbon, Portugal
• 10 General Internal Medicine, Radboud University Nijmegen Medical Centre, Nijmegen, Netherlands
• 11 Netherlands Institute for Social Research, The Hague, Netherlands
• 12 UnitedHealth Chronic Disease Initiative, London, UK
• 13 Department of Primary and Community Care, Radboud University Nijmegen Medical Centre
• 14 Netherlands Organisation for Health Research and Development, The Hague, Netherlands
• Correspondence to: M Huber m.huber{at}louisbolk.nl
• Accepted 15 June 2011

The WHO definition of health as complete wellbeing is no longer fit for purpose given the rise of chronic disease. Machteld Huber and colleagues propose changing the emphasis towards the ability to adapt and self manage in the face of social, physical, and emotional challenges

The current WHO definition of health, formulated in 1948, describes health as “a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity.” 1 At that time this formulation was groundbreaking because of its breadth and ambition. It overcame the negative definition of health as absence of disease and included the physical, mental, and social domains. Although the definition has been criticised over the past 60 years, it has never been adapted. Criticism is now intensifying, 2 3 4 5 and as populations age and the pattern of illnesses changes the definition may even be counterproductive. The paper summarises the limitations of the WHO definition and describes the proposals for making it more useful that were developed at a conference of international health experts held in the Netherlands. 6

Limitations of WHO definition

Most criticism of the WHO definition concerns the absoluteness of the word “complete” in relation to wellbeing. The first problem is that it unintentionally contributes to the medicalisation of society. The requirement for complete health “would leave most of us unhealthy most of the time.” 4 It therefore supports the tendencies of the medical technology and drug industries, in association with professional organisations, to redefine diseases, expanding the scope of the healthcare system. New screening technologies detect abnormalities at levels that might never cause illness and pharmaceutical companies produce drugs for “conditions” not previously defined as health problems. Thresholds for intervention tend to be lowered—for example, with blood pressure, lipids, and sugar. The persistent emphasis on complete physical wellbeing …

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Home — Essay Samples — Nursing & Health — Childhood Obesity — Importance Of Good Health

Importance of Good Health

• Categories: Childhood Obesity

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Published: Mar 14, 2024

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The Meaning of Health Essay

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Health is the state of being physically, mentally, and socially fit.

In other words, it is the well-being of a person in body, mind and spirit without any injury, sickness, or pain.

Health is a condition that undergoes changes due to the body’s adjustment and adaptation as it responds to dynamic environment and stress. Health is measured using the health triangle, which constitutes physical, mental, and social well-being.

Physical health is the ability of the body to stay active and strong. Nevertheless, improvement of this health requires proper diet, exercise, getting enough sleep and weight management. A nutritious diet helps reduce diseases because it improves immunity. Exercise is also important as it keeps the body fit and fine. Sleep is a vital element of health since proper sleep keeps the body alert and fresh, therefore improving the lifestyle. Likewise, health management is an imperative element of health because weight needs control; having less or much weight is a contributing factor to ill health (Housman and Dorman 304).

Mental health is the cognitive and emotional well-being, which involves coping with the daily causes of stress. Mental health also means the absence of a mental condition. An individual’s mental health can have an effect on his lifestyle because it determines whether he will enjoy life and the balance between everyday activities as well as the ability to attain psychological resilience (Nutter 23).

Social health is the ability of an individual to live well with other people in society. It entails good relationships with friends, family members, workmates and other people. Having good relations with family members and friends is very important in improving one’s social health. Social health leads to self-esteem, confidence, and positivity in life.

Additionally, The World Health Organization – 1986 points out that health is not only a state but also a resource for daily living, and not an objective. Many activities are meant to shun and cure health conditions to promote the right health in human beings. Health care providers deliver these activities while the veterinary officers provide animal health.

Other factors that determine the health of an individual include health services, individual behavior, and biology and genetics. Access to proper and high quality health services can bring a positive impact on an individual’s health but it depends on the level of access. Those who do not have insurance coverage on health are more likely to suffer from diseases since they may not participate in preventive care. Lack of availability of health care services, insurance coverage and high cost may also hinder people from getting proper health care (Wilkinson and Marmot 25).

Individual behavior also affects people’s health. For example, those who do not smoke or quit smoking are likely to have better health than those who smoke. Many health care providers focus on transforming an individual’s behaviors like substance abuse, eating habits and physical activities. In addition, biological and genetic factors are likely to affect an individual’s health because older people are biologically likely to have poor health than young adults because of physical and cognitive causes of aging.

In conclusion, good health is not only staying without diseases, but also living happily from a social, physical, and psychological point of view. Being healthy does not only entail taking drugs when sick, but also taking care of ourselves to prevent diseases and change our attitude towards life. Caring for our health means that we do the things that make us feel good, including proper eating habits and exercise. In essence, According to World Health Organization, health awareness is increasing all over the globe since people are concerned about various health-related matters. They have realized that good health and physical well-being are basic requirements for humans.

Works Cited

Housman, Jeff and Steve Dorman. “The Alameda County Study: A Systematic, Chronological Review.” American Journal of Health Education, 36.5 (2005): 302-308.

Nutter, S. The Health Triangle. Grasonville, MD: Anchor Points, Inc., 2003. Print.

Wilkinson, Richard and Michael Marmot. Social Determinants of health: The solid facts. 2nd ed. Copenhagen: World Health Organization: 2003. Web.

World Health Organization. Quality and Accreditation in Health Care Services. 2003. Web.

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Essays About Health: Top 5 Examples and 7 Prompts

Almost everyone would agree that health is the most important thing in life. Check out our guide on writing essays about health.

The concept of health is simple. It is the condition where you are well and free from disease or illness. When we are healthy, we are happier, more productive, and able to live a full life. There are many types of health, each helping us to survive and excel in different areas of our life, including physical, mental, spiritual, and emotional health.

In the same ways, there are different ways to stay healthy, such as exercise, socialization, and self-care. These areas of health may not all be equally important, but each of them plays a vital role in making us the best versions of ourselves we can be. You might also find our medical words list helpful.

5 Top Essay Examples

1. essay on how to keep healthy by diwakar sharma, 2. what it’s like living with depression: a personal essay by nadine dirks, 3. the advantages of eating healthy food by lindsay boyers.

• 4.  A Helping Hand: An Essay On The Importance Of Mental Health Parity by Sydney Waltner

5. ​​Stop Trying to be Happy: Improving Your Emotional Health by Jacquelynn Lyon

7 prompts for essays about health, 1. what is the most important type of health, 2. do television and video games negatively impact mental , 3. freedom and public health, 4. how can you live a healthier life, 5. what causes depression, 6. mental health and eating disorders, 7. is “spiritual health” really necessary.

“I think there is no use in earning money in such a way that denies our health. Money is not important than health as it cannot return health and fitness back once we are ill. Thus health is always preferred over money as good health keeps us happy and free from various health issues. If we are healthy we can earn whole life but can’t earn if the health gets deteriorated.”

Sharma discusses the importance of health and ways to stay healthy, including eating nutritious food, drinking water, keeping a good sleep schedule, and exercising. In addition, he notes that it is essential to prioritize your health; do not work too hard or chase money to the extent that it affects your health negatively. You can also check out these articles about cancer .

“I was pleasantly surprised when—after around three weeks—I started feeling results. My intense feeling of overwhelming sadness and hopelessness slowly started to lift and the fears I had about not feeling like myself dissipated. I had worried I would feel less like myself on fluoxetine, but instead for the first time, in a long time—I felt more like myself and able to function throughout the day. Receiving treatment and building healthy coping mechanisms has allowed me to continue to function, even when a depressive episode hits.”

Depression is one of the first things people think of concerning mental health. In her essay, Dirks reflects on her experiences with depression, recalling her feelings of hopelessness and sadness, putting her in a dull, lethargic mood. However, she got help by going to a doctor and starting medication and therapy. Dirks also lists down a few symptoms of depression, warning readers to get help if they are experiencing a number of them.

“A healthful diet is just as good for your brain as the rest of your body. Unhealthy foods are linked to a range of neurological problems. Certain nutrient deficiencies increasing the risk of depression. Other nutrients, like potassium, actually involved in brain cell function. A varied, healthful diet keeps your brain functioning properly, and it can promote good mental health as well.”

Boyers discusses some benefits of healthy eating, such as weight control, reduced risk of diabetes and cancer, and better brain function- an unhealthy diet is linked to neurological problems. She gives readers tips on what they should and should not eat in huge quantities, saying to avoid sugary foods and drinks while eating lean meat, fruits, vegetables, and whole grains. You might also be interested in these essays about nursing and essays about obesity .

4.   A Helping Hand: An Essay On The Importance Of Mental Health Parity by Sydney Waltner

“For three years I was one of those people hiding my illness. I was quietly suffering from depression and an eating disorder. My whole day revolved around my eating disorder and hiding it from everyone. This caused a lot of sadness, anger, and loneliness. I not only hid it from others, but I also tried to hide it from myself. I tried to convince myself that nothing was wrong because I did not fully understand what was happening.  I did not know what was making me hurt myself and why I could not stop.”

Waltner writes her essay about the importance of mental health and how it can also affect one’s physical health. She recalls her experiences with hiding her depression and eating disorder; they led to her immense suffering, but her parents discovered her illness before it was too late. She is grateful for how her life is now and encourages others to break the stigma around mental health issues and speak up if something is wrong with them. 

“Beautiful people, smart people, funny people, leaders, lawyers, engineers, professional clowns, everyone you’ve ever looked up to — they have suffered in their lives, and probably will continue to suffer at some point.”

The obsession with making yourself happy will forever have you either not valuing the present or will lead to despair when you do find it — and it’s still not enough. This cycle of self-abuse, dissatisfaction, and emotional isolation can paralyze us, hinder our actions, and mar our self-perception.

Lyon reflects on something she discovered in her first year of college: that it’s fine if you’re not always happy. She says that society’s pressure for everyone to be positive and happy 100% of the time is detrimental to many people’s emotional and mental health. As a result, she gives readers tips on being happy in a “healthier” way: happiness should not be forced, and you should not constantly compare yourself to others. 

There are many types of health, each playing an essential role in helping us live well. If you were to pick one, which do you believe is the most important? You can choose mental well-being, physical well-being, or spiritual well-being. Use your personal experiences in defending your choice; be sure to support your stance with sufficient details. 

For a strong argumentative essay, write about the correlation between “screen time” or video games and television with mental health. Are they that bad for people’s mental health? Perhaps they are good for the mental health of some people. Research this topic and support your response with credible sources- there is no wrong answer as long as it is well-defended. For an interesting piece, conduct interviews to gather information.

Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, many argue that some freedoms must be given up for the greater good. These include mask mandates, vaccine mandates, and stay-at-home orders. Write about whether or not public health should be prioritized over “individual liberty” and why. If so, to what extent? Answer this question in your own words for a compelling argument.

Like many of our cited essay examples above, you can write your essay on how to stay healthy. Give your readers some mental, physical, or social guidelines for being healthier, and explain why they are important. You can even do a more well-rounded guide; give a few tips for each type of health if you wish. 

As stated previously, a prevalent health issue is depression, which can stem from various factors. Look into the different causes of depression and explain how they lead to depression. In this essay, you can share your research on social factors, economic factors, and health conditions that can make a person more susceptible to depression. As this is a medical-related topic, use credible sources for your research. 

Many believe there is a correlation between mental health and obesity, anorexia, and bulimia—research how mental health issues can cause these issues or vice versa, depending on what you find. In your essay, explain the link between mental health issues and eating disorders and how they can affect each other.

A type of health commonly listed is spiritual health, which many religious people value. Should it be classified as something different? Many believe the components of “spiritual health” already fall under mental, social, emotional, and social health, so there is no need to classify it as something different. Reflect on this issue and discuss your stance. 

For help with this topic, read our guide explaining “what is persuasive writing ?”

If you’re stuck picking an essay topic, check out our guide on how to write essays about depression .

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Health: redefined

Obinna ositadimma oleribe.

1 Excellence and Friends Management Care Centre (EFMC), Dutse Abuja FCT, Nigeria

Omole Ukwedeh

Nicholas jonathan burstow.

2 Liver Unit, Department of Surgery and Cancer, St. Mary’s Hospital Campus, Imperial College London, Praed Street, London, W2 1NY, United Kingdom

Asmaa Ibrahim Gomaa

3 National Liver Institute, Menoufiya University, Shbeen El Kom, Egypt

Mark Wayne Sonderup

4 Division of Hepatology, Department of Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Cape Town and Groote Schuur Hospital, Cape Town, South Africa

Nicola Cook

Wendy spearman, simon david taylor-robinson.

For many years the definition of 'health' has remained unchanged as a narrow concept, encompassing physical wellbeing from a medical context. This somewhat focused definition has attracted criticism from individuals and professional bodies alike. Recent attempts have been made to redefine health, each offering an alternative viewpoint from sociological, environmental, societal and economic standpoints. We summarize and contextualize these definitions and provide an alternative, new, all-encompassing definition of health.

Over the past years, different healthcare professionals, whether groups or individuals, have developed and defended various definitions of what a true state of “health” actually means. Despite several different definitions, there are still debates and disagreements on the precise meaning of health. In this review, the notion of “health” is discussed, reviewed and redefined.

What is “health”? : Health is an amorphous word that lacks a single definition. To some, “health is wealth” -given that in the absence of good health, an individual or society cannot attain its full potential. Mahatma Gandhi validated this in 1948 when he said: “It is health that is real wealth and not pieces of gold and silver [ 1 ].” He was alluding to the idea that health is more important than monetary wealth, and that a society cannot prosper unless its people are healthy. Health is necessary for productivity and to fully enjoy life. Health is relative and has situational, professional and even societal definitions. For example, to an athlete, health may mean being physically fit so as to complete a 5000m race. For an employee forced to miss work due to a bout of influenza, health may mean being able to return to work. In contrast to physical health, a person in an unhappy relationship may be concerned about their mental health. Finally, references to “health” are used in a non-medical context. For example: “efforts to build a healthy economy” or a sports team having a “healthy starting line-up.” With so many possible applications of the word, the question arises as to what it actually means to be healthy. The word “health” is derived from an old English word, “hale”, which means “wholeness, being whole or sound.” Despite its origins, there are several etymological meanings and these definitions have evolved over time. Early definitions focused on biomedical aspects: health was seen as the ability of the body to carry out its biological functions and any disruption in these functions was viewed as a disease. For instance, the Oxford online dictionary (2016), defines health as: “a state of being, free from illness or injury [ 2 ].” Similarly, Merriam-Webster online dictionary (2016) defines health simply as: “the condition of being well or free from disease [ 3 ].” That is, the condition of being sound in body, mind, or spirit; especially freedom from physical disease or pain [ 3 ]. While these definitions have merit, their scope is limited. Perhaps the most established modern day definition of health was termed by the World Health Organization (WHO) in 1948, when it stated: “Health is a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity [ 4 ].” For the first time, domains of health beyond merely biomedical aspects were considered, emphasizing the importance of mental and social wellbeing.

Criticisms of the current definition, and existing alternatives : However, although comprehensive, the WHO definition of health has received criticism [ 5 , 6 ]. Most criticisms center on the word “complete”, which many believe to be absolute, and difficult to measure. Furthermore, questions arise over whether it is even possible for a person to be without any physical, mental or social challenges. Smith argues that this prerequisite for completeness would mean many would be unhealthy most of the time [ 7 ]. In addition, the increase in the prevalence of chronic disease would mean that many with even minor long-term ailments would be persistently classified as being ill [ 8 ]. Indeed, this need for “complete” wellbeing brings the risk of over-medicalization; redefining and treating conditions not previously identified as health problems, leading to individuals receiving unnecessary interventions [ 8 ]. In 1982, Stokes, Noren and Shindell took the concept further by defining health as: “a state characterized by anatomic, physiologic, and psychological integrity; an ability to perform personally valued family, work, and community roles; an ability to deal with physical, biologic, psychological, and social stress [ 9 ].” Thus, for one to be healthy, one needs to be in perfect physical, psychological and social state. Interestingly, this definition introduces the concept of resilience, whereby health is not an absolute state of well-being as previously described [ 4 ], but also a means of coping with stressors experienced by an individual [ 9 ]. It therefore follows, that health is determined by a person's physical, psychological, social, religious and economic environment. For instance, an individual living in a comfortable and safe environment, with clean running water and healthy food, is more likely to experience good health than someone who does not have access to such amenities. A child raised in a hostile environment is more likely to develop emotional problems later in life [ 10 ]. A soldier returning from conflict may carry psychological trauma in the form of post-traumatic stress disorder.

Studies have also shown that people with low socio-economic status have increased mortality, because they are more likely to adopt detrimental lifestyles, such as smoking, alcohol and poor dietary habits [ 11 ]. The presence of family and friends may also influence health, aiding or even hindering recovery from illness. With increasing globalization, family members may find themselves living countries apart, thus unable to help one another in times of need. Furthermore, vast socioeconomic disparities both inter-country and inter-community, discrepancies between private and public healthcare services, limited healthcare work forces and geopolitical strife further contribute to disparities in individual health. On account of the limitations in the WHO and various other definitions of health, several groups have called for the review of the WHO definition of health [ 8 ]. At a Health Council of the Netherlands conference in 2009, experts argued that health was not static, but dynamic. In the conference, their preferred notion of health was: “the ability to adapt and to self-manage [ 12 ].” This concept viewed health as a dynamic process and a resource for everyday life, not merely an object to be obtained for the sake of itself, in keeping with the definition provided by Stokes, Noren and Shindell [ 9 ]. Thus to be healthy, one requires the capacity to maintain homeostasis and recover from insults [ 13 ]. This definition encompasses the ability to handle stress, to acquire skills and to maintain relationships. This ability is known as resilience, without which it would be difficult to remain healthy. Clearly, health is a complex and multifaceted term, and further attempts have been made to define it by individuals and professions alike. For instance, Suresh Vatsyayann, in 2013, saw health as: “an ever-evolving state of mind, body, and relationships perceived by an individual, a family, a group or a community for self in a particular time, space and context [ 14 ].” It can, therefore, be seen as one's ability to live his dream [ 15 ] or a person's mental or physical condition [ 2 ]. We agree with Kaila that true health is the intersection of one's physical, mental, emotional, social, economic, and spiritual state of being at any one time [ 16 ]. The aforementioned shortcomings of the WHO's definition of health, coupled with ever-more encompassing and complex descriptions of health, necessitate the need for a new, single, universal definition of health to replace the outdated one created over 60 years ago.

Redefining health : To develop this comprehensive acceptable definition of health, the following questions must be considered: Is health a state of complete well-being? Is a healthy person someone whose body is free from disease and able to carry on normal activities without fatigue [ 4 ]? Or is health a dynamic condition, encompassing resilience to stressors and recovery from insults in order to maintain an inner equilibrium or homeostasis [ 9 , 12 , 13 ]? Can the person with severe rheumatoid arthritis, who, with the help of therapy is able to carry out their daily routine, be said to be healthy? Or the university student, recently diagnosed with mental illness, who, after therapy, is able to return to their studies? Finally, what about the teenager diagnosed with Huntington's disease, who is currently symptom-free and able to function normally, but will not remain so forever? Can they be said to be healthy? Whatever definition is developed or adapted, to attain health, people have to draw from the resources available in the community. In other words, one cannot be healthy if their society is unhealthy. That is why, according to Public Health Agency of Canada, health is: “a positive concept that emphasizes social and personal resources, as well as physical capacities [ 17 ].” Sadly, today, the world is unhealthy. People's attitudes and habits, combined with an ever-ageing population that may not follow a healthy lifestyle, are making it more unhealthy, and events in the news can be personally disturbing. People involved in making the world an unhealthy place through acts of omission or commission like terrorism, manslaughter, kidnapping and other social vices cannot be said to be healthy, irrespective of their physical, mental, economic, emotional, or even spiritual condition. This is why we suggest redefining health as: “a satisfactory and acceptable state of physical (biological), mental (intellectual), emotional (psychological), economic (financial), and social (societal) wellbeing.” This state would result in maximum productivity, positive contributions and relevant existence in a degenerating and decaying world. It is the state of having the overall physical, mental, emotional, and social abilities to add values not just to one's self, but to society, resulting in the development of a better and sustainable world where things work, people live in harmony and community existence is enhanced.

Our definition is all encompassing. We believe that this definition will help answer some of the common questions raised on health, resolve most of the current debates on the meaning of health, and help expand the meaning of health and the functions of healthcare workers to include services outside the current health ecosystem.

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.

Acknowledgments

This work was supported by the Wellcome Global Centre at Imperial College London for financial and logistic support and the National Institute for Health Research Biomedical Research Centre at Imperial College London for infrastructure support. All authors also acknowledge funding from the Wellcome Institutional Strategic Support Fund at Imperial College London.

Authors’ contributions

Obinna Ositadimma Oleribe and Simon David Taylor-Robinson conceived the study; Obinna Ositadimma Oleribe, Omole Ukwedeh, Nicholas Jonathan Burstow and Simon David Taylor-Robinson drafted the manuscript; Asmaa Ibrahim Gomaa, Mark Wayne Sonderup, Nicola Cook, Imam Waked and Wendy Spearman critically revised the manuscript for intellectual content. All authors read and approved the final manuscript. Wendy Spearman and Simon David Taylor-Robinson are guarantors of the paper.

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• Published: 18 March 2020

A philosophy of health: life as reality, health as a universal value

• Julian M. Saad   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-9323-1021 1 &
• James O. Prochaska 1  

Palgrave Communications volume  6 , Article number:  45 ( 2020 ) Cite this article

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• Health humanities
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Emphases on biomarkers (e.g. when making diagnoses) and pharmaceutical/drug methods (e.g. when researching/disseminating population level interventions) in primary care evidence philosophies of health (and healthcare) that reduce health to the biological level. However, with chronic diseases being responsible for the majority of all cause deaths and being strongly linked to health behavior and lifestyle; predominantly biological views are becoming increasingly insufficient when discussing this health crisis. A philosophy that integrates biological, behavioral, and social determinants of health could benefit multidisciplinary discussions of healthy publics. This manuscript introduces a Philosophy of Health by presenting its first five principles of health. The philosophy creates parallels among biological immunity, health behavior change, social change by proposing that two general functions— precision and variation —impact population health at biological, behavioral, and social levels. This higher-level of abstraction is used to conclude that integrating functions, rather than separated (biological) structures drive healthy publics. A Philosophy of Health provides a framework that can integrate existing theories, models, concepts, and constructs.

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A philosophy of health.

What is health? Is it a state of the body or the mind? Is health primarily a natural, biological state or a holistic, value-laden state? Naturalistic and holistic philosophies of health have provided very important, but very different, perspectives of population health. Naturalistic views (e.g. as seen in Boorse, 1997 ) provide insight into physical, natural, biological, or physiological processes that are tangible (in the material sense), observable, and measurable with modern technology. Complementarily, holistic views contend that value-laden phenomena (e.g. vital goals, meaning, and purpose) play a central role in population health (Nordenfeldt, 2007 ).

A dialog, or as we see it, an important dialectic among naturalistic and holistic perspectives plays out between the Biostatistical Theory of Health (BST) and the Holistic Theory of Health (HTH). The BST posits that a person is healthy if and only if, all natural organs function normally given a statistically normal environment (Boorse, 1997 ). The HTH posits that a person is healthy if and only if (given standard circumstances) he/she has the ability to attain their vital goals (Nordenfeldt, 2007 ).

In addition to defining health, each philosophy defines disease. The BST poses that disease is the internal state of impairment to the normal functioning of organs (Boorse, 1997 ). In the HTH, an organ dysfunction is a disease if and only if the organ’s process reduces the person’s ability to pursue vital goals or life-purpose (Nordenfelt, 2007 ). In BST health is the absence of disease; and in HTH, health is not the absence of biological disease, but is the whole person’s ability to function in relation to vital goals.

Both naturalistic and holistic perspectives guide important observations of health and disease. When one considers health through the BST one pays close attention to the functions of the internal, biological functioning of the human being. When one considers health through the HTH, one pays close attention to the functioning of an individual, in relation to their external, societal/cultural functions. Is there a hybrid model that accounts for both internal and external functioning?

Wakefield’s ( 2014 ) harmful dysfunction analysis (HDA) creates a hybrid model that integrates natural- and value-laden phenomena when conceptualizing disease. HDA asserts that a person suffers from a disorder/disease if (1) the condition causes harm (as judged by the standards of the person’s culture); or if (2) the person’s internal, natural processes cannot perform normal functioning (as judged by the standards set by evolution). HDA creates a hybrid model that can integrate perspectives of the BST (i.e. by considering internal organ functioning); and the HTH (i.e. by considering external societal/goal functioning). However, while HDA may define health processes in relation to disease, it serves primarily as an integrative model of disease . Is there an integrative model of health that can account for natural and value-laden functions?

Schroeder ( 2012 ) identifies a significant, common thread among these competing (or perhaps complementing) philosophies: functionalism . The researcher suggests that each philosophy is concerned with the functioning of organisms. Although the BST, HTH, and the HDA might not agree on which functions inform the first principles of health, Schroder ( 2012 ) uses higher-level abstraction to identify one common first principle: the state of functioning in an organism impacts its state of health . When paralleling the three philosophies based upon functioning one might observe that (1) BST declares an individual healthy if its organs function normally; (2) HTH declares an individual healthy if he/she can function in relation to vital goals; and (3) HDA declares an individual unhealthy if internal mechanisms cannot perform natural, evolutionary functions, and/or when a condition prevents a person from functioning in relation to goals/norms/values. Through this higher-level abstraction, an integration of seemingly separate philosophies of health is made possible.

Learning from leaders in the field

As we attend to these philosophies of health, we too observe how discussions about functions and functioning produce integrative perspectives. Although a definition of “function” is not explicitly stated in the above research, it appears that Nordenfeldt ( 2007 ), Boorse ( 1997 ), Wakefield ( 2014 ), and Schroeder ( 2012 ) are each discussing functions as pre-existent (i.e. either from evolution, personal goal-setting, cultural tradition) processes - with - purposes . Whether one is describing a value-laden function (e.g. decision-making in pursuit of a valuable career) or an evolutionary-biological function (e.g. the heart beating for circulation), each process (i.e. decision-making processes or cardiac processes) serves identifiable purposes (e.g. maintained financial stability or maintained blood flow). Whether an organ is functioning normally in relation to the body or a human being is functioning in relation to vital goals, it appears that both perspectives consider if an active “process” (i.e. an organ’s activity, an individual’s activity) can express its “purpose” (i.e. evolutionary-purpose, life-purpose).

In the present manuscript we will propose that naturalistic and holistic perspectives can be integrated within a single philosophy of health. We will propose two universal functions—termed precision and variation —that can account for both natural functions and value-laden functions of the existing philosophies. This functional language will support a higher level of abstraction that integrates, rather than separates, biological functions, behavioral functions, and social functions under A Philosophy of Health.

The need for new perspectives in population health

The chronic disease crisis beckons the need for an updated philosophy of health that can account for biological, behavioral, and social functioning. Why? Chronic diseases, which account for 60% of all-cause deaths worldwide (Chartier and Cawthorpe, 2016 ), do not emerge from naturalistic, biological, or physical contact with an illness. Rather, chronic diseases do emerge in biological functions (e.g. tumor proliferation in an organ) after prolonged contact with health risk behaviors and lifestyle factors that active the conditions (Mokdad et al., 2018 ; Edington, 2009 ; Li et al., 2018 ). Chronic diseases are not curable by purely naturalistic or biological means (e.g. pharmaceuticals). Rather, some diseases may be effectively prevented or intervened on through healthy behavior (Dansinger et al., 2005 ; Daubenmier et al., 2007 ).

Population health risk behaviors are unique determinants of population health because researchers can actively observe how they simultaneously alter biological functioning (e.g. chronic smoking alters cells in lung tissue), behavioral functioning (e.g. chronic smoking alters decision-making and daily habits) and social functioning (e.g. chronic smoking creates an economic, social, and healthcare burden) of the population. These behaviors not only have biological, behavioral, and social implications for the individual doing the behavior, but also have intergenerational and interpersonal effects. The individual who binges on refined sugar not only puts themselves at risk of diabetes, but can put their future offspring at risk. The individual who smokes two packs of cigarettes per day not only puts themselves at risk of lung cancer, but can put their housemates at risk of lung cancer from second-hand smoke. Therefore, the chronic disease crisis is neither purely naturalistic, nor purely value-laden; rather it reflects an integration of natural and value-laden phenomena. There remains a real need for principles of health that can integrate existing naturalistic and holistic perspectives of population health.

The principles

Since April 7, 1948, the Constitution of the World Health Organization ( 2010 ) has utilized an intuitive definition of health by suggesting that health is “a state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being.” While this definition might be intuitive and even accessible to a wide audience; the defininition is not necessarily researchable across health disciplines. Integrating principles of health might begin with a common-sense definition of health that can also be upheld across existing naturalistic and holistic perspectives. Without operationally defining functions that drive physical, mental, and social well-being, it is a challenge for multidisciplinary collaborators to unite under the WHO mission. Further, without a common definition of health, important communications from patients to doctors, from subjects to researchers, from researchers to collaborators, and from peer-reviewers to peer-reviewees, can become fragmented or lost in translation. In the proceeding sections, a common-sense definition of health is used to present the first principles of A Philosophy of Health.

Principle 1: “Health” is the state of maintainable-ease of functioning . A “disease” is a state of prolonged-dysfunction that prevents ease

Chronic diseases emerge from prolonged exposure to dysfunctional behaviors like smoking, alcohol abuse, unhealthy diet, and inactivity (Mokdad et al., 2018 ) that also create dysfunctional expressions of life functions. Smoking creates dysfunctional breathing; alcohol abuse creates dysfunctional drinking; sugar binging creates dysfunctional eating; and sedentary behavior creates dysfunctional moving. When these health risk behaviors lead to chronic disease, they have already prolonged dysfunctional breathing, drinking, eating, and/or moving.

The chronic smoker breathes in smoke so frequently that he no longer experiences an ease-of-breathing. Rather, his breathing becomes short and shallow. Prior to the emergence of lung tumors, the chronic smoker prolongs dysfunctional patterns of breathing. The “couch potato” sits so frequently that he no longer experiences an ease-of-movement. Rather his movement becomes rigid and limited. Prior to the emergence of cardiovascular dysfunction or obesity, the sedentary person prolongs dysfunctional patterns of movement.

If chronic smoking facilitates prolonged-dysfunction in breathing, and sedentary behavior facilitates prolonged-dysfunction in movement, what do functional breathing and moving look like? Healthy breathing and moving (as well as eating and drinking) are characteristic of an ease of one’s functioning that can be maintained in normal conditions. For example, the chronic smoker and the “couch potato” might report momentary-ease in breathing and posture when engaging in their health risk behaviors; but they do not maintain that ease outside of smoking or sitting. Conversely, the yogi might report that their yoga practices expose them to momentary dis-ease in breathing and moving that lead to maintainable-ease in breathing and movement in everyday life. In contrast to disease as a prolonged-dysfunction, healthy functioning can be commonly sensed as a maintainable - ease of functioning .

When observing a disease, perhaps we are observing a prolonged-dysfunction that prevents ease. Rather than define health as the absence of disease (as seen in BST), notice here how we instead define disease in relation to health; and we define health in relation to maintainability , ease , and functioning . Consideration of “maintainable-ease of functioning” will allow us to consider how not all “dis-ease” is bad (i.e. exposure to acute dis-ease/stress maintains healthy functioning in the long-term); and not all “ease” is good (i.e. avoidance of stress and prolonged “comfort” creates fragility seen in sedentary behavior). We propose that:

Dysfunction parallels a state of “dis-ease”; and prolonged -dysfunction parallels the state of Disease.

Function parallels a state of “ease”; and maintainable-ease of functioning parallels the state of Health.

This definition of health will be applied in the proceeding principles to integrate naturalistic and holistic perspectives of population health.

Principle 2: Health emerges from maintainable-ease of functioning at multiple levels . Maintainable-ease of functioning in the general population can be observed at the level of the cell , the self , and the society simultaneously

Cooperation across multiple levels of functioning is required for the organization and adaptation of living systems (Nowak and Sigmund, 2005 ; Antonucci and Webster, 2014 ). When developing an integrative model of health, it is important to consider how biological cells, individuals, and the larger society simultaneously play a role in population health (Xavier da Silveira dos Santos and Liberali, 2019 ; Antonucci and Webster, 2014 ). In this philosophy, we define health from three levels: cells , selves, and societies . What happens when these levels do not function in cooperation?

When the functioning of cells disrupts the functioning of the self, a state dis-ease in the self can follow. For example, prolonged dysfunction in autoimmune conditions can lead to prolonged dysfunction for the (individual’s sense of) self by triggering depression, decreased motivation, or anxiety (Lougee et al., 2000 ; Garud et al., 2009 ). The reverse can also be true. When the functioning of the self (i.e. one individual) disrupts the functioning of their cells, a state dis-ease in the cells can also follow. For example, prolonged sugar binging and addictive eating can lead to prolonged high blood sugar and pancreatic dysfunction seen in diabetes (De Koning et al., 2011 ; Imamura et al., 2015 ). Cells and selves are not separate.

When the functioning of the self disrupts the functioning of the society we observe a state dis-ease in the society. For example, one person’s unprotected sex with multiple partners can also lead to epidemics and social conflicts. The reverse can also be true. When the functioning of the society disrupts the functioning of the individual, a state dis-ease in the self can follow. For example, dysfunctional social conditions (as seen in Rutter, 1998 ), can lead to prolonged psychological and behavioral dysfunctions of individuals. Selves and societies are not separate.

When the functioning of society disrupts the functioning of cells, a state of dis-ease in the cells can also follow. For example, prolonged dysfunction in society in the form of misguided values about cleanliness, can lead to over-sanitization practices that create superbugs and antibiotic-resistant bacteria (Zaccheo et al., 2017 ; Finkelstein et al., 2014 ; Bower and Daeschel, 1999 ). The reverse can also be true. When the functioning of cells disrupts the functioning of the society, a state of dis-ease in the society can follow. Prolonged dysfunction in cells from naturally occurring parasites (e.g. Yersinia pestis [Cui et al., 2013 ]) can lead to prolonged dysfunctions like the economic collapse following 14th century Black Death (Haensch et al., 2010 ). Cells and societies are not separate.

What does health look like when these levels work together? Recent reports on the Blue Zones (i.e. the areas of the world where populations live significantly longer and healthier than the average) demonstrate that healthy functioning at these levels enhances physical longevity and mental wellbeing in populations (Buettner, 2012 ; Poulain et al., 2013 ). Buettner ( 2012 ) reports on how Blue-Zone populations intentionally and habitually enrich their physical bodies with healthy eating and physical activity. In addition to integrating physical and behavioral practices, these communities also integrate behavioral and social practices, such as, goal-setting, meditations/prayer, social engagement, pursuit of purpose, and community gathering. Humor is used by individuals and groups as a means to practice ease when challenges present themselves (Buettner, 2012 ). Blue Zone communities place value upon physical/natural, behavioral and social processes, generating them intentionally and habitually.

Both states of ease and dis-ease can teach us about the contributions of cells, selves, and societies to population health. Although it is important to be able to observe the levels separately to describe their contributions, it is also important to consider how the levels integrate to impact healthy publics. We acknowledge that meaningful changes can be observed above and below these levels (e.g. at the level of the biosphere and genome). However, this initial paper will introduce levels that are most proximal and accessible to the experience of a general readership (Fig. 1 ).

Principle 3: Health emerges from systems whose primary purpose is to generate maintainable-ease of functioning at a respective level

We propose that systems exist at each level with the purpose of generating maintainable-ease of functioning at that level. The biological immune system, an individual’s system of health behaviors, and the social system will be observed as systems that generate maintainable-ease of functioning in cells, selves, and societies respectively (Fig. 2 ).

Principle 3a: The biological immune system is directly responsible for maintainable-ease of functioning at the level of the cell

Throughout the course of human evolution, the complexity and biodiversity of the human body continued to increase (Rodríguez et al., 2012 ). What keeps the trillions of cells and microorganisms in cooperation in a human body? The biological immune system maintains functional cells (Rodríguez et al., 2012 ). Although it is documented that the functioning of the biological immune system has implications for behavioral functioning (Ader, 1974 , 2000 ; Johnston et al., 1992 ; CDC, 2016 ) and social functioning (CDC, 2016 ; Reidel, 2005 ; Cutler and Miller, 2005 ) the system’s primary purpose is supporting functioning in the cellular/biological system.

Principle 3b: Health behavior is directly responsible for maintainable-ease of functioning at the level of the self

Throughout the course of time, the complexity of human behavior, has continued to increase (Boulding and Khalil, 2002 ). What keeps an individual in a state of balance during times of rapid change? One’s system of health behaviors (e.g. one’s practices of breathing, drinking, eating, and moving) maintain a functional self. Although it is well documented that the behavior of the individual impacts biological functioning (Fadel, 2013 , 2015 ) and social functioning (Omer et al., 2009 ), one’s system of health behaviors directly impacts one’s experience of (or one’s ‘sense of’) their “self”.

Principle 3c: The social system is directly responsible for maintainable-ease of functioning at the level of the society

Throughout history, the social diversity of human societies continued to increase. During periods of rapid increases in social diversity and cultural integration, what supported cooperation in the society? Social systems (e.g. public governments, private social organizations, religious/spiritual organizations) emerge to maintain a functional society. Although it is well documented that a social system can impact biological functioning (CDC, 2016 ; Riedel, 2005 ; Cutler and Miller, 2005 ) and behavioral functioning (Buettner, 2012 ), the social system’s primary role is to maintain functions at the level of the society.

Principle 3d: By considering health as maintainable-ease of functioning generated by systems , we have the ability generalize health across levels

To observe health at the level of the cell, the self, and the society simultaneously, we consider systems that support maintainable-ease of biological, behavioral, and social functioning. The biological immune system, an individual’s system of health behaviors, and the social system make meaningful contributions to the functioning of cells, selves, and societies, respectively. While these systems are not the only systems that impact each level (e.g. one’s cardiovascular system impacts cells, one’s “personality” impacts the self, the environment impacts society), the biological immune system, health behavior, and the social system have great implications for population health from their respective levels; and they can be operationalized at these levels based upon their functions .

By considering health as maintainable-ease of functioning (rather than maintained biological structures) at multiple levels, we set a point of reference from which to integrate important determinants of population health. When taking the structuralist’s perspective, the biological immune system, health behavior, and social systems appear as distinctly separated. When taking a functionalist’s perspective, the biological immune system (i.e. the integration of host defense functions and microbiota functions), one’s (system of) health behaviors (i.e. the integration of decision-making/executive functions and habits/habitual life functions), and the social system (i.e. the integration of population values and population behaviors) appear together in A Philosophy of Health.

Principle 4: Each system employs two general functions— variation and precision —to generate maintainable-ease of functioning at a level

The functionalist perspective allows us to observe systems based upon their functions . The biological immune system will be observed as an integration of host defense functions and microbiota functions (Hooper and Littman Macpherson, 2012 ); (2) an individual’s system of health behaviors will be observed as an integration of decisions/executive functions and habits/habitual life functions (de Bruin et al., 2016 ; Verplankern, 2005 ; Norman et al., 1998 ; Prochaska et al., 1994 ; Prochaska et al., 1991 ); and the social system will be observed as an integration of actively functioning values and population-wide behaviors that function in relation to those values (Dowling and Pfeffer, 1975 ; Cotgrove and Duff, 1981 ).

By researching the role of these functions at each level, we distilled two general functions of each system: variation and precision. Variation appears in the functions of each system that generate a range of abilities, the “varied-abilities”, that sustain health in presently changing conditions. The microbiota, habits/habitual life functions and population behaviors will be observed (in Principle 4a) as the variation-functions of the biological immune system, health behavior, and the social system, respectively. Precision appears in those functions that prioritize and organize the patterns of variation that can sustain health at a level in future, changing conditions. The host-defense functions, decision-making/executive functions, and values systems will be observed (in Principle 4b) as the precision-functions in the biological immune system, health behavior, and the social system, respectively.

Consideration of a complementary relationship among precision and variation is not novel. Precision and variation have been discussed as central to the development of neural and biological systems (Hiesinger and Bassem, 2018 ). Discussions of precision and variation have also provided important insight into research on the biological immune system (Albert-Vega et al., 2018 ; Brodin et al., 2015 ). Through this philosophy, one can go beyond biological systems to observe how precision (in the form of host-defense functions, decision-making/executive functions, and values) and variation (in the form of microbiota functions, habits/habitual life functions, and population-wide behaviors) integrate to generate to maintainable-ease of functioning in cells, selves, and societies simultaneously (Fig. 3 ).

Principle 4a: Variation is responsible for generating the range of abilities, the “varied-abilities”, that can express ease-of-functioning in presently changing conditions

Without functional variation, life is fragile because the present environment is always changing (Taleb and Blyth, 2011 ). Fragile systems’ inability to experience changing conditions (in part) relates to limited variability. Conversely, adaptive system’s ability to experience changing conditions (in part) relates to functional variability (Taleb, 2012 ). When one microorganism in the microbiome takes over, biological fragility reflects a state of infection. When one habit takes over, behavioral fragility reflects a state of an addiction/dependence. When one population behavior takes over (e.g. when economic participation or access to food is restricted to a small percentage of the population) social fragility reflects a state of social/civil unrest.

The human microbiota is comprised of trillions of microorganisms, such as bacteria, fungi, and viruses. When variability in the human microbiota exists, an ease of functioning, or “homeostasis” in cells can be expressed in the present biological/ecological environment (Parfrey and Knight, 2012 ; Bogaert et al., 2011 ; Claesson et al., 2011 ). Research demonstrates that variation in the microbiota impacts the health of human cells by metabolizing complex carbohydrates, converting proteins to neural signals, and modulating diurnal rhythms that maintain biological homeostasis (Clemente et al., 2012 ; Rothe and Blaut, 2012 ; Blaut and Clavel, 2007 ; De Vadder et al., 2014 ). When variation in the microbiota is dramatically limited or changed (e.g. following antibiotic overuse), cellular tissue in the human body is fragile and vulnerable to infections, allergies, and inflammatory outbreaks (Francino, 2016 ).

When one’s habitual life functions (e.g. breathing, drinking, eating, and moving) and one’s healthy habits (e.g. one’s weekly exercise schedule, or weekly meal preparation) can be expressed freely, an ease of functioning is felt by one-self in the present environment. When life functions are no longer expressed with ease (e.g. breathing and movement are compromised due to prolonged sedentary lifestyle), or when a single habit takes over one’s lifestyle (e.g. smokes breaks “must” occur every 30 min), an individual is vulnerable to stressful outbreaks and chronic states (Al’Absi, 2011 ; Conrad et al., 2007 ; Suess et al., 1980 ; León and Sheen, 2003 ; Parrott, 1999 ; Koob, 2008 ).

When the basic human rights in a society are preserved in the present (e.g. right to life, freedom of speech; right to property), human populations have the ability to freely engage in the population - wide behaviors (e.g. health behaviors, social behaviors, economic behaviors) that support a functioning society. Health behaviors drive health and longevity. Social behaviors drive communication and cooperation. Economic behaviors drive goods and resources. When these population-wide behaviors are chronically restricted in a population (e.g. poor access to health care, oppression of free-speech, economic crash), societies become vulnerable to social/civil unrest [as commented historically by Victor Frankl ( 1985 ), Alexander Solzhenitsyn ( 2003 ), Franklin D. Roosevelt ( 1941 ), and Dr. Martin Luther King ( 1985 )].

Variation is essential so that a system has varied-abilities that can express ease-of-functioning in present environmental conditions . Dramatic and prolonged restrictions to variation in the microbiota, habits/habitual life functions, and population-wide behaviors characterize fragile and vulnerable states in cells, selves, and societies. Conversely, functional-variation supports resilience, robustness, and antifragility (Taleb, 2012 ). This does not mean that infinite variation is desirable; however, in this philosophy, precision is responsible for organizing expressions of variation so that the system does not degrade into unpredictably random variation or chaos (see Principle 4b).

Principle 4b: Precision is responsible for prioritizing and organizing the patterns of variation that maintain ease-of-functioning in future, changing conditions

Some environmental changes are too challenging for ease to be expressed in the present. However, following an exposure to challenging conditions, some systems adapt and become more functional (Taleb, 2012 ). Without the ability to functionally organize after stressors, a system degrades into disorder or chaos over time. Host-defense functions, decision-making/executive functions and values systems prioritize and organize variation in the microbiota, habits/habitual life functions, and population behaviors respectively.

When a pathogen invades the biological system, precise responses must occur to organize this potentially chaotic situation. At the level of the cell, a functional host-defense system (comprised of the innate, adaptive and complement immune system branches) organizes the biological system so that functional invaders (i.e. symbionts) and healthy cells are maintained and dysfunctional invaders (i.e. pathogens) and damaged cells are removed (Hoeb et al., 2004 ; Janeway, 1992 ; Janeway and Medzhitov, 2002 ; Janeway et al., 2014 ). When precision is dysfunctional, the host-defense system may (1) fail to prioritize responses to a costly invasion, leading to a state of infection; or (2) the host-defense system might prioritize dysfunctional responses to the cells of body that prolong a state of autoimmunity (Naor and Tarcic, 1982 ).

When a bad habit emerges, precise responses must occur to organize this potentially chaotic situation. At the level of the self, functional decision-making (or at smaller scales executive functioning) prioritizes and organizes behavior so that functional expressions of habit (or at smaller scales, habitual life functions) are prioritized regularly, and dysfunctional ones are replaced or minimized (de Bruin et al., 2016 ; Prochaska et al., 1994 ; Prochaska and Prochaska, 2016 ; Prochaska et al., 1988 ; Redding et al., 2011 ; Weissenborn and Duka, 2003 ; Bickel et al., 2012 ). When dysfunctional, decisions may (1) fail to prioritize responses that remove a costly expression of habit (e.g. a teen started smoking cigarettes to “be cool” and now has to smoke in the bathroom before each class to get through the day; by not deciding to move at work, one’s breathing becomes shallow and movement becomes rigid); or decisions may (2) prioritize habits that prolong dysfunction despite knowing the dangerous consequences (e.g. an adult continues smoking cigarettes despite knowing the family’s history of lung cancer; an adolescent continues binge on sugar despite a diabetes diagnosis).

When dangerous population-wide behaviors threaten life in a society, precise responses must occur to organize this potentially chaotic situation. At the level of society, the agreed upon values organize the social system so that functional population behaviors are prioritized and dysfunctional population behaviors are minimized. Functional values prioritize behaviors that support the society (e.g. as seen when societies mandate that students get certain vaccines before attending University), while also setting standards that remove/replace behaviors that threaten the society (e.g. new laws create legal repercussions for risk behaviors in society). Without values that functionally prioritize population-wide behavior, society may (1) fail to prioritize responses to a dysfunctional population behavior (e.g. as seen during AIDS epidemic of the 1980s due to insufficient public health values around safe sex); or society may (2) prioritize dangerous behaviors that can prolong societal dysfunction (e.g. the antibiotic resistance crisis (Ventola, 2015 ; Michael et al., 2014 ) has been attributed in part to the over-valuing or over-use of antibiotic medications in healthcare practices).

Precision is essential so that a system can maintain ease-of-functioning in future, changing conditions . When precision does not adequately detect the presence of costly conditions, a response may not be prioritized (e.g. as seen during acute infection, addiction/dependence following a surgery, the AIDs outbreak in the 1980s). When precision prioritizes responses that prevent ease longitudinally, dysfunction is prolonged (e.g. autoimmunity, continued smoking despite family history of cancer, misguided values that create an antibiotic-resistant bacteria). Through dysfunctional -precision, the conditions for life in cells, selves, and societies becomes disordered over time. Through functional -precision, a system prioritizes responses that maintain ease-of-functioning in future conditions. Prioritizing functional microorganisms (i.e. symbionts) supports the developing life of cells; prioritizing functional habits (e.g. weekly exercise) and habitual life functions (e.g. diaphragmatic breathing and relaxed movement) supports the developing life of the self; and prioritizing functional population behaviors (e.g. access to functional health care, economic resources; access to social support) supports the developing life of the society.

Principle 5: Health is valued by a system when precision-and-variation generate maintainable-ease of functioning. Health is de-valued by a system when precision or variation prevent maintainable-ease of functioning

By defining precision-and-variation, we can better understand maintainable-ease of functioning in population health:

Functional-Variation generates ease-of-functioning in the present (e.g. fluid and variable motion reflects an ease and variability of one’s movement); while Functional-Precision prioritizes expressions that can maintain ease-of-functioning in the future (e.g. prioritizing challenging exercise for 20 min each day may lead to an ease in bodily movement long term).

Dysfunctional-Variation prevents ease-of-functioning in the present (e.g. prolonged sitting might lead to rigid movement and shallow breathing); while Dysfunctional-Precision might prioritize expressions that prevent ease in the future (e.g. rather than focus on relaxing breathing and movement on work breaks, one decides to drink alcohol to relax).

Without functional-variation, life is fragile and vulnerable to changing conditions of the present. Without functional-precision, life becomes disorganized from the system’s exposure to changing conditions across time. When functional-and-integrated, precision-and-variation value maintainable-ease of functioning in cells, selves, and societies. When dysfunctional or fragmented, precision or variation can de-value maintainable-ease of functioning in cells, selves, or societies. If maintainable-ease of functioning can be valued in cells, selves, and societies, we will likely observe healthy publics.

Five principles of health are presented: (1) Health is the maintainable-ease of functioning; (2) Maintainable-ease of functioning emerges from multiple levels ; (3) At each level, maintainable-ease of functioning is generated by systems ; (4) Each system employs two functions, precision - and - variation , that generate maintainable-ease of functioning ; and (5) Health is valued by a system if precision-and-variation generate maintainable-ease of functioning. Through these five principles, both naturalistic and holistic perspectives can be considered simultaneously because maintainable-ease of functioning is relevant to biological functioning (e.g. as described in BST) and personal/social, goal-oriented functioning (e.g. as described in HTH). This philosophy can also be used to investigate how naturalistic and holistic phenomena have informed past healthcare interventions. What do vaccine interventions, behavior change interventions, and social change interventions have in common? When successful, these interventions enhance both precision and variation.

Vaccine interventions can enhance both the precision of the host-defense functions and variation in the microbiome. During a vaccine intervention, the microbiome is exposed to a new variation in the form of a new virus (Reidel, 2005 ). Through this exposure, the precision of host defense functions can adapt to prioritize maintainable-ease of functioning in the microbiome in the future. How? The host-defense system produces antibodies that allow the immune system to respond effectively and efficiently to this virus when exposed to it again in the future (Janeyway, 2014 ). Although the precision of the immune system has been enhanced to handle historical threats through vaccines (e.g. for small pox, chickenpox, measles), new viruses like the coronavirus can still emerge. With this philosophy, vaccine developers and public health officials might not only ask the question, “How do we combat the coronavirus?” Researchers, vaccine developers and public health officials may also ask the functional question: “How do we enhance the precision of the host-defense system and the variation of the human microbiome to adapt following an exposure to the coronavirus?”

Behavior change interventions can enhance both the precision in one’s decisions and the variation in one’s habits. During a behavior change intervention, a person’s existing habits are exposed to a new variation in habit. For example, the beginning of a new exercise intervention exposes the individual’s current habits/habitual functioning to changes in movement and breathing (i.e. exercise) that may also change their patterns of eating and hydration. Through this exposure, a person’s decision-making might adapt to prioritize maintainable-ease of functioning in the individual’s lifestyle. How? Some behavior change interventions train one’s decision-making to remove or “counter-condition” unhealthy habits, by replacing them with healthy habits (Prochaska et al., 1988 ). Although modern behavior change interventions have shaped the precision of decision-making during health behavior change (e.g. of smoking, diet, alcohol use, inactivity), new problems for health behavior still emerge when the individual is exposed to a new, potentially addictive technology. With this philosophy, behavior change interventionists and health officials might not only ask the question, “How do we support good decision-making of individuals?” Researchers, behavior change technology developers, and public health officials may also ask the functional question: “How do we enhance the precision of one’s decisions and the variation of one’s habits following the exposure to a new, potentially addictive technology?”

Public health campaigns disseminated by social organizations can enhance the precision of the population’s health values and variation in population-wide health behaviors. Leading up to first Surgeon General’s Advisory Committee on Smoking and Health (1964), the U.S. Department of Health had become increasingly aware of (i.e. exposed to) variations in a population health behavior. If populations smoked, then populations were more likely to develop lung cancer, laryngeal cancer, or chronic bronchitis (CDC, 2018 ). Following this exposure to (the consequences of) population smoking behavior, society’s values shifted to prioritize health. How? The Federal Cigarette Labeling and Advertising Act of 1965 was adopted, and the Public Health Cigarette Smoking Act of 1969 was adopted to create new health values. This shift in values prioritized new variations in population health behavior by: (1) requiring a health warning on cigarette packages; (2) banning cigarette advertising in the broadcasting media; and (3) calling for an annual report on the health consequences of smoking (CDC, 2018 ). Since these first initiatives adult smoking rates have fallen from about 43% (in 1965) to about 18% today; and mortality rates from lung cancer, the leading cause of cancer death, are declining (Department of Health and Human Services, 2014 ). Although the precision of the population’s values has been enhanced to impact population behaviors (e.g. the tobacco laws described above supported healthy change), new chronic states can still emerge following exposure to social changes (e.g. the invention of the Juul impacted high school and college aged populations). With this philosophy, public policy officials and public health researchers might not only ask the question, “How do we create new laws to protect population health from nicotine addiction?” They may also ask the functional question: “How do we enhance the precision of the population’s values and the variation of the population’s behavior following the invention of a new nicotine delivery system technology (e.g. flavored Juuls)?”

Previously we described that without functional variation, life is fragile when exposed to present changing conditions; and without functional precision, life becomes disorganized from exposure to changing conditions across time. When successful, the above interventions upon biological, behavioral, and social functioning have a common theme: each facilitates exposures to biological, behavioral or social conditions that support (1) increasingly complex/diverse variation; and (2) increasingly organizable precision. Exposure, not avoidance , has facilitated population health in these interventions. While healthcare systematically prioritizes biological exposures in the form of vaccine interventions, they do not systematically prioritize behavioral or social exposures. However, it is documented that exposure to healthy behaviors in youth prevents risk behaviors in adolescence (Velicer et al., 2000 ); and exposure to community-based health initiatives can support population health (Dulin et al., 2018 ; CDC, 2018 ). Given that systematic biological exposures in the form of vaccination have led to a global control of some acute infectious diseases (Tangermann et al., 2007 ); might systematic behavioral and social exposures (especially in youth) be needed to enhance global campaigns toward the control of chronic disease?

A functional language of health is central to the success of a Philosophy of Health. Why? The levels are not separate, but rather are continuously connecting with one another. A good philosophy of health should have the ability to discuss assessment, diagnosis, intervention, and prevention across levels, across systems, across cultural populations, and across time. Using the common language of precision and variation creates discussions that connect the levels and integrate research disciplines.

A case (to) study: mental health as between-level functioning in this philosophy

Historically, and still too often, health professionals have an expertise at one level, that limits their prescription of interventions to that level. This can actually create barriers to a complete solution when a health problem is multileveled. While a person’s mental health is typically assessed based upon their first-person experience of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors; symptoms can be triggered by biological, physiological, behavioral, psychological, and/or social dysfunction. Most clinicians typically do not have the ability to assess and address all forms functioning. So if one person, John, is meeting with a clinician who specializes in primary care medicine, he may only be prescribed a biological intervention like medication. If John is meeting with a clinician who specializes in behavioral medicine, he may only be prescribed a health behavior change intervention. If John is meeting with a clinician who specializes in a certain theory of psychotherapy, he may only be prescribed a psychotherapy intervention based on the clinician’s training. If John is meeting with a clinician who specializes in social work, he may only be prescribed a group, community or social intervention. While the above specializations have been helpful in establishing an empirical bases for mental health interventions, over-specialization can be problematic when a multi-leveled solution is needed. In addition, it can also be problematic when a level-specific solution is needed that the clinician cannot provide (e.g. when psychotherapy is needed but a clinician only has the ability to prescribe psychiatric medication).

Technology poses a multileveled issue for population mental health in 2020. Selves have more social connection then ever in history, yet societies are characterized by increasing rates of depression and loneliness (Sum et al., 2008 ; Hammond, 2020 ; Srivastava and Tiwari, 2013 ; Twenge, 2017 ). Researchers might use this Philosophy of Health to facilitate between-level conversations that address seemingly paradoxical outcomes that emerge during this new age of rapid technological growth. To do this, a researcher might first begin by asking questions about functioning at each level ; second , ask questions about processes between the levels ; and third , concurrently ask questions at and between levels .

First: Begin by asking questions at each level

Novel challenges face the iGeneration (and their parents) due to technology’s novel impacts on the development of individual and social functioning (Twenge, 2017 ). For example, if John’s decisions (self-precision) and habits (self-variation) remain consistent during school hours because his parents do not let him have a phone; but his class’ social behaviors around him (society-variation) change dramatically because everyone else at school uses the newest smartphone application to talk during class; will John’s mental health suffer? Although his parents’ intentions are to protect John, the contrast between his behavior (self’s precision-and-variation) and the population social behavior (society-variation) can impact John’s health. Notice here how we have not yet considered functions that connect the self to the society (e.g. John’s thoughts and feelings). Rather we first consider (or contrast) functioning at the level of the self (i.e. John’s decisions-and-habits) and the society (i.e. population social behavior) in accordance with Principles 1–5 (see Figs 1 – 3 ).

Second: Look for functional processes that connect the levels

One person’s thoughts and emotions/feelings are processes that help to integrate the functioning of one-self within the functioning of a society. How might John’s thoughts and feelings connect his (sense of) self to his society? Perhaps John’s parents teach him that it is important to feel separate from his classmates during class so he can think clearly in class; and that he can feel connected to his friends by inviting them over to communicate together after school. This parenting may impact John’s thoughts and feelings during school. If John’s parents do not talk with him about this topic, John may experience different thoughts and feelings during school hours. When kept to one-self, thoughts and emotions are foundational to an internal sense of self as one functions in the larger society; and, when acted upon, thoughts and feelings can become verbal communication (e.g. speech) and non-verbal communication (e.g. body language, facial expressions) that form an external sense of self that is visible to the society. The (internal) experience of and (external) communication of thoughts, feelings and actions form the foundation of all systems of psychotherapy (Prochaska and Norcross, 2018 ). This view can be particularly helpful as researchers begin to investigate how smart technology impacts developmental changes to the self within the society beginning in youth.

Third: Concurrently ask questions at and between levels

Perhaps, a clinical researcher is interested in investigating protective mental health factors in the iGeneration; and they hypothesize that lower rates of loneliness, anxiety, and depression will be seen in subjects that do not respond to text messages immediately. The researcher might investigate further by using the philosophy to develop questions for the research subjects: “(1) Do you use conscious decision-making (self-precision) to prevent yourself from habitually responding to your phone when a text appears (self-variation)? (2) How fast do other’s in your social group typically respond to texts (society-variation)? (3) What changes in thoughts and feelings are experienced (internal self-society connection) after you communicate via text (external self-society connection)?” Perhaps this researcher also wants to investigate how those who are addicted to the technology perceive non-responders. The clinical researcher might again apply the philosophy: “(1) How fast do other’s in your social group typically respond to your texts (society-variation)? (2) Do you experience changes in thought and feeling (internal self-society connection) when others do not respond to you within an hour (society-variation)? (3) How do you communicate those thoughts and feelings (external self-society connection) with others when they do not respond for a prolonged period of time (society-variation)?” Future research might use this method to gather and organize levels of information on mental health factors across different self- and societal-conditions.

The processes that form our mental health form a functional connection between self and society. If mental health is a reflection of the self–society connection, what might be a reflection of the self–cell connection? Physiological health evidences a functional connection between our sense of self and our cells. For example, aerobic exercise is a health behavior that stimulates changes to variations in breathing and movement. By engaging in this behavior, the biological cells of the body are also stimulated via various physiological processes. Breathing will stimulate cellular functioning via the cardiovascular and respiratory systems; and movement will stimulate cellular functioning via the cardiovascular, musculoskeletal, and central nervous systems. While all physiological systems are working in collaboration in the body, certain changes to behavioral and biological functioning will stimulate certain physiological systems. By viewing health through this lens, between-level observations join the philosophy: biological functions emerge at the level of the cell; physiological functioning emerges as the cell–self connection; behavioral functions emerge at the level of the self; psychological/mental functioning emerges as the self–society connection; and social functions emerge at the level of the society. Future papers will explore maintainable-ease of functioning at and between levels.

Future directions: new images of healthcare integration and new perspectives of healthcare innovation

By considering this integrative philosophy, one can define health based upon a tangible connectedness, rather than separateness, of cells, selves, and societies. We provide Image 4 as a way to visualize the common paths to the health of healthy publics. When researchers observe that a host defense system is changing cellular functions following an infection, they may also expect these changes to have an impact [along Path 1] on expressions of habitual or physiological functions (e.g. immune function can stimulate the sensation of “achiness” or “pain” altering one’s physical movement, breath rate, hydration, and hunger) (Kelley, 2003 ; Johnson et al., 1992 ; Danzer, 2009 ). When researchers observe an individual deciding to engage in health behavior change following an addiction, they may also expect these changes to have an impact [along Path 2] on the group-behavior of their family system or social systems. When researchers observe changes to society’s values following a newly detected problem (e.g. laws ban Cigarette Advertising in broadcasting media; public health standards mandate certain vaccines before attending school), they may also expect that these changes can have an impact on behavioral functions of individuals [along Path 2] and biological functions of cells/organs [along Path 3]. These levels are continually integrating along these common paths to the health of healthy publics (Fig. 4 ).

When attending to this connectedness new, important questions can have new answers. What function does modern technology serve in population health and healthcare? If technology algorithms prioritize variations in population behaviors, then they fulfill a role as society-level precision. When modern technologies like machine learning (ML) technology and Computer Tailored Interventions (CTI) prioritize patterns of population behavior, we can see profound impacts on social change in a society. Although one might argue that technologies can be used by individual-level functions, the algorithms that are currently deployed and updated on devices interface with big-data gathered on population behaviors (Manogaran and Lopez, 2017 ; Dinov, 2016 ; Mullainathan and Spiess, 2017 ; Cheng et al., 2017 ).

In this paper, we identified that precision can be functional or dysfunctional. Similarly, technologies can support or prevent healthy population behavior. Some technologies prioritize health behavior in populations by tracking physical activity and providing feedback on activity progress; while others prevent healthy behavior by prioritizing sedentary behavior through video-gaming. Some social media technologies facilitate social communication with distant friends and relatives that supports wellbeing; while others facilitate conflictual communication that diminishes wellbeing. Given that modern technology can support or hinder health, we believe it is important that healthcare can prioritize technological innovations that value health in cells, selves, and societies. To do this, technology innovators might seek to value a higher order construct (e.g. maintainable-ease of functioning) in their algorithms.

Medical technology is currently used to titrate the doses of vaccines so that maintainable-ease of biological functioning (i.e. inoculation) is made available to the general population. When biological exposures are not properly titrated, infections can become active in the population and health is no longer valued at the level of the cell. Similarly, when behavioral and social exposures are not tailored to the needs of individuals and groups, populations can become resistant to healthy change, and health is no longer valued at the level of the self and the society. Behavior change researchers Prochaska and Prochaska ( 2016 ) report that when individuals and populations are not ready for a change, interventions that force individuals or populations to take action can increase resistance and prolong dysfunction. By tailoring (or what they term “staging”) behavioral and social level interventions, Computer Tailored Interventions upon behavioral and social functioning are made possible (Prochaska et al., 2001 ; Velicer et al., 2000 , Prochaska and Prochaska, 2016 ). Despite these advances, there remains a need for technological advances that can make maintainable-ease of behavioral and social functioning available to the general population.

Future healthcare interventions could benefit from ML algorithms that tailor behavioral and social exposures to enhance precision-and-variation. Research already demonstrates that tailoring interventions for biological precision (Albert-Vega et al., 2018 ) and biological variation (Brodin et al., 2015 ) can impact long-term biological functioning. Future innovations might seek to use technology to tailor behavioral and social interventions to generate maintainable-ease of functioning. Through the functional language used in this paper we hope readers are inspired to present new questions, new comments, and new perspectives about needed healthcare innovations.

This philosophy of health investigates three levels of health: cell, self, and society. The level of the cell accounts for biological functioning within human beings. The level of the self accounts for first-person functioning of each human being. The level of the society accounts for group functioning of human beings.

Each system is responsible for generating maintainable-ease of functioning at a level. The biological immune system is responsible at the level of the cell. A human's system of health behaviors is responsible at the level of the self. The social system is responsible at the level of the society.

Maintainable-ease of functioning is generated by two functions in each system: precision and variation. The human microbiota, habits, and population-wide behaviors evidence variation in cells, selves and societies respectively. The host defense system, decisions, and values evidence precision in cells, selves and societies respectively.

Population health is generated along common paths that integrate the levels. The biological functioing of cells impacts fluctuations of habits/habitual functioning; and vice versa. The behavioral functioning of each self impacts fluctuations in population behavior; and vice versa. The biological functioning of cells also can impact fluctations in population behavior; and vice versa.

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Saad, J.M., Prochaska, J.O. A philosophy of health: life as reality, health as a universal value. Palgrave Commun 6 , 45 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-020-0420-9

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What Does It Mean To Be Healthy Essay

Type of paper: Essay

Topic: Psychology , Health , Wellness , Disease , Theory , Culture , Medicine , Money

Words: 1700

Published: 12/04/2019

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Introduction to concept of health

Introduction

Each individual implicitly values his or her health and wellbeing because without sound health normal activities become impossible. Health refers to a state of being free from diseases and being wholly sound. “It is a state of complete physical, mental, and social wellbeing and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity”. Physical health is a state of physical soundness in body because of regular exercises, proper nutrition, and sufficient rest (Seedhouse, 2001). Mental health on the other hand, refers to a state of an individual’s cognitive and emotional wellbeing. Several factors influence whether an individual is healthy or not and they include such factors as education, culture, socioeconomic status, physical environment, gender, and employment conditions among other factors. It is important to achieve and maintain sound health in order to carry out daily activities. People have developed different theories of health in order to understand the cultural aspects of health. This paper compares and contrasts health as a commodity and health as an ideal state to understand the cultural aspect of health.

A broad definition of health means that health is an individual’s state of wellbeing, which could range from a high level of wellbeing to terminal illnesses. From this broad definition of health, different theorists have developed theories to describe the meaning of health. One theory about health states that health is an ideal state (Helman, 2007). This theory provides a holistic and positive meaning to health in different dimensions. According to the World Health Organization, health as an ideal state means a person is healthy on the three dimensions of his or her physical, mental, and emotional being (Seedhouse, 2001). On the physical dimension, a person is free from pain and has a feeling of wellbeing. On the mental level, a person is free from egotism and selfishness while on the emotional dimension; a person feels free from passions and has some dynamic calmness.

This theory aims at achieving a goal of complete wellbeing in every level and it is an end in itself. For this theory to hold, disease, illness, social problems, and disability must be absent. According to this theory, the meaning of health is vague and idealistic because it cannot provide proper guidance to health promoters (Marmot and Wilkinson, 2003). For instance, this theory implies that the sick and those with physical disabilities cannot experience a sound state of health, and thus are incomplete. However, such persons could be free from any symptoms if they follow the right medication and treatment but according to this theory, these people cannot possess health because they have a disease. Therefore, health in this sense is unattainable because no one can be practically free from disease.

Another theory describes health as a commodity, which means that an individual can purchase health (Naidoo & Wills, 2000). This theory holds unrealistic expectations about the meaning of health by assuming that if a person pays a higher price of health care, he or she is guaranteed good health. According to this theory, health can be bought piece by piece without any effort from the patient. This theory describes a healthy person as one that can be able to purchase drugs and treatment (Education Department, 2002). It describes health as something independent that an individual can capture often at the commercial rate, provided the right procedures. The problem with this theory is that it suggests that health is a commercial object that can be purchased according to the amount of money one has.

Determinants of health

Several factors determine if a person is healthy or unhealthy. The socioeconomic status of an individual influences their health. A person with a higher socioeconomic status is likely to enjoy great health compared to one on a lower status. Besides, people with lower levels of education are likely to experience poor health (McGee, 1998). These people have low self-esteem and their stress levels are higher unlike people with higher levels of education. The physical environment that a person is exposed to determines his or her health. If a person enjoys clean and safe water, pure air to breathe, healthy workplace and a comfortable home, then this person experiences good health compared to another one in a contaminated environment.

People with stable jobs and good working conditions are likely to enjoy better health than the unemployed people are. Employment creates a sense of security and sober state of mind, which reduces chances of stress hence promoting health (Marmot and Wilkinson, 2003). In addition, people that enjoy support from other people such as family and friends have better health compared to people isolated from their family and friends. The culture that someone belongs to influences his or her health. Gender is also a determinant of health because diseases such as ovarian and cervical cancer are the preserve for females (Naidoo & Wills, 2000). The determinants of health influence the ability of people to achieve an ideal state of health as described by the theory of ideal. Factors such as employment, education and socioeconomic status support the theory of health as a commodity because the higher these factors are the higher the probability of purchasing health (Wilkinson, 1996).

Cultural examples

Culture is one of the determinants of health because it determines if someone can achieve the proposed ideal state of health. The impact of culture on health can be good or bad depending on the extent of the culture (MacLachlan, 2006). For example, some cultures, especially African cultures, practice female genital mutilation as a health practice. This practice has negative impact on the health of the millions of girls that go through this practice. This tradition hinders the victims from achieving an ideal state of health that includes physical, emotional and mental wellbeing. When the girls undergo the mutilation, it damages their physical wellbeing since consequences such as problems during childbirth occur and other infections (Helman, 2007). The practice also affects the mental state of these girls because it lowers their self-esteem. Since the victims of this practice may not be financially sound, purchase of health is also not possible and hence for them, health is not a commodity. Western cultures such as the way people eat have an impact on health (Helman, 2007). Most people in western societies have high socioeconomic status and hence they are able to achieve an ideal state of health and purchase health as a commodity.

Implications of applying the theories

The theories of health have implications in their application. The theory that health is an ideal state is not true because it is difficult to find someone that is free from disease or infirmity (Seedhouse, 2001). The theory tends to discriminate on people with physical disabilities because it assumes that even if these people are not ill, the fact that they have a physical disability hampers them from achieving an ideal state of health. However, it is possible to be healthy and still one has an illness or disability.

The theory that health is a commodity implies that only the wealthy people can purchase good health, which is not true. The wealthy may seek treatment from the best health care facilities but it is not automatic that these people will have good health. Paying a higher price for health does not guarantee better health. The theory implies that only those people that can be able to purchase health will have an ideal state of health from physical, mental and emotional wellbeing.

As suggested by Helman, (2007), different cultures contribute to the state of health of the members of the society. For instance, the Australian aborigines, certain African tribes and Eskimos do not use salt in their diet and hence illnesses such as high blood pressure are not common. Cultures of Finland, for instance, have a lot of animal fat in their diet, which contribute to heart attacks. These cultures prevent the individuals involved from attaining an ideal state of health (MacLachlan, 2006). Other cultures such as from India consider meat, eggs and fish a taboo, meaning that avoiding consuming such foods enables people to avoid certain illnesses associated with the disease. Thus, such culture acts as a preventive health measure.

Theories of health are essential in understanding the meaning of health. Health is an ideal state with a broader meaning other than the absence of disease. However, a person can be health and still have a disability and thus, an ideal state of health is unattainable. In addition, it is not possible to perceive health as a commodity because a person cannot value their health in terms of the amount of money they use to purchase it. Culture is one of the determinants of health and different cultures influence health.

Acheson D. (1998). Independent inquiry into Inequalities in health: agenda for Action. Available at http://www.archive.officialdocuments.co.uk/document/doh/ih/contents.htm. ISBN Number: 0113221738 Cameron, E., Mathers, J., & Parry, J. (2008). 'Health and well-being': questioning the use of health concepts in public health policy and practice. Critical Public Health, 18(2), 225-232. doi:10.1080/09581590601091604 Department of Health (2004). Choosing health. Stationary Office. ISBN Number: 010163742 Education Department (2002). Health and Diseases. Available at www.cuhk.edu.hk/healthpromotion/ha/ha13.pdf Helman C. (2007). Culture health & Illness. London: Hodder Education. ISBN Number: 0340914505 MacLachlan, M. (2006). Culture and health: A critical perspective towards global health.

New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons. Marmot M. and Wilkinson R. (2003). Social Determinants of Health. Copenhagen : WHO Regional Office. ISBN Number: 0415092353 McGee, P. (1998). Models of nursing in practice: A pattern of practical care. Cheltenham:

Stanley Thornes Publishers. Naidoo, J. & Wills, J. (2000). Health promotion: Foundations for practice. China: Elsevier

Limited. ISBN Number: 0702024481 Sandberg, H. (2010). The concept of collaborative health. Journal Of Interprofessional Care, 24(6), 644-652. doi:10.3109/13561821003724034 Seedhouse, D. (2001). Health: The foundations for achievement. New Jersey: John Wiley &

Sons. ISBN Number: 047149011 3 Wilkinson R. (1996). Unhealthy societies: the afflictions of inequality. New York: Routledge. ISBN Number: 0415092353

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Essay on Personal Health

Students are often asked to write an essay on Personal Health in their schools and colleges. And if you’re also looking for the same, we have created 100-word, 250-word, and 500-word essays on the topic.

Let’s take a look…

100 Words Essay on Personal Health

What is personal health.

Personal health means taking care of your body and mind. It’s about making choices that help you stay fit and happy. This includes eating good food, exercising, getting enough sleep, and visiting the doctor when you need to.

Eating Right

Good health starts with eating nutritious foods. This means fruits, vegetables, grains, proteins, and dairy. Try to eat a rainbow of foods to get all the vitamins your body needs.

Staying Active

Moving your body is important. Activities like running, playing sports, or even walking help keep your heart strong and muscles working well.

Rest and Sleep

Sleep is just as important as food and exercise. When you sleep, your body heals and your brain gets a break. Aim for 8-10 hours each night.

Doctor Visits

250 words essay on personal health.

Personal health is all about taking care of your body and mind. It means eating good food, staying clean, getting enough sleep, and moving your body. It’s important because it helps you grow strong, stay well, and feel good about yourself.

One big part of personal health is eating the right foods. This means having fruits, vegetables, grains, protein, and dairy. Eating a mix of these foods keeps your body running well. Imagine your body is like a car; it needs the right fuel to go. Good food is that fuel.

Staying Clean

Keeping clean is another key part. It stops germs from spreading and making you sick. Washing hands, brushing teeth, and taking baths are all ways to stay clean. Think of germs as tiny bugs that you can’t see, but they can cause trouble if you let them stick around.

Getting Sleep

Your body needs sleep just like it needs air and food. When you sleep, your body fixes itself and gets ready for the next day. Kids need more sleep than grown-ups because their bodies are still growing. A good night’s sleep makes you ready to learn and play.

Moving Around

Exercise is also a big piece of personal health. It doesn’t mean you have to do push-ups all day. Playing tag, riding a bike, or swimming are fun ways to move your body. Exercise keeps your heart happy and your muscles strong.

500 Words Essay on Personal Health

Personal health is about taking care of your body and mind. It means doing things that keep you healthy and feeling good. This includes eating the right foods, exercising, getting enough sleep, and making sure you don’t get sick. When you look after your personal health, you can do better in school, play sports, and enjoy time with friends and family.

Eating right is a big part of staying healthy. This means eating fruits, vegetables, grains, proteins, and dairy. Fruits and vegetables give you vitamins and make your immune system strong to fight off sickness. Grains, like bread and rice, give you energy. Proteins, which come from foods like chicken, fish, beans, and nuts, help your body grow and repair itself. Dairy, like milk and cheese, is good for your bones. It’s important to eat a mix of these foods every day.

Getting Enough Sleep

Sleep is when your body gets to rest and repair itself. Kids need more sleep than adults because their bodies are still growing. Most kids need about 9-12 hours of sleep each night. A good night’s sleep helps you pay attention in school, remember what you learn, and be in a better mood.

Keeping clean is a simple but important way to stay healthy. Washing your hands with soap, especially before eating and after using the bathroom, helps keep germs away. Taking a shower or bath, brushing your teeth twice a day, and wearing clean clothes are also ways to keep your body clean.

Managing Stress

Seeing the doctor.

Going to the doctor for regular check-ups is important, even if you feel fine. The doctor can make sure you are growing and developing as you should. They can also give you shots to prevent diseases and help you if you are sick or hurt.

Personal health is about taking care of your body and mind so you can live a happy and active life. Eating right, staying active, getting enough sleep, staying clean, managing stress, and seeing the doctor are all important. By doing these things, you can stay healthy, do well in school, and have fun with your friends and family. Remember, taking care of your health is one of the best things you can do for yourself!

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Essay on Health: Long and Short Essay Samples

• Updated on  
• Jan 3, 2024

Essay on Health:

Earlier, health was said to be the ability of the body to function well. However, as the time evolved, the definition of health also evolved. Health now, is the primary thing after which everything else follows. When you maintain good health, everything else falls into place.

In an era where our lives are increasingly busy and filled with demands, our health often takes a backseat. Yet, it’s a priceless asset that influences every facet of our existence. In this blog, we explore the multifaceted realm of health through both long and short essay samples. From the significance of well-being to practical tips for maintaining it, our collection delves into the critical role health plays in our lives. Join us in this journey to uncover the secrets of a healthier, happier life.

Table of Contents

• 1 How to Maintain Health?
• 2 Importance of Health
• 3 Sample Essay On Health in 150 Words
• 4 Sample Essay On Health in 300 Words

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How to Maintain Health?

Good health is above wealth. Listed foundational practices below promote overall health and well-being: 

• Balanced Diet: Eat a variety of nutrient-rich foods, including fruits, vegetables, lean proteins, and whole grains. Do not miss out on the essential nutrients; take each of them in appropriate quantities.
• Regular Exercise: Exercise daily, it can be for a duration of 15-30 minutes. Include strength training exercises to build muscle and bone strength.
• Adequate Sleep: Prioritize 7-9 hours of quality sleep per night to support physical and mental well-being. Instead of using your phone, go to sleep at a reasonable hour.
• Stress Management: Practice stress-reduction techniques such as meditation, yoga, or mindfulness.
• Regular Check-ups: Schedule routine health check-ups and screenings to detect and address health issues early.
• Avoid Bad Habits: Do not smoke or drink as it has serious harmful consequences.

Importance of Health

Good health is vital for a fulfilling life. It empowers us to thrive physically, mentally, and emotionally, enhancing overall well-being. It is of paramount importance for various reasons:

• Quality of Life: It directly affects our daily lives, enabling us to enjoy activities, work, and relationships to the fullest.
• Productivity: Good health enhances productivity, allowing us to perform better in our personal and professional endeavours.
• Longevity: It contributes to a longer life, giving us more time to pursue our goals and spend time with loved ones.
• Financial Well-being: Staying healthy reduces medical expenses and the economic burden of illness.
• Emotional Well-being: Physical health is closely linked to mental well-being, impacting our mood, stress levels, and overall happiness.
• Preventive Care: Maintaining health through regular check-ups can detect and address potential issues before they become severe.
• Community and Societal Impact: Healthy individuals contribute to stronger communities and societies, reducing the strain on healthcare systems and promoting collective well-being.

Must Read: Essay On Human Rights

Sample Essay On Health in 150 Words

Maintaining good health is dependent on a lot of factors. Those factors range from the air you breathe to the type of people you choose to spend your time with. Health has a lot of components which carry equal importance. If even one of them is missing, a person cannot be completely healthy.Health is our most valuable asset. It encompasses physical, mental, and emotional well-being, shaping our lives profoundly. A healthy lifestyle, characterized by a balanced diet, regular exercise, and adequate sleep, is essential. It not only prevents diseases but also boosts energy and productivity.

Mental health is equally vital, requiring stress management and emotional support. Regular check-ups aid in early disease detection, increasing the chances of successful treatment. Good health influences longevity and quality of life, allowing us to pursue dreams and cherish moments with loved ones. It also eases the financial burden associated with illness. Ultimately, health is the foundation of a joyful, fulfilling existence, and its importance cannot be overstated.

Sample Essay On Health in 300 Words

Health is undeniably one of the most precious aspects of life. It encompasses not only the absence of diseases but also the presence of physical, mental, and emotional well-being. In this essay, we will explore the multifaceted importance of health in our lives.

Firstly, physical health is the cornerstone of our existence. It allows us to carry out daily activities, pursue our passions, and engage with the world. Maintaining good physical health involves a balanced diet that provides essential nutrients, regular exercise to keep our bodies fit, and sufficient rest to recuperate. A healthy lifestyle not only prevents various ailments but also increases our vitality and longevity.

There is this stigma that surrounds mental health. People should take mental illnesses seriously. In order to be completely fit, one must also be mentally fit. When people completely discredit mental illnesses, it makes a negative impact. Hence, we should treat mental health the same as physical health.

Mental health is equally crucial. It involves managing stress, maintaining emotional stability, and seeking support when needed. Neglecting mental health can lead to conditions like anxiety and depression, which can have a profound impact on the quality of life.

Moreover, health plays a pivotal role in determining our overall happiness and well-being. When we are in good health, we have the energy and enthusiasm to enjoy life to the fullest. It enhances our productivity at work or in our daily chores, leading to a sense of accomplishment.

Furthermore, health is closely linked to financial stability. Medical expenses associated with illness can be overwhelming. Maintaining good health through preventive measures and regular check-ups can save us from substantial healthcare costs.

In conclusion, health is not merely the absence of illness; it is the presence of physical, mental, and emotional well-being. 

Related Reads:

Good health enables a fulfilling life, impacting longevity, happiness, and productivity.

Health encompasses physical, mental, and emotional well-being, signifying a state of overall vitality.

Health is evident in energy levels, a balanced mind, regular check-ups, and the ability to engage in daily activities with ease.

This brings us to the end of our blog on Essay on Health. Hope you find this information useful. For more information on such informative topics for your school, visit our essay writing and follow Leverage Edu.

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Section 3: Concepts of health and wellbeing

Please note:.

We are currently in the process of updating this chapter and we appreciate your patience whilst this is being completed. 

Concepts of health, wellbeing and illness, and the aetiology of illness: Section 3. Concepts of health and wellbeing

This section covers:

1. Defining health and wellbeing

2. Mental health and wellbeing

1.  Defining health and wellbeing

The World Health Organisation (WHO) defines health as ‘a state of complete physical, mental and social wellbeing and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity’ (WHO, 1948). This is consistent with the biopsychosocial model of health, which considers physiological, psychological and social factors in health and illness, and interactions between these factors. It differs from the traditional medical model, which defines health as the absence of illness or disease and emphasises the role of clinical diagnosis and intervention.  The WHO definition links health explicitly with wellbeing, and conceptualises health as a human right requiring physical and social resources to achieve and maintain. ‘Wellbeing’ refers to a positive rather than neutral state, framing health as a positive aspiration. This definition was adapted by the 1986 Ottawa charter, which describes health as ‘a resource for everyday life, not the object of living’. From this perspective health is a means to living well, which highlights the link between health and participation in society.

A major criticism of this view of health is that it is unrealistic, because it ‘leaves most of us unhealthy most of the time’ (Smith, 2008); few, if any people will have complete physical, mental and social wellbeing all the time, which can make this approach unhelpful and counterproductive (see Godlee, 2011). It fails to take into account not just temporary spells of ill health, but also the growing number of people living with chronic illnesses and disabilities. Furthermore, it might be argued that focusing on ‘complete’ health as a goal contributes to the overmedicalisation of society by pathologising suboptimal health states (see Sections 7 & 8).

Huber et al. (2011) proposed a new definition of health as ‘the ability to adapt and to self-manage’, which includes the ability of people to adapt to their situation as key to health. It also acknowledges the subjective element of health; what health and wellbeing mean will differ from one person to the next, depending on the context and their needs. This is considered by many to be a limitation of broader definitions of health, on the grounds that wellbeing is neither objective nor measurable; this is discussed in more detail below ( Mental health and wellbeing ). A further limitation of this approach is that it is very individualistic and takes little account of the wider determinants of health (see Section 9). Responsibility for health is seen as individual rather than collective, with little scope to promote it as a human right.

2.  Mental health and wellbeing

Broadening definitions of health has contributed to improving understanding of the mental dimension of health and wellbeing, and increasing recognition of public mental health as integral to public health. Since the publication of the Government strategy No Health Without Mental Health in 2011, [1] NHS England has been working towards parity of esteem between physical and mental health – in other words, ensuring that mental health is recognised as equally important to physical health in the development, delivery and provision of health and social care services. Public mental health policy aims to improve population mental health and wellbeing, prevent the onset of mental and emotional distress, and increase resilience.

Defining wellbeing is key to discussing and conceptualising mental health and public mental health, with much debate and some controversy over recent years. Wellbeing sits outside the medical model of health as its presence or absence is not a diagnosis. It is widely accepted that subjective wellbeing varies greatly between individuals, as do the factors that contribute to it. This does not mean to say however that it cannot be defined or measured, and there has been considerable progress in this area.  This is discussed in the 2016 report Better Mental Health For All published by the Faculty of Public Health and Mental Health Foundation. [2] The report sets out the public health perspective on public mental health, and highlights examples of good practice to improve wellbeing in local populations.

The FPH’s definition of mental wellbeing is synonymous with the WHO’s holistic and positive definition of health, and with the positive psychology approach advocated by Seligman (2000). Positive psychology reflects the core public health principle of protecting and improving health, focusing on keeping people well rather than treating illness. More recently Seligman (2011) introduced the PERMA model of flourishing, which has five core elements of psychological well-being: positive emotions, engagement, relationships, meaning, and accomplishment. Consistent with these definitions is the approach taken by the Wellbeing Institute at the University of Cambridge, which defines wellbeing as ‘positive and sustainable characteristics which enable individuals and organisations to thrive and flourish’. [3] Others nevertheless argue that wellbeing is a social and cultural construct, questioning the value of approaches that attempt to quantify and categorise it.

However, a common theme that has emerged from the various definitions of wellbeing is that of ‘feeling good and functioning well’. This broad definition encompasses an individual’s own experience of their life, and a comparison of their life circumstances with social norms and values. Wellbeing may therefore be viewed as having two dimensions: objective and subjective wellbeing. Objective wellbeing is more of a proxy measure based on assumptions about basic human needs and rights, including aspects such as adequate food, physical health, education, and safety. Objective wellbeing can be measured through self-report (e.g. asking people whether they have a specific health condition), or through more objective measures (e.g. mortality rates and life expectancy). Subjective wellbeing (or personal wellbeing) is measured by asking people directly how they think and feel about their own wellbeing, and includes aspects such as life satisfaction (evaluation), positive emotions (hedonic), and whether their life is meaningful (eudemonic). The Warwick-Edinburgh Mental Wellbeing Scale (WEMWBS) is a validated tool for monitoring subjective mental wellbeing in the general population and the evaluation of projects, programmes and policies which aim to improve mental wellbeing (See Tennant et al., 2007). [4]

In 2008 the New Economics Foundation identified five evidence-based actions people can take in their daily lives to improve their wellbeing, known as the 5 Ways to Wellbeing: connect, be active, take notice, keep learning, and give. [5] These actions have been promoted and applied in a range of public health settings. Although it is recognised that these are very broad concepts that are open to subjective interpretation and cover any number of activities, the 5 Ways to Wellbeing is a useful tool for stimulating discussions about wellbeing and public mental health, and enabling individuals to think about ways in which to improve their own wellbeing.

The relationship between mental and physical health

Mental health and physical health are inextricably linked, with evidence for a strong relationship between the two accumulating over recent decades and challenging the historical notion of mind-body duality. Mechanisms for this association can be physiological, behavioural and social, as identified by the biopsychosocial model of health. The nature of this relationship is two-way, with mental health influencing physical health and vice versa.

Mammalian stress responses (i.e. fight, flight or freeze) are known to affect physiological processes regulated by the autonomic nervous system, including cardiovascular, respiratory, digestive, repair and defence functions (see Porges, 2011). A number of medical conditions have been linked to stress, such as irritable bowel syndrome (Blanchard, 2001), asthma (e.g. Lehrer et al., 2002) and migraine headaches (e.g. Robbins, 1994). Likewise, stronger immune function has been associated with high levels of social support (e.g. Esterling et al., 1996) and hardiness (Dolbier et al., 2001), both of which may modify experiences of stress (e.g. Cottington & House, 1987) and its physiological manifestations (Karlin, Brondolo & Schwartz, 2003). Whilst it is clear that physical ill-health can be accompanied by mental health problems such as anxiety and depression, the resulting psychological state may in turn impede the recovery or stabilisation of medical conditions, thus producing a vicious circle in which wellbeing is difficult to attain (Evans et al. 2000).

Behavioural and social risk factors for physical and mental health problems tend to overlap, which can make it difficult to determine whether mental illness precedes physical illness, or vice versa. The Kings Fund estimates that more than four million people in England with a long-term physical health problem also have a mental health problem (Naylor et al., 2012), and the physical health of people with severe and enduring mental illness is often poor (Barry et al., 2015). Unhealthy lifestyles as responses to stress often contribute to this association; for example, people with mental health problems consume almost half of all tobacco (see Better Mental Health For All ), and are more likely to develop a substance use disorder than the reverse (Frisher et al., 2003). People with mental health problems may also have more difficulty accessing services, which exacerbates both mental and physical illness. Social determinants of health and illness are discussed in more detail in sections 9 and 10.

The relationship between mental health and wellbeing

The relationship between mental health and wellbeing is described from two main perspectives: the dual continnum model, and the single continuum model. The dual continuum model views mental health as strongly related to but separate from mental wellbeing, whereby an individual is either mentally well or ill (mental health), and either flourishing or not flourishing (mental wellbeing). This model may apply to situations where it is possible to have a mental illness diagnosis and still have a high level of wellbeing; for example, someone with bipolar disorder may have high wellbeing if their condition is being managed, e.g. with medication, or if they are not currently experiencing an episode of symptoms. It is consistent with definitions of health that emphasise the importance of adaptation, as described above ( Defining health and wellbeing ). However, it is based on the view that people never fully recover from mental illness, which has been debated as ‘recovery’ can be defined in a number of ways depending on the perspective and context. One framework applies the same concepts as with chronic physical illness, with three forms of recovery: clinical recovery, in which the person is cured or in remission; illness management, in which symptoms are controlled, monitored and managed by clinicians; and personal recovery, in which individuals who are still experiencing symptoms function as best as they can within the limitations of their illness (see Barber, 2012).

The single continuum model views mental wellbeing as integral to mental health. It places mental health and wellbeing on a single spectrum, with mental illness/low wellbeing at one extreme and mental wellness/high wellbeing at the other. According to this model, mental health and wellbeing are distributed continuously in populations, and it is also possible to move in and out of those states. Professor Geoffrey Rose proposed that where a health issue is continuously distributed in the population, the mean predicts the proportion of the population with a diagnosable illness. It should therefore be possible to reduce levels of mental illness in a population by improving overall levels of population wellbeing, i.e. ‘shifting the curve’. This has been demonstrated for common mental health disorders in both children (Goodman & Goodman, 2011) and adults (Veerman et al., 2009), but there is currently insufficient evidence in relation to severe and enduring mental illness. There has recently been some controversy over this approach in mental health promotion and the measurement of population wellbeing (see Annual Report of the Chief Medical Officer, 2013 [6] and FPH Mental Health Committee response [7] ).

                                                                © I Crinson 2007, Lina Martino 2017

[1] HM Government (2011). No health without mental health. https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/215811/dh_124057.pdf

[2] Better Mental Health for All: A Public Health Approach to Mental Health Improvement (2016) London: Faculty of Public Health and Mental Health Foundation. http://www.fph.org.uk/uploads/Better%20Mental%20Health%20For%20All%20FINAL%20low%20res.pdf

[3] http://www.wellbeing.group.cam.ac.uk/

[4] http://www2.warwick.ac.uk/fac/med/research/platform/wemwbs/

[5] http://www.fivewaystowellbeing.org/

[6] Annual Report of the CMO (2013) Public Mental Health Priorities: Investing in the evidence. https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/413196/CMO_web_doc.pdf

[7] Reflections on the Annual Report of the CMO (2013) http://www.fph.org.uk/reflections_on_the_annual_report_of_the_chief_medical_officer_2013

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Health is a fundamental human right

Human rights day 2017.

“The enjoyment of the highest attainable standard of health is one of the fundamental rights of every human being without distinction of race, religion, political belief, economic or social condition”.

Almost 70 years after these words were adopted in the  Constitution of the World Health Organization , they are more powerful and relevant than ever.

Since day one, the right to health has been central to WHO’s identity and mandate. It is at the heart of my top priority: universal health coverage.

The right to health for all people means that everyone should have access to the health services they need, when and where they need them, without suffering financial hardship.

No one should get sick and die just because they are poor, or because they cannot access the health services they need.

Good health is also clearly determined by other basic human rights including access to safe drinking water and sanitation, nutritious foods, adequate housing, education and safe working conditions.

The right to health also means that everyone should be entitled to control their own health and body, including having access to sexual and reproductive information and services, free from violence and discrimination.

Everyone has the right to privacy and to be treated with respect and dignity. Nobody should be subjected to medical experimentation, forced medical examination, or given treatment without informed consent.

That’s why WHO promotes the idea of people-centred care; it is the embodiment of human rights in the practice of care.

When people are marginalized or face stigma or discrimination, their physical and mental health suffers. Discrimination in health care is unacceptable and is a major barrier to development.

But when people are given the opportunity to be active participants in their own care, instead of passive recipients, their human rights respected, the outcomes are better and health systems become more efficient.

We have a long way to go until everyone – no matter who they are, where they live, or how much money they have – has access to these basic human rights.

The central principle of the  2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development  is to ensure that no one is left behind.

I call on all countries to respect and protect human rights in health – in their laws, their health policies and programmes. We must all work together to combat inequalities and discriminatory practices so that everyone can enjoy the benefits of good health, no matter their age, sex, race, religion, health status, disability, sexual orientation, gender identity or migration status.

Dr Tedros Adhanom Ghebreyesus

WHO Director-General World Health Organization

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What Is Self-Care and Why Is It Important?

4 Ways to Practice Self-Care

What Is Self-Care?

• Building a Self-Care Plan

Self-care is the practice of taking care of physical, mental, emotional, and spiritual aspects of your life to promote health and wellness.

While many people may view self-care as a form of selfish indulgence, the act of caring for oneself is an important part of a person's overall well-being.

Many people do not fully understand what self-care means. Read on to find out more about what self-care is, examples of practicing self-care, and why it’s important for your mental and physical health.

Maskot / Getty Images

According to the World Health Organization (WHO), self-care is being able to promote health, prevent disease, maintain health, and cope with illness and disability with or without the support of a healthcare provider.

The WHO also mentions that self-care is a broad term and many facets of a person’s life come into play, including:

• Hygiene (general and personal)
• Lifestyle factors such as exercise level and leisure activities
• Environmental factors such as a person’s living conditions or social habits
• Socioeconomic factors such as a person’s income level or cultural beliefs
• Self-medication and following treatment plans for current illnesses

The main goal of self-care is to prevent or control disease and preserve overall well-being through consistently taking care of various aspects of your health.

For a person to practice true self-care, they must use personal responsibility and self-reliance in a way that positively impacts their health in the current moment and the future.

Overindulgence in spending

Binge-eating your favorite but unhealthy foods

Participating in activities that provide instant gratification

Going on expensive and lavish vacations

Perfecting oneself by any means necessary

Numbing bad feelings using alcohol or illicit substances

Binge-watching television

Prioritizing one's physical and mental health

Adopting healthy lifestyle habits that can be maintained long-term

Eating a healthy diet

Finding exercise activities that you enjoy and participating in them regularly

Getting an adequate amount of good-quality sleep

Following treatment plans for existing conditions accordingly

Taking time out for yourself to participate in healthy activities you enjoy

What Types of Self-Care Are There?

Various forms of self-care involve different activities or actions. Each form is as important as the other and drives optimal health and well-being.

Physical Health

Taking care of your physical health is a form of self-care that helps improve quality of life and prevent or manage chronic conditions.

Physical self-care will be different for each person, but ways you can practice physical self-care include:

• Getting the proper amount of exercise
• Eating regular, well-balanced meals that are mostly whole foods and staying hydrated
• Engaging in relaxing activities that can help manage stress
• Getting enough sleep
• Getting regular medical and dental care

Mental Health

Mental self-care is designed to drive a healthy mind by practicing brain-stimulating activities and healthy mental behaviors. Mental self-care can help you manage stress, lower your risk of illness, and increase your energy.

While no two people are the same, these strategies can help you manage stress and stimulate your mind:

• Use relaxation programs or apps regularly to incorporate meditation, yoga, muscle relaxation, or breathing exercises. 
• Practice gratitude by reminding yourself daily of things you are grateful for. Write them down at night or replay them in your mind.
• Participate in creative activities you enjoy.
• Read a book or do a puzzle.
• Play games such as Scrabble, crossword puzzles, or other brain teasers.
• Try a new hobby.
• Engage in exercise.
• Take adult education classes.
• Seek help from a professional as needed.

Relationships

Having healthy relationships is a form of social self-care all its own. Research has shown that different forms of relationships, whether they be romantic, platonic, or familial, can all benefit overall health and well-being.

On the flip side, not having healthy relationships can be detrimental to health. When people lack platonic relationships, they are more likely to be subject to psychological distress and engage in unhealthy behaviors.  

Ways to foster relationships include:

• Regularly scheduling get-togethers (coffee, a walk, a meal, going to the movies, or just hanging out) with friends or family members
• Connecting with community or faith-based groups
• Volunteering for a local organization
• Joining a local group, such as a hiking club, knitting group, or other interest group

Not everyone has a spiritual or religious need. However, for some people nurturing their spirit allows them to connect on a deeper level with themselves and to think beyond themselves.

Spiritual self-care practices might include:

• Hiking or spending time in nature
• Listening to inspirational music
• Going to church or attending virtual spiritual activities or groups
• Talking with a spiritual advisor

Why Is Self-Care Important?

Practicing self-care regularly can bring about both short- and long-term benefits that lead to improved well-being and an improved health status.

In the short term, people who practice self-care can see positive changes such as:

• Reduced stress levels : Putting your health and needs first along with giving yourself a bit of rest can significantly reduce stress levels.
• Increasing self-worth : The more you take care of yourself, the better you will feel about who you are as a person. This is because more of your core needs will be met on a regular basis.
• Feelings of belonging : A short-term benefit of spending time with others will provide feelings of belonging and love, which is good for your overall mental health.

While the short-term benefits of self-care are good, the long-term benefits are what self-care is more focused on. Some long-term benefits include:

• Managing chronic conditions: By practicing physical and mental self-care strategies, conditions such as depression, diabetes, and heart disease can be more effectively managed.
• Disease prevention: Implementing self-care practices, such as regular exercise, healthy eating, and stress management techniques, reduces the risk of heart attack , stroke , and obesity in the future.
• Stress reduction: Stress affects all systems in the body. Chronic stress can lead to chronic health conditions. Practicing self-care that reduces chronic stress can help lower the risk of developing health conditions, such as heart disease, high blood pressure, gastrointestinal disorders, and more.
• Healthier relationships: When taking better care of our personal needs, we are better able to engage in healthy relationships partially due to increased self-esteem and self-worth.
• Improved job satisfaction: A study of nurses found those who implemented intentional self-care practices had significantly higher job satisfaction. The authors suggest implementing self-care practices could improve job satisfaction and teamwork while reducing burnout.
• Reduced burnout: Authors of a review of multiple studies concluded the solution for burnout is complex, but self-care strategies are one of several components that could be effective.
• Improved quality of life: When self-care practices help to better manage health conditions, reduce stress, or create a greater sense of belonging, overall well-being and quality of life improve.

How to Practice Self-Care

Building your perfect self-care plan will depend on your personal health and lifestyle. To create a plan to encourage better health and well-being:

• Determine your overall level of health: Once you know your starting point health-wise, you can begin adding or subtracting certain activities or stressors in your life to focus on improving your health.
• Identify your stressors: Make a list of things that cause you stress in all aspects of your life. The next step is to do your best to avoid certain stressors. If they are unavoidable, teach yourself coping techniques that can help lessen your stress reaction to certain situations.
• Identify your coping strategies: Everyone develops strategies to cope with health issues, stress, and other life problems. Make a list of your coping strategies and see which ones are healthy and which ones aren’t. The unhealthy ones that don't serve you well can be swapped out for healthier coping mechanisms.

After completing these three steps, you can begin to formulate a plan that you can commit to.

Self-Care Strategies for People With Chronic Disease

If you have a chronic disease, your self-care plan may look a little different than that of someone who does not. This is only because you will have to incorporate certain activities that will benefit you. For example, if you have diabetes , ensure that coping strategies and activities you utilize as self-care help you manage your condition while you follow your treatment plan.

Self-care is the practice of taking care of the physical, mental, emotional, and spiritual aspects of your life to promote health and wellness. It is a lifestyle that enables you to set aside time for your health to ensure your overall well-being now and for years to come.

If you do adopt the right techniques to care for yourself, you will be able to reap the benefits, such as better physical and mental health, the prevention or better management of disease, and better personal and workplace relationships.

World Health Organization. What do we mean by self-care?

National Institute of Mental Health. Caring for your mental health .

Holt-Lunstad J. Loneliness and Social Isolation as Risk Factors: The Power of Social Connection in Prevention . Am J Lifestyle Med. 2021 May 6;15(5):567-573. doi: 10.1177/15598276211009454

Kiecolt-Glaser JK, Wilson SJ. Lovesick: How Couples' Relationships Influence Health. Annu Rev Clin Psychol. 2017 May 8;13:421-443. doi:10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-032816-045111

David D, Dalton J, Magny-Normilus C, Brain MM, Linster T, Lee SJ. The Quality of Family Relationships, Diabetes Self-Care, and Health Outcomes in Older Adults. Diabetes Spectr. 2019 May;32(2):132-138. doi:10.2337/ds18-0039

Amati V, Meggiolaro S, Rivellini G, Zaccarin S. Social relations and life satisfaction: the role of friends. Genus. 2018;74(1):7. doi:10.1186/s41118-018-0032-z

Riegel B, Moser DK, Buck HG, et al. American Heart Association Council on Cardiovascular and Stroke Nursing; Council on Peripheral Vascular Disease; and Council on Quality of Care and Outcomes Research. Self-Care for the Prevention and Management of Cardiovascular Disease and Stroke: A Scientific Statement for Healthcare Professionals From the American Heart Association. J Am Heart Assoc. 2017 Aug 31;6(9):e006997. doi:10.1161/JAHA.117.006997

American Psychological Association. Stress effects on the body .

Monroe C, Loresto F, Horton-Deutsch S, et al. The value of intentional self-care practices: The effects of mindfulness on improving job satisfaction, teamwork, and workplace environments . Arch Psychiatr Nurs. 2021 Apr;35(2):189-194. doi: 10.1016/j.apnu.2020.10.003

Adnan NBB, Dafny HA, Baldwin C, Jakimowitz S, et al. What are the solutions for well-being and burn-out for healthcare professionals? An umbrella realist review of learnings of individual-focused interventions for critical care . BMJ Open. 2022 Sep 8;12(9):e060973. doi: 10.1136/bmjopen-2022-060973

California State University Department of Educational Psychology and Counseling. How to Create an Individualized Self-Care Plan.

By Angelica Bottaro Bottaro has a Bachelor of Science in Psychology and an Advanced Diploma in Journalism. She is based in Canada.

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Article Contents

Introduction, criticism of the who definition, interpreting the who definition of health, why we need to distinguish between holistic health and perfect health, conclusions, acknowledgements.

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Health as Complete Well-Being: The WHO Definition and Beyond

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Thomas Schramme, Health as Complete Well-Being: The WHO Definition and Beyond, Public Health Ethics , Volume 16, Issue 3, November 2023, Pages 210–218, https://doi.org/10.1093/phe/phad017

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The paper defends the World Health Organisation (WHO) definition of health against widespread criticism. The common objections are due to a possible misinterpretation of the word complete in the descriptor of health as ‘complete physical, mental and social well-being’. Complete here does not necessarily refer to perfect well-being but can alternatively mean exhaustive well-being, that is, containing all its constitutive features. In line with the alternative reading, I argue that the WHO definition puts forward a holistic account, not a notion of perfect health. I use historical and analytical evidence to defend this interpretation. In the second part of the paper, I further investigate the two different notions of health (holistic health and perfect health). I argue that both ideas are relevant but that the holistic interpretation is more adept for political aims.

‘Health is a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity’ ( World Health Organisation [WHO], 1948 : 100). In this paper, I argue that this famous WHO definition of health is fully adequate. Criticism that has been levied against it is based on a specific interpretation that is not the only alternative. In addition to defending the WHO definition, I will discuss two different meanings of the concept of health, which can lead to confusion if not properly kept apart. This is important, for historical and analytical reasons, because the WHO definition can indeed be interpreted in different ways and because we need to get to grips with the differences between types of definitions of health. My second aim in this paper is hence to explain and to properly keep apart two different conceptualisations of health. 1

As regards the WHO definition, I will claim that critics have read the word complete in the phrase ‘complete physical, mental and social well-being’ in a way that goes against the likely intentions of the draftees of the definition. The common objections, for instance, accusing the WHO definition of utopianism and overreach, are based on an implicit assumption, according to which complete is a quantitative term. In other words, critics assume that the phrase means that health is a state of well-being to the largest degree. I will call this interpretation perfect health . So, the critics claim that the WHO identifies health with the largest degree of well-being, that is, with perfect well-being or—in less technical terms—with happiness.

However, the term complete can also have a qualitative meaning. 2 When we say that something is a complete specimen of its kind, then we mean that it has all the features that are constitutive of it. For instance, a complete dinner is one that contains a starter, a main dish and a dessert. Accordingly, complete well-being might be understood as a state that is exhaustive of all constitutive features of well-being. These are, according to the WHO, physical, mental and social aspects. I will call this holistic health . 3 In brief, I will claim that the WHO endorses a holistic account of health, not a perfectionist account. 4

In the second section, I briefly introduce the most important objections to the WHO definition. They have mainly to do with an alleged confusion of health with happiness, which then purportedly leads to a form of medicalisation of human life. In the third section, I discuss the likely intentions behind the WHO definition. I do this by referring to the two readings mentioned before, perfect health and holistic health. There are systematic and historical reasons as to why the WHO plausibly intended a holistic interpretation of health. In the fourth section, I discuss the two interpretations of health in their own right. I introduce their purposes and some objections to either notion. As is the case with many concepts we use, there is no single right or wrong conceptualisation of health. However, I argue that a holistic concept of health is better suited for the purposes of the WHO and more generally for political and economic agendas.

The health definition of the WHO has often been dismissed by philosophers of medicine and medical scientists (for an overview, see Leonardi, 2018 ). One of the main reasons has been the alleged confusion of health and happiness, that is, a state of complete well-being. 5 If health is understood as happiness, it has been argued, there are many highly problematic consequences, most importantly the medicalisation of people’s lives. After all, health is also interpreted as a basic human right in the same document: ‘The enjoyment of the highest attainable standard of health is one of the fundamental rights of every human being without distinction of race, religion, political belief, economic or social condition’ ( WHO, 1948 : 100). If people fall short of the ideal of perfection, that is, if they are not in a state of complete well-being, their health ought to be enhanced. With health care being an important instrument to reach health, the lives of people seem to fall under the remit of health-related institutions, especially medicine, in all their aspects. For instance, if someone is sad, they lack health in the sense of complete well-being. Accordingly, following the WHO constitution, they apparently have a justified claim to be made healthy, that is, happy, potentially by using mood-enhancing drugs or other medical means.

A prominent and influential critique of the WHO definition stems from Daniel Callahan: ‘[T]he most specific complaint about the WHO definition is that its very generality, and particularly its association of health and general well-being as a positive ideal, has given rise to a variety of evils. Among them are the cultural tendency to define all social problems, from war to crime in the streets, as “health” problems’ ( Callahan, 1973 : 78; see also Kass, 1975 : 14, for a very similar critique). This is an example of the critique of overreach (cf. Bickenbach, 2017 : 962), that is, of applying a medical concept to areas that pose other types of problems than healthcare problems.

Another problem that has repeatedly been pointed out is the utopianism of the definition. It seems that ‘[t]he requirement for complete health “would leave most of us unhealthy most of the time”’ ( Huber et al ., 2011 : 235; quoting Smith, 2008 ; see also Saracci, 1997 : 1409, 1409; Card, 2017 ). This can specifically be deemed problematic in relation to people with disabilities, chronic diseases and people of advanced age. They would by definition permanently be missing out on health and accordingly on well-being. However, such a view seems to conflict with the perspectives of relevant groups of people themselves ( Fallon and Karlawish, 2019 : 1104).

Despite the widespread criticism from many different disciplinary backgrounds, the WHO never amended their definition of health. It seems that they did not see a need to change their point of view. In the following section, I will argue that the critique is indeed based on a misunderstanding of the WHO’s perspective.

As explained, I will argue that the WHO defines health as holistic health, not as perfect health. To bolster this claim about the intentions of the institution, I need to consider the history of its constitution. In this section, I will therefore rely on historical documents, which are in the public domain. In addition, I have benefitted from an enormously helpful recent publication by Lars Thorup Larsen (2022) , who gives a detailed account specifically of the genealogy of the WHO definition, based on archival research.

An important fact that supports my reading of the WHO’s intentions is that the word complete was only inserted into the definition at the very final stages of its conception. It is fairly obvious that it was as a form of editorial amendment, not a substantial change, because otherwise it would have required extensive debate. If the word complete would have fixed the intended definition of health to a perfectionist account, this would have either stirred up a debate or would have had to be uncontroversial. However, there is no evidence in the relevant documents that the draftees of the WHO constitution definitely understood health as perfection. The term complete , according to my reading, was rather intended to clarify the phrase ‘physical, mental and social well-being’, the latter of which had been part of the definition since the drafting period. 6 The word complete summarises and jointly describes the three aspects of well-being. It also adds a rhetorical contrast to the second part of the sentence that denies the sufficiency of the absence of disease or infirmity for health. A perhaps better way to express the notion would have been to state that: health is a state of complete well-being, that is, a state that comprises physical, mental and social elements. But this locution would not have worked straightforwardly in a one-sentence definition, which was apparently aimed at by the WHO.

The late arrival of the term complete of course does not present conclusive evidence that the WHO did not intend to push an account of perfect health. The historical records are not sufficient in this respect. The final draft of the constitution, which had been penned by the Technical Preparatory Committee, was discussed at a meeting in New York City in 1946. 7 The relevant draft definition reads: ‘Health is not only the absence of disease, but also a state of physical and mental well-being and fitness resulting from positive factors, such as adequate feeding, housing and training’ ( WHO, 1947 : 58). The final version, which was eventually adopted, had been prepared by the so-called Committee I, which ‘had given careful consideration to amendments submitted by the delegations of South Africa, Mexico, Australia, Belgium, Netherlands, Chile, United Kingdom, Iran, China, Philippines, Poland, Venezuela, United States of America and Canada’ ( WHO, 1948 : 44). Unfortunately, there are no published minutes or other forms of evidence in relation to this decisive period—decisive, as far as the introduction of the term complete is concerned. We simply do not know who added the word. This would have been important, though, to get a better grasp of the intentions behind the addition. 8

Importantly, many members of the Technical Preparatory Committee, who had been involved to different degrees in the drafting of the WHO constitution, came from a public health background ( Farley, 2008 : 12ff.; Cueto et al ., 2019 : 39ff.). Renowned proponents of so-called social medicine, such as Andrija Štampar, René Sand, Karl Evang and Thomas Parran, were leading members of the drafting group. This is significant because public health usually has a different understanding of the concept of health than clinical medicine. Whereas for the latter, health can be defined as absence of disease ( Smith, 2008 ), that is, in absolute terms, health in public health is a multifarious and scalar notion ( Schramme, 2017 ; Valles, 2018 : 31ff.).

In clinical medicine, health is often understood as absence of disease. This makes sense because the focus is on individual patients. These either have a disease or not. Patients might suffer from a more or less severe disease, but that does not mean that they are more or less diseased than others. Similarly, health over and above the absence of disease is not usually the focus of clinical medicine. If there is no disease, then that is sufficient to establish health. There is no need to refer to health in a positive way, that is, to define it in its own terms.

In contrast, public health scientists usually refer to populations. In their parlance, chosen populations can be more or less healthy than comparison groups. For instance, it might be declared that mine workers are less healthy than millionaires. This does not mean that all mine workers acutely suffer from a disease; rather, it means that they are more likely to fall ill, due to their circumstances of life. Public health has traditionally studied the causes of disease and has made big strides in the prevention of disease. Accordingly, its focus is upstream, as it is sometimes put ( Marmot, 2010 : 41; Venkatapuram, 2011 : 189), towards the conditions that make disease more likely. Health becomes a dispositional term that allows for different grades.

From a public health perspective, it is fairly obvious that health is ‘more than the absence of disease’. It is more in the sense of additionally requiring dispositional elements, not because it is a quantitatively better condition than medical normality (i.e. the absence of disease). People who live in destitute circumstances might not suffer from a disease, but they are often lacking in terms of a sufficient disposition to maintain minimal health.

The public health perspective, therefore, is a gradual perspective on health, allowing parlance of more and less health, or being healthier than others. Although such a perspective does not necessarily lead to an account of perfect health, it is nevertheless compatible with the latter. People with a perfect health disposition—marked by a very low probability to fall ill—might accordingly be deemed in a state of perfect health. Importantly, falling below the ideal point of perfection on a scale does not imply having a disease. In other words, not being perfectly healthy would not constitute a condition of being un healthy; it would merely mean being less healthy than others ( Schramme 2019 : 29ff.). This shows that some of the criticism levied against the WHO definition, even if understood as a perfectionist account, is implausible. More specifically, it does not necessarily follow that, for instance, people with disabilities would be constantly deemed unhealthy because they lack perfect health. As explained, health is not a binary term according to the relevant perspective.

So far, I have argued that the WHO definition is supposed to allow for grades of health. For that purpose, it takes its cue from public health perspectives, though I do not want to claim that it is identical to it. After all, the WHO definition still incorporates the traditional medical perspective on health as absence of disease. There are, nevertheless, important qualms to do with the notion of perfect health. The WHO refers to health as a state of well-being and this might itself be deemed problematic. To be sure, the conceptual connection between health and the good life for human beings has long been established ( Temkin, 1973 ). 9 The connection also makes sense from an experiential point of view. Health has indeed to do with how we fare. Still, if we read the definition as a perfectionist account of health, it would define health as perfect well-being. If that were the case, this would apparently lead to the alleged dangerous confusion of health and happiness mentioned earlier. After all, sufficient health but not happiness seems to be the business of welfare state institutions. It is true, of course, that health care from a public health perspective includes vastly more than just medical care, especially aspects to do with work, education and the environment. Yet, we normally see good reasons to restrict the remit of state institutions to a form of needs provision, basic security and enablement of self-determination (cf. Goodin, 1988 : 363ff.). So, if perfect health were the focus of the state, it would probably end up becoming unjustifiably expansive.

I do not believe that the WHO is guilty of this charge. To be sure, there are reasons for thinking that a public health perspective occasionally tends towards an expansive view of health politics (cf. Preda and Voigt, 2015 ). Yet, it is hardly imaginable that a nascent institution—still precarious in its status at the time of drafting its constitution including the health definition—would intend to basically take over the whole established welfare state agenda and indeed even to expand it by making perfect health a political aim. This is even less credible, as one of the global health institutions predating the WHO, the League of Nations Health Organization , had come under fire for its alleged political overreach during these times of increasing national isolationism ( Cueto et al ., 2019 : 20ff.). There were, accordingly, strong political reasons not to endorse a perfectionist health definition, or at least to keep such ambitions hidden from plain view, especially in 1946, with very fresh memories of the dangers of totalitarianism being abundant. 10

A more science-oriented reason as to why the WHO is unlikely to have opted for an account of perfect health is that such an ideal is not measurable. After all, it refers to an abstract point of reference. To quantify the health statuses of populations, scientists need metrics and they need to determine thresholds. In other words, they need to plot health along a scale. If health were only a hypothetical point on a limitless scale, it would hardly be a useful metric for scientific purposes. Again, this is not a decisive reason to reject the perfectionist interpretation of the WHO definition. But there are numerous publications by health scientists who use the WHO definition without running into the mentioned problems ( Breslow, 1972 ; Greenfield and Nelson, 1992 ). So, it seems that many scientists do not assume the perfectionist health interpretation (see also Ware et al ., 1981 : 621). 11

In contrast, the holistic health interpretation leads to the following point of view: Health is seen as a state of well-being with numerous aspects—physical, mental and social. 12 Given these dimensions of well-being, health statuses can be assessed in a combined approach, taking the full range of health-related factors into account. Importantly, health is not a fictional point at the end of the scale, but any point along a scale. Some people might have a comparatively bad health status, some might be in good health; all will be positioned along a spectrum. From the health definition itself, nothing follows as to when health is good enough or so bad that state institutions need to interfere. In other words, important political decisions regarding thresholds of sufficient health are not prejudged if we follow a holistic health definition. Such a perspective is much more amenable to the political remit of the WHO, which ended up with fairly limited interventionist power (cf. Packard, 2016 : 99ff.; Larsen, 2022 : 123ff.).

The overarching focus of the holistic health interpretation is maintenance of health. It is thereby acknowledged that to counter the various threats to health not only medical means are required, but a dynamic level of physical, mental and social assets. This has been an insight of early public health practitioners. For instance, Henry Sigerist, who evidently had a significant indirect influence on the WHO definition via Raymond Gautier’s draft ( Larsen, 2022 : 119), had already been concerned with the aim of health maintenance. 13 This provides a dynamic element in the conceptualisation of health, which is also implicit in the WHO definition, despite its reference to a state , which seemingly suggests a static view. When Sigerist writes that ‘health is more than the absence of disease’ ( Sigerist, 1932 : 293), this is meant as a conclusion to an argument acknowledging the environmental and social determinants of health. His point becomes quite clear in a later quote:

A healthy individual is a man [ sic! ] who is well balanced bodily and mentally, and well adjusted to his physical and social environment. He is in full control of his physical and mental faculties, can adapt to environmental changes, so long as they do not exceed normal limits; and contributes to the welfare of society according to his ability. Health is, therefore, not simply the absence of disease: it is something positive, a joyful attitude toward life, and a cheerful acceptance of the responsibilities that life puts upon the individual ( Sigerist, 1941 : 100). 14

Sigerist’s terminology, referring to being well balanced, adjusted and in full control, is not aiming towards an ideal of perfection. Rather, he is stating several elements of a good human life within the limits of reality. He believes that health enables an affirmative view of individuals towards their life, not unlimited happiness.

In this section, I have discussed the WHO definition partly from an analytical point of view, in that I distinguished two possible interpretations, a perfectionist and a holistic account of health. I have added historical information regarding the drafting period. Both analytical and historical reasons speak in favour of my thesis that the WHO definition should be read as defining health in a holistic way. Health as complete well-being refers to the full range of factors determining a specific disposition of people to prevent ill health (cf. Ware et al ., 1981 ). This ties in nicely with a more recent official statement by the WHO, the Ottawa Charter, which I will cite as final support of my thesis: ‘[H]ealth is a resource for everyday life, not the objective of living. Health is a positive concept emphasizing social and personal resources, as well as physical capacities’ ( WHO, 1986 ). Health is not the best possible state of well-being but a multifarious instrument, including external as well as internal resources, to pursue a good life.

I have not argued that a conceptualisation of perfect health is wrong-headed or even harmful. Rather, I claimed that perfect health is not the notion that the WHO has been after. It is of import to distinguish between the two notions of health introduced earlier, because confusing them will lead to cross-purposes, not merely in respect to the WHO definition. In this section I will take a closer look at the two health conceptions and discuss the purposes which they can serve. I will also hint at problems with both interpretations that might eventually call for terminological reform.

Holistic health allows to pursue multiple political and economic purposes. For instance, it enables comparisons between groups of people and is especially adept to highlight social inequalities that have an impact on population health. This makes it more pertinent for political purposes than a negative conceptualisation of health as the absence of disease. The latter is absolute or non-comparative and hence does not allow for any interesting information about health-related inequalities between persons.

Importantly, in contrast to perfect health, the scope of holistic health can be contoured by thresholds. As explained, complete well-being can be understood as having all elements that are constitutive of it. What exactly that means in relation to health is of course contested, and I have already insinuated that the WHO did not set a threshold, perhaps intentionally. Still, the required level of holistic health could be determined via political decision-making processes. This makes holistic health open for different substantial interpretations and hence political ambitions.

Despite these advantages, the conceptualisation of health as holistic health has serious drawbacks. 15 Most significantly, the distinction between health conditions and determinants of health becomes blurry ( Bickenbach, 2017 : 968, 968; van Druten et al ., 2022 : 2). 16 Environmental and social determinants of health come with certain probabilities, sometimes unknown, to fall ill or to stay healthy, but they are not constituents of medical conditions themselves; rather, they are their presumed causes ( Whitbeck, 1981 : 617). As we have seen in the previous example of miners’ health, a poor health disposition is not the same as being unhealthy, that is, suffering from disease or illness. 17

The potential confusion between poor health dispositions and disease or illness leads to normative confusion as well, especially when we are assessing claims of justice. Disease has a different normative status than a relatively bad health disposition. Arguably, disease has an immediate urgency in relation to human needs, in terms of threatening or involving harm. A comparatively high propensity to fall ill or membership in a vulnerable population as such does not obviously have such normative urgency. Important normative discussions about health justice are short-circuited if we transfer direct urgency to alleviating relatively poor holistic health statuses without thinking about the impact on the lives of real people and merely consider relative positions.

One way forward would be to acknowledge the basic insights of a holistic conceptualisation of health but to nevertheless distinguish between health as a condition of an individual and health-related traits and circumstances that have an impact on the maintenance of individual and population health. We would accordingly need a more adequate term than health for combining both of these aspects—an organismic condition, that is, health in the more narrowly medical sense, and a set of health-related resources. Such a revisionary conceptual perspective can only be alluded to here (see Davies and Schramme, 2022 ).

Accounts of perfect health have a different purpose than accounts of holistic health. The former set an ideal; an ambitious target for individual or social aspiration. According to this perspective, a person can always be potentially healthier, because there is no fixed point on a scale which suffices for health. It seems to me that such an interpretation of health is fully adequate for specific purposes, for instance, introducing a utopian goal and to stop people from becoming complacent about an important element of a good human life. Perfect health shares features with traditional accounts of the virtues, although it is not itself supposed to be a virtue. Virtues are similar to perfect health in that they describe human excellences. Virtues are excellences of character, or perfect dispositions to act fully adequately; health is excellence in relation to well-being, or a perfect organismic disposition to keep harmful and disadvantageous conditions at bay. Becoming virtuous can be an aspiration for human beings and so can becoming perfectly healthy.

However, there is a danger of imposing such an ideal on everyone. If we always have to strive for more health, then we might lose sight of other values, such as pursuing friendships, taking risks or enjoying unhealthy choices. This is a real risk in many modern societies, where health has been turned into a kind of religion and individual mission ( Katz, 1997 ). Socially, similar developments can be studied in relation to so-called ‘healthism’ and generally the moralisation of health ( Conrad, 1992 ). 18 The problems intensify if health dispositions and risk factors are not clearly distinguished from health conditions. Every single action a person pursues might have an impact on their health, according to the perfectionist health account. Hence, if combined with a prescriptive reading of the ideal—as something to be sought—then health can turn into a totalitarian imperative. This would clearly undermine the initial purpose of setting an ideal.

Whether perfect health will fail to meet its purposes will be established by experience and through history. It is not a necessary feature of the account. As mentioned, there are warning signs. However, more importantly, there is a need to clearly distinguish between holistic health and perfect health because perfect health, in contrast to holistic health, should never be the remit of state institutions.

‘Health is a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity’ ( WHO, 1948 : 100). This definition allows for two different interpretations. A perfectionist account, where health describes a hypothetical, perfect state of well-being, or a holistic account, where health is a state of exhaustive well-being, including all relevant dimensions of its constitutive elements. I have argued that the WHO intended to support a holistic account. I provided analytical and historical reasons for this point of view.

To distinguish between the two interpretations of health is important for systematic reasons as well, not merely in relation to the proper interpretation of the WHO’s definition of health. The two different accounts serve different purposes and run into different types of problems, as I have highlighted in this paper. Still, both are perfectly valid notions of health.

I would like to thank Lars Thorup Larsen and one of the two anonymous reviewers for helpful comments.

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There can, of course, be even more than just these two conceptualisations of health. For instance, many would probably define health simply in terms of the absence of disease or illness. Indeed, one of the reasons why the WHO definition has raised concerns is probably due to its explicit diversion from the widespread conceptualisation in negative terms, that is, as absence of something.

The Oxford Dictionary of English (2015) entry on the adjective forms of complete states: ‘1. having all the necessary or appropriate parts: a complete list of courses offered by the university | no woman’s wardrobe is complete without this pretty top ( … ) 2. [attributive] (often used for emphasis) to the greatest extent or degree; total: a complete ban on smoking | their marriage came as a complete surprise to me ’.

The term holistic has been used in relation to health by Lennart Nordenfelt (see Nordenfelt, 1995 : 12ff., 35ff.). By using this term, I do not want to claim that Nordenfelt endorses the WHO definition.

A slightly different distinction between two meanings of the concept of complete— complete in an ‘all-or-nothing sense’ and in a sense that ‘admits of degrees’—has been drawn by Sissela Bok in relation to the WHO definition ( Bok, 2008 : 592). In passing, I also want to note that the label perfectionist is of course not supposed to refer to perfectionism in value theory, where it denotes an objective theory of the good.

Possibly the first philosopher of medicine to take note of this feature and the likely consequences was Owsei Temkin: ‘I do not think that I read too much into this formula [the WHO definition] if I believe that it tends to include moral values and to identify health with happiness. ( … ) But is the pursuit of happiness itself wholly a medical matter? Our life has many values and ( … ) happiness can sometimes be achieved at the sacrifice of health. ( … ) [I]f health is defined so broadly as to include morality, then the danger exists that the physician will also be burdened with all the duties of the medieval priest’ ( Temkin, 1949 : 20).

This needs to be qualified, because the term social was introduced fairly late in the drafting process. However, the point I am making here is to do with the fact that elements of well-being had been listed for some time during the drafting period and that the word complete was added to characterise these elements jointly.

The Technical Preparatory Committee itself relied on earlier drafts of senior members of related institutional bodies, especially the League of Nations Health Organization ( Larsen, 2022 ). Larsen gives a detailed account of the origins of the WHO definition, tracing it back to Henry Sigerist’s influential publications in the history, sociology and philosophy of medicine, dating mainly from the 1930ies. Sigerist’s ideas were not revisionary or highly original, though, at least not in its focus on positive health. The idea that health includes elements that cannot be captured by the phrase ‘absence of disease’ goes back to antiquity. Especially the notion of health as a form of equilibrium and—in modern terms—resilience has been known for centuries ( Edelstein, 1967 : 303ff.). So, even if Sigerist’s work probably had a role in finding the relevant formulations, the underlying ideas had been prevalent.

One of the members of the Technical Preparatory Committee, Szeming Sze, recalled 40 years later that James H.S. Gear ‘improved the wording’ ( WHO, 1988 : 33). However, there is no identifiable evidence to corroborate Sze’s recollection.

The notion of well-being here is a state of a person including their circumstances. It should not be interpreted as a mental state only, that is, as a kind of feeling.

It should also not be forgotten that the early focus of public health institutions, including the precursors of the WHO, was on the prevention of diseases, specifically communicable diseases. This speaks against assuming a focus on health enhancement.

Indeed, numerous researchers claim that although the WHO definition sets a political ambition, its main purpose is to set a framework that makes health measurable ( Salomon et al ., 2003 ; Rubinelli et al ., 2018 ; cf. Chatterji et al ., 2002 ).

In line with this reading, in more recent years, there was also a discussion in the WHO whether to add spiritual well-being to the definition ( WHO, 1997 : 2; cf. Larson, 1996 ; Nordenfelt, 2016 : 214). The discussion around a fourth aspect of well-being did not lead to official changes, though.

Bok also mentions that Sigerist was a close friend of Štampar’s, who was—as mentioned earlier—a member of the drafting group ( Bok, 2008 : 594).

Georges Canguilhem similarly declared that ‘[h]ealth is a set of securities and assurances ( … ), securities in the present, assurances for the future’ ( Canguilhem, 1966 : 198).

Surely not everyone would see the political negotiability of adequate health thresholds as an advantage. However, I am here concerned with a relative advantage over the perfectionist account of health.

Once the determinants of health are confused with health itself, there is an additional danger of conceptualising immorality and incivility as forms of health disruptions (cf. Farley 2008 : 56). WHO officials were not immune to this problem. For instance, in a memorandum called International Health of the Future (1943), Gautier wrote: ‘For health is more than the absence of illness; the word health implies something positive, namely physical, mental, and moral fitness. This is the goal to be reached’ ( Larsen, 2022 : 117; see also Chisholm, 1946 : 16; cf. Cueto et al ., 2019 : 33).

The otherwise philosophically important distinction between disease and illness does not matter for the purposes of my essay. I use the terms interchangeably for ease of reading.

An important and still highly recommendable early critique of the utopian standard of health is Rene Dubos’s Mirage of Health ( Dubos, 1959) .

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