how to create a list in an essay

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How to Write a List in an Essay

Often essays incorporate lists that pose challenges to manuscript design, paragraph structure and grammar. However, readers quickly grasp your point when you list subtopics or themes; assessment checklists; complicated lists of recommendations; steps in process analysis; or component parts of an item. Key aids in composing lists are punctuation and parallelism in grammar.

Introduce the list with an independent clause or a sentence with a colon before the list. In punctuation, the colon signals that a long list follows. If the list contains a series of one-word items, separate items with commas. If the list requires more separation between items, use semicolons to separate individual items of more than three words and items that contain commas.

Set off a short list from the rest of a sentence with a dash, an informal punctuation mark that also often marks a sudden or dramatic change. Example: All eyes share common features --- optic nerves, retinas and pupils. Use dashes sparingly in a formal essay. If you have to choose between using a dash and using a colon before a short list, use a colon. A dash has much in common with a T-shirt; neither signals high style.

Write an introductory sentence for steps in a sequence. Use numerals followed by periods for each step. Example:

To bake a cake:

Assemble ingredients

Preheat oven

Grease cake pans.

Use bullets to list items when order is unimportant. As always, provide a sentence to introduce the list to follow. Bulleted lists must warrant the use of space, meaning do not use bullets for a list of two to four small items. The reader may assume you are wasting space to make your essay appear longer.

• If possible, ask your instructor or editor for style guidelines about preferred format.
• Beware of punctuating merely a list of items as a complete sentence.

In grammar, parallelism requires that each item in a series begin with the same kind of word. Example:

"Dogs can help with protection, with hunting and with detecting drugs" or "Dogs can track, swim and bark".

• Do not use more than one bulleted list in a three-page essay, if you want your composition to look like a prose composition.
• "The Bedford Handbook"; Diana Hacker and Nancy Sommers; 2010
• Purdue OWL: Parallel Structure
• In grammar, parallelism requires that each item in a series begin with the same kind of word. Example: "Dogs can help with protection, with hunting and with detecting drugs" or "Dogs can track, swim and bark".

Patricia Hunt first found her voice as a fiction and nonfiction writer in 1974. An English teacher for over 27 years, Hunt's works have appeared in "The Alaska Quarterly Review," "The New Southern Literary Messenger" and "San Jose Studies." She has a Master of Fine Arts in creative writing from American University and a doctorate in studies of America from the University of Maryland.

Capstone Form and Style

More apa style guidelines: lists.

When listing three or more items, include a serial comma (also known as an Oxford comma) before the last item and the conjunction “and” or “or.” If one or more clauses contains commas in them, use a semicolon instead of a comma to separate the clauses. (Note that the term "seriation" used in APA 6 does not appear in APA 7 and has been replaced by "lists.”)

You may also list items in three other formats: lettered, numbered, and bulleted.

Lettered Lists (APA 7, Section 6.50)

If you have a series of elements in the body of a paragraph, separate each element with lowercase letters enclosed in parentheses. Although only necessary for more complex elements, here is a simple example: (a) lions, (b) tigers, and (c) bears. Items and phrasing should be parallel.

Numbered Lists (APA 7, Section 6.51)

When ordinal position is important, list items vertically.

The organization’s emergency management protocol consists of seven sequential steps:

• Step 1 involves ...
• Step 2 consists of …
• Step 3 has five components: ...

This would be appropriate when you need to show a specific order of elements, such as in steps in a procedure or conclusions.

List items should be complete sentences or paragraphs in a series (not phrases).

Use Microsoft Word’s numbered list function to create the list; select the option with Arabic numerals (not enclosed within parentheses) followed by a period. Capitalize the first word after the number and the first word of any subsequent sentence. End each sentence with appropriate final punctuation. List items should be double-spaced and indented .5 inch.

Bulleted Lists (APA 7, Section 6.52)

Bulleted lists are appropriate when presenting a list of items in no particular order. Bulleted list items can be complete sentences or phrases or sentence fragments. Use Word’s bulleted list function to create the list. List items should be double-spaced and indented .5 inch.

If complete sentences, begin each list item with a capital letter as you would a regular sentence and insert final punctuation (usually a period) at the end of each list item.

Recommendations for improving patient safety at the facility include the following:

• Install adequate lighting and ventilation in wards, patient rooms, and other areas.
• Incorporate regular training and drills to promote staff awareness of safety procedures.
• Regularly solicit staff and patient and family feedback using an outside firm.

If phrases or sentence fragments, begin each list item with a lowercase letter.

In APA 7, you have two options for punctuating bulleted phrases: to include no punctuation after each list item and after the last list item or to include commas or semicolons, as appropriate, after each list item and final punctuation at the end of the list. (Note that APA 6 only recommended the option to punctuate lists with commas or semicolons.)

The first option may be better for shorter, less complex lists.

• installing adequate lighting and ventilation
• incorporating regular training and drills
• regularly soliciting staff and patient and family feedback

The second option may be better for longer, more complex lists.

• installing adequate lighting and ventilation in wards, patient rooms, and other areas;
• incorporating regular training and drills to promote staff awareness of safety procedures; and
• regularly soliciting staff and patient and family feedback using an outside firm.

Seriation Video

• APA Formatting & Style: Seriation (video transcript)
• Previous Page: Serial Commas
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How to Use Bullet Lists and Number Lists in a Research Paper

Academic articles often include lists, which organize the material and provide the reader with a quick overview of a section. There are different ways to format lists, but some general principles apply to all of them: they should be constructed in a parallel fashion, and they should be consistent. Numbers, letters, and bullet points are not required in all cases. Academic writers who use The Chicago Manual of Style will find various formats there, but four common list formats are presented here.

Types of List Formats

Run-in lists.

A run-in list, as the name suggests, is included as part of the general text. Elements can be separated in different ways, as shown in the examples below.

Separated with a Colon:   When a complete sentence is followed by a list of items, separate the sentence from the list with a colon.

E.g. “ Do not venture into the wilderness without these items: a knife, a book of matches, a flashlight, and a map. ”

Separated with Numbers:  When the list is part of the sentence, you can separate the items by numbering them.

E.g. “ The Housing Committee passed resolutions on (1) annual salaries, (2) fundraising efforts, and (3) community building. ”

Related: Need instant academic writing tips on your cell phone? Download the FREE Enago Academy mobile app now!

Vertical Lists

A vertical list should be preceded by a complete sentence that gives an overview of the points being listed. The list does not need to have a bullet point format and a punctuation mark is not at the end of the entries. For example:

Your admissions packet should include these items:

The three-page statement of purpose

The financial questionnaire

Your contact information

If the lead-in sentence is a complete one and all entries in the list are complete sentences, a punctuation mark should follow each entry. For example (using bullet points):

Make perfect banana bread every time by following these easy steps:

• Preheat the oven to 325 degrees.
• Grease an 8 x 8 baking dish.
• Combine all the dry ingredients (listed above).
• Gently fold in the wet ingredients (listed above).
• Pour the batter into the dish and bake for 45 minutes.

Again, note that because each entry in the list is a complete sentence, a final period is used.

Vertical Lists Punctuated as a Sentence

When a list is too long or convoluted to be presented as one sentence, you can use a vertical list that is punctuated like a sentence. This format is especially useful when the phrases include internal punctuations or the reader might find it difficult to follow the meaning. An example follows below.

Biology instructors have made significant changes to their curricula and classrooms, and today it is common to find

• innovative research techniques, especially those requiring knowledge of anatomy, in labs;
• greater focus on teamwork;
• in-class lectures customized for learning styles; and
• bilingual lesson plans.

Vertical Lists with Subdivided Items

A complex vertical list may be formatted in a way that resembles an outline, using numbers and letters to provide a logical structure. The lead-in (introductory) line should be a complete sentence, as seen in the example below.

Students should be prepared to discuss the following topics:

• Regional History
• Geography and landmarks
• Erosion in mountainous areas
• Notable Figures
• The first tribal chieftains
• The emergence of political divisions and leaders
• The role of women
• Cultural Developments
• The spread of language
• Music used to bind communities

The next time you read a research paper , look for lists and examine how they were constructed. Do the entries use a consistent format? Are the numbers and/or letters correctly placed and in the proper order? Is the lead-in line a complete sentence? If you find that these steps are all present, chances are that the author took the time to research the structure of lists and present them accurately. Now you can do the same.

References:

• Get It Write. Handling Vertical Lists.  Retrieved from http://www.getitwriteonline.com/archive/101406VerticalLists.htm

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Creating Vertical Lists in MLA Style

Note: This post relates to content in the eighth edition of the MLA Handbook . For up-to-date guidance, see the ninth edition of the MLA Handbook .

Although in humanities essays,  lists are generally run into the text , in other types of material, a vertical list may be preferable. Vertical lists call attention to the items listed, so such lists are often desirable in pedagogical and promotional contexts. The MLA’s guidelines for styling vertical lists are derived from  The Chicago Manual of Style (6.127–132). Below are examples of vertical lists—which may be unnumbered, numbered, or bulleted—and how to introduce, punctuate, and capitalize them.

Lists Introduced with a Complete Sentence 

A list may be introduced with a complete sentence followed by a colon, as in the examples below. The items in the list can be composed of complete sentences or fragments but should be consistent in using one or the other method.

List Items with Complete Sentences

If the list items are complete sentences, as in the examples below, the first letter of the first word of each item should be capitalized, and the item should be followed by closing punctuation, such as a period or question mark.

Finally, I posed the following overarching questions for students to consider throughout the semester: How can a man embody modern, bourgeois norms of masculinity in a country still strongly tied to the ancien régime? How do aristocratic and bourgeois models of manhood interact with one another in the Spanish realist novel? How are working-class men depicted in Spanish realism?  How can we apply Cartagena Calderón’s definition of the crisis of masculinity to the late-nineteenth-century Spanish context? 

List Items with Fragments

If the list items are not complete sentences and the list is numbered, capitalize the start of each item:

These raw materials can be grouped in four main areas: Early modern Christian beliefs inherited from the medieval period, indeed the very period that Shakespeare is writing about in the history plays The structure of feudal and and semifeudal society Emergent humanist ideas about history and politics imported from Renaissance Italy, especially those of Niccolò Machiavelli The key events of the Wars of the Roses and the corresponding key plot points of Shakespeare’s two tetralogies 

If the list is unnumbered or bulleted, generally lowercase the start of each item: 

These raw materials can be grouped in four main areas: early modern Christian beliefs inherited from the medieval period, indeed the very period that Shakespeare is writing about in the history plays the structure of feudal and and semifeudal society emergent humanist ideas about history and politics imported from Renaissance Italy, especially those of Niccolò Machiavelli the key events of the Wars of the Roses and the corresponding key plot points of Shakespeare’s two tetralogies

In some contexts, though, you may capitalize the first letter of the first word of each item if you wish to call attention to the items.

Lists That Continue the Sentence Introducing Them

A list may also start with a sentence continued in the list. No colon should appear before such lists.

If the list items are not complete sentences, you can often begin each item with a lowercase letter and use no punctuation after the item.

The MLA Style Center  is a free companion to the  MLA Handbook . The only official website devoted to MLA style, it provides  the opportunity to submit your own questions insights about MLA style from the MLA’s editors sample research papers instructions on formatting research papers teaching resources tools for creating works-cited-list entries

List Items Punctuated like a Sentence

In formal contexts, you may use semicolons between the list items and “and” before the final item: 

The MLA is expanding its advocacy efforts by

• sharing urgent information with members;
• developing strategic partnerships; and
• aggregating advocacy news, calls to action, and other resources on the MLA Action Network .

Sample lists taken or adapted from  the MLA website and the following publications:  Zachary Erwin’s “Teaching Masculinity in Pardo Bazán’s Novels” ( Approaches to Teaching the Writings of Emilia Pardo Bazán ,  edited by Margot Versteeg and Susan Walter, Modern Language Association of America, 2017, pp. 58–63) and Neema Parvini’s “Historicism ‘By Stealth’: History, Politics, and Power in  Richard II and  Henry IV” ( Approaches to  Teaching Shakespeare’s English History Plays , edited by Laurie Ellinghausen, Modern Language Association of America, 2017, pp. 94–99).

The Chicago Manual of Style.  17th ed., U of Chicago P, 2017, www.chicagomanualofstyle.org/book/ed17/part2/ch06/psec127.html.

13 Comments

Pam 27 january 2020 at 04:01 pm.

Please advise as to whether semicolons should be used in a vertical list of names or only in a linear list of names. Thank you.

Your e-mail address will not be published

Jennifer A. Rappaport 28 January 2020 AT 07:01 AM

Thanks for your question. No punctuation is required in a vertical list of names.

C Haulenbeek 29 January 2020 AT 09:01 PM

In a bulleted list, are the entries single spaced or double spaced?

Jennifer A. Rappaport 30 January 2020 AT 07:01 AM

Thanks for your question. If your paper is double-spaced, you can double-space the list.

Mohamed Iliyas 05 October 2020 AT 05:10 AM

Should the list item numbers in vertical list be with period (1. list item) ? or it can be like '1) list item'. Thanks in advance.

Jennifer A. Rappaport 05 October 2020 AT 07:10 AM

Thanks for your question. The numbers in a numbered vertical list should be followed by a period, as shown in the example above.

John 30 October 2020 AT 12:10 PM

Is there a space between the heading and subpoints?

Jennifer A. Rappaport 02 November 2020 AT 07:11 AM

Yes, for readability, include a line space above and below a heading. See our post on headings: https://style.mla.org/styling-headings-and-subheadings/.

johanna 22 April 2021 AT 10:04 AM

I'm listing single words in a vertical list (with bullet points) which don't add up to form a full sentence. Should I capitalize the innitial letters? Should I use commas in my list?

e.g.: Complications include: - kidney failure - arrhythmia - re-operation - ...

Thanks in advance!

C. Barney Latimer 26 April 2021 AT 05:04 PM

As noted in the post, the items in a bulleted list of fragments generally start with lowercase letters, and no punctuation is needed after each item.

Aspen Anderson 04 June 2021 AT 05:06 PM

This info was incredibly helpful, thank you! How do you format it if each bullet has an intro concept/sentence, i.e. "1. Drink more water: When you drink water throughout the day..."

C. Barney Latimer 11 June 2021 AT 01:06 PM

If it’s important to begin an item in a vertical list with an introductory phrase or sentence, feel free to apply distinctive formatting (e.g., bold or italics) to the introductory wording, which should then be followed with a period. The example you’ve provided might therefore be formatted as follows: "1. Drink more water . When you drink water throughout the day..."

Virginia Kirk 16 May 2022 AT 05:05 PM

In your last example, "List Items Punctuated Like a Sentence," are you using the semi-colon because the last item in the list includes commas? Would you use the semi-colon in such a list if there were no commas in the last item?

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• Capitalization

How to Format a List

A list may be vertical or horizontal. A vertical list is often introduced by a complete sentence followed by a colon.

• Changing the sparkplug
• Oiling the wheels
• Launching the rocket ship

Use numbers instead of bullet points when the order or number of elements in the list is important.

• Change the sparkplug.
• Oil the wheels.
• Launch the rocket ship.

The items in a vertical list are generally capitalized. Use a period at the end of a list item only if it is a complete sentence.

A horizontal (or run-in) list may contain numbering if the list elements are meant to stand out from the text.

• We still have to clean the windows, stock the pantry, and refuel the ship.
• Today, we must (a) clean the windows, (b) stock the pantry, and (c) refuel the ship.

What is a list?

A list is a useful way to organize information and present it clearly and logically. The elements in a list stand out typographically from the rest of the text, thus encouraging the reader to focus on them.

• The things I miss most in this apocalypse are (a) diet soda, (b) toilet paper, and (c) good moisturizer.
• A torn notebook
• An old scarf
• A half-eaten candle

When to use a list

Before creating a list, ask yourself whether you need one. Remember that a list stands out from the rest of the text. Therefore, it is best used to present important information that is logically organized and similarly structured.

Don’t overuse lists in writing. To maintain a natural tone, use paragraphs to convey information, occasionally using lists to clarify ideas for your reader.

If the elements of a list comprise many long sentences, they are probably better set in a paragraph than in a list.

A list may be laid out vertically or horizontally. It may be punctuated , indented, bulleted, and numbered.

Vertical lists

Vertical lists are more prominent than horizontal ones and stand out more from the rest of the text.

Numbers, bullets, and indentation

Vertical lists are usually indented and either bulleted or numbered.

• A gold watch
• A fountain pen
• A silk vest
• Buy a swimsuit.
• Find a pool.
• Move your arms and legs, and keep your nose above water.

Bullets or numbers are not essential and are sometimes omitted—for example, when ingredients are listed in a recipe.

• 2 teaspoons sugar
• 3 tablespoons butter
• 1 cup cracker crumbs
• 1 diced potato

Indentation, though preferred, may be omitted—for example, in a restaurant menu.

• Tea English Breakfast Earl Grey Darjeeling Golden orange pekoe Coffee Espresso Americano Latte Cappuccino

Numbers versus bullets

If the sequence of the listed items is important, use a numbered ( i.e., ordered) list.

• Unplug the device from its power source.
• Turn around three times.
• Touch your nose with your index finger.
• Plug the device back in.
• Wait until you see a green light.
• Press the red button.

You may also use a numbered list to emphasize the number of items.

• A flashlight
• Your sense of adventure

Letters instead of numbers are generally used to present a list of options, such as in a quiz with multiple-choice questions.

• More than 7

Letters may be used in multilevel or nested lists, which are lists with sublevels within them.

Use bullets instead of numbers when the sequence or number of elements in your list is not important. Such lists are called unordered lists. Changing the sequence of items in such a list does not affect meaning or make the list difficult to understand.

• Concierge desk

When to capitalize list elements

The elements in a vertical list are often capitalized. This capitalization style is relatively simple and thus preferred by many. It has the additional advantage of making each of the listed points stand out.

• Count nouns
• Nouns that are both count and mass

However, capitalization is not always necessary, especially in a list that isn’t bulleted or numbered, or introduced by a sentence followed by a colon .

• application form
• proof of residence
• bank statement

How to punctuate a list

If the points in your list are complete sentences, use terminal punctuation ( periods or question marks ).

• What are em dashes?
• What are en dashes?
• How are they different?
• Wash and boil lentils.
• Season with salt.
• Put away to use later.
• Order Ezogelin soup from the nearest Turkish restaurant.

If your list isn’t made up of complete sentences, periods aren’t required.

• Spirit level
• Power drill

Lists may also be punctuated as complete sentences. Don’t use a colon to introduce such a list. End each list item with a comma , and use a period at the end of the list. Since such a list is meant to be read as a sentence, don’t capitalize any of the individual points.

• another map,
• an empty bottle,
• a human skull.

Use semicolons if the points in your list contain internal commas. An and before the final element is optional.

• a wooden plank, two feet wide and four feet tall;
• a box of paints, preferably acrylic; and
• a steady hand.

When to use a colon to introduce a list

Use a colon after a complete sentence or independent clause to introduce a list.

• Surgical masks
• Hand sanitizer
• Toilet paper

Don’t place a colon after a simple heading or introductory phrase.

Use a colon only after a complete introductory sentence.

If you don’t introduce the list using a complete sentence, the list itself can be the sentence.

Such a list is better laid out horizontally, especially if the list items are short.

• This year, Tumkin will visit Thailand, Vietnam, and Indonesia.

The serial comma before and after the second-last item in a horizontal list is optional but often preferred, especially in formal writing in American English .

Multilevel lists

You may sometimes need more than one level to create an effective outline. Such multilevel lists (or outlines) work particularly well as project plans, hierarchies, and indexes (take a look at the table of contents on this page). If number, sequence, or chronology are important, use numbers and letters for each element in the list (I, A, 1, a, i); otherwise, use variously sized and shaped bullets (•, ◦, ▪).

• Northern Africa
• Eastern Africa
• Middle Africa
• Southern Africa
• Western Africa
• Central America
• South America
• Northern America
• Central Asia
• Eastern Asia
• Southeastern Asia
• Southern Asia
• Western Asia
• Eastern Europe
• Northern Europe
• Southern Europe
• Western Europe
• Australia and New Zealand
• Political divisions of the world

You may use any sequential numbering system (e.g., [I, A, 1, a, i] or [1, 1.1, 1.1.1]) as long as it makes the hierarchy of the levels clear to your reader.

As with any list, if the sequence or number of list elements is unimportant, use bullets. Use a different style or size of bullet point to denote each sublevel. (Programs such as Microsoft Word do this automatically for you.)

• Autotrophic
• Carnivorous
• Herbivorous
• Very friendly
• Somewhat unfriendly
• Mostly harmless

Format multilevel or nested lists logically and consistently. Indent, number, or format each sublevel such that it is clear which level each list element belongs to. Inconsistent formatting can make an outline look messy and unprofessional.

Horizontal lists

In its simplest form, a horizontal list (also called a run-in list) is a sentence with items separated by commas.

• To bake a cake, you need flour, eggs, butter, and time .
• Nesbit, Lulu, and Anita have won the tournament.

Use a semicolon to separate items in a list when they themselves contain internal punctuation.

• Tumkin visited Hamburg, Germany; George Town, Malaysia; and Colombo, Sri Lanka .

To make list elements stand out, to highlight their number, or to imply a sequence, use letters or numbers. Enclose these letters or numbers in parentheses to separate them from the surrounding text.

• I can’t live here because (a) it’s dirty and (b) it stinks .
• Make sure to pack (1) binoculars, (2) pencils, and (c) spare socks .
• On our trip to Turkey, we plan to visit the following places: (1) Istanbul, (2) Antalya, (3) Ankara, (4) Bodrum .

Use a colon only if you use a complete sentence to introduce the list.

• Incorrect For his trip to Mars, Farley packed: (a) a gold watch, (b) a silk tie, (c) a pair of dress shoes. Correct For his trip to Mars, Farley packed (a) a gold watch, (b) a silk tie, (c) a pair of dress shoes. Correct For his trip to Mars, Farley packed three things: (a) a gold watch, (b) a silk tie, (c) a pair of dress shoes.

Parallel structure

For a list that is logical and readable, ensure parallel structure across its elements. This means that each element in your list should be of the same type functionally (word, phrase , clause , or sentence ) and grammatically ( nouns , verbs , adverbs , etc.). Also, don’t mix tone. If one of the points in your list is a question, all should be questions. If one is an imperative (an instruction), so must they all be.

• Poor Lulu loves adventure , eating ice-cream , and to laugh when she can . This list lacks parallel structure: the first item is a noun, the second a gerund phrase, and the third an infinitive phrase.
• Better Lulu loves being adventurous, eating ice-cream, and laughing when she can. We have parallel structure: all the items in this list are gerund phrases.
• Better Lulu loves adventure , ice-cream , and laughter . We’ve ensured parallel structure by rephrasing and turning all the elements into nouns.
• Better Lulu loves to be adventurous, eat ice-cream, and laugh when she can. All the elements in this list are infinitive phrases.

Don’t mix imperatives with factual statements and questions.

• Buy seven crates of coconut water.
• It’s useful to be strong and agile; try swimming every day.
• When did you last have a dental checkup?
• Stay strong and agile by going swimming every day.
• Get a dental checkup done.

Don’t allow the list items to be functionally different—for example, one shouldn’t be a noun and another an adjective .

• Invertebrate species
• Invertebrates

Usage guide

Lists help organize and present information logically and sequentially. The elements of a list stand out from the rest of the text, unlike sentences in a paragraph. Use a list to provide a set of instructions or to make key points clear to your readers. If the number or order of elements is important, use numbers; otherwise, use bullets. Capitalize and punctuate your list correctly and consistently. Finally, check that your list has parallel structure.

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Use numbers when the order of listed items is important.

Use a colon only after a complete introductory sentence at the start of a list. A simple heading does not require punctuation.

List elements don’t require terminal punctuation (such as periods) unless they are complete sentences.

A list can contain multiple levels to denote hierarchy. Ensure that the various sublevels are consistently formatted and numbered.

A list should have parallel structure, which means that all items have similar structure (words, phrases, sentences) and are of the same grammatical type (nouns, adjectives, verbs, gerunds, etc.).

A clear, arguable thesis will tell your readers where you are going to end up, but it can also help you figure out how to get them there. Put your thesis at the top of a blank page and then make a list of the points you will need to make to argue that thesis effectively.

For example, consider this example from the thesis handout : While Sandel argues persuasively that our instinct to “remake”(54) ourselves into something ever more perfect is a problem, his belief that we can always draw a line between what is medically necessary and what makes us simply “better than well”(51) is less convincing.

To argue this thesis, the author needs to do the following:

• Show what is persuasive about Sandel’s claims about the problems with striving for perfection.
• Show what is not convincing about Sandel’s claim that we can clearly distinguish between medically necessary enhancements and other enhancements.

Once you have broken down your thesis into main claims, you can then think about what sub-claims you will need to make in order to support each of those main claims. That step might look like this:

• Evidence that Sandel provides to support this claim
• Discussion of why this evidence is convincing even in light of potential counterarguments
• Discussion of cases when medically necessary enhancement and non-medical enhancement cannot be easily distinguished
• Analysis of what those cases mean for Sandel’s argument
• Consideration of counterarguments (what Sandel might say in response to this section of your argument)

Each argument you will make in an essay will be different, but this strategy will often be a useful first step in figuring out the path of your argument.  

Strategy #2: Use subheadings, even if you remove them later  

Scientific papers generally include standard subheadings to delineate different sections of the paper, including “introduction,” “methods,” and “discussion.” Even when you are not required to use subheadings, it can be helpful to put them into an early draft to help you see what you’ve written and to begin to think about how your ideas fit together. You can do this by typing subheadings above the sections of your draft.

If you’re having trouble figuring out how your ideas fit together, try beginning with informal subheadings like these:

• Introduction  
• Explain the author’s main point  
• Show why this main point doesn’t hold up when we consider this other example  
• Explain the implications of what I’ve shown for our understanding of the author  
• Show how that changes our understanding of the topic

For longer papers, you may decide to include subheadings to guide your reader through your argument. In those cases, you would need to revise your informal subheadings to be more useful for your readers. For example, if you have initially written in something like “explain the author’s main point,” your final subheading might be something like “Sandel’s main argument” or “Sandel’s opposition to genetic enhancement.” In other cases, once you have the key pieces of your argument in place, you will be able to remove the subheadings.  

Strategy #3: Create a reverse outline from your draft  

While you may have learned to outline a paper before writing a draft, this step is often difficult because our ideas develop as we write. In some cases, it can be more helpful to write a draft in which you get all of your ideas out and then do a “reverse outline” of what you’ve already written. This doesn’t have to be formal; you can just make a list of the point in each paragraph of your draft and then ask these questions:

• Are those points in an order that makes sense to you?  
• Are there gaps in your argument?  
• Do the topic sentences of the paragraphs clearly state these main points?  
• Do you have more than one paragraph that focuses on the same point? If so, do you need both paragraphs?  
• Do you have some paragraphs that include too many points? If so, would it make more sense to split them up?  
• Do you make points near the end of the draft that would be more effective earlier in your paper?  
• Are there points missing from this draft?  
• picture_as_pdf Tips for Organizing Your Essay

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Reference List: Basic Rules

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This resourse, revised according to the 7 th  edition APA Publication Manual, offers basic guidelines for formatting the reference list at the end of a standard APA research paper. Most sources follow fairly straightforward rules. However, because sources obtained from academic journals  carry special weight in research writing, these sources are subject to special rules . Thus, this page presents basic guidelines for citing academic journals separate from its "ordinary" basic guidelines. This distinction is made clear below.

Note:  Because the information on this page pertains to virtually all citations, we've highlighted one important difference between APA 6 and APA 7 with an underlined note written in red.  For more information, please consult the   Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association , (7 th  ed.).

Formatting a Reference List

Your reference list should appear at the end of your paper. It provides the information necessary for a reader to locate and retrieve any source you cite in the body of the paper. Each source you cite in the paper must appear in your reference list; likewise, each entry in the reference list must be cited in your text.

Your references should begin on a new page separate from the text of the essay; label this page "References" in bold, centered at the top of the page (do NOT underline or use quotation marks for the title). All text should be double-spaced just like the rest of your essay.

Basic Rules for Most Sources

• All lines after the first line of each entry in your reference list should be indented one-half inch from the left margin. This is called hanging indentation.
• All authors' names should be inverted (i.e., last names should be provided first).
• For example, the reference entry for a source written by Jane Marie Smith would begin with "Smith, J. M."
• If a middle name isn't available, just initialize the author's first name: "Smith, J."
• Give the last name and first/middle initials for all authors of a particular work up to and including 20 authors ( this is a new rule, as APA 6 only required the first six authors ). Separate each author’s initials from the next author in the list with a comma. Use an ampersand (&) before the last author’s name. If there are 21 or more authors, use an ellipsis (but no ampersand) after the 19th author, and then add the final author’s name.
• Reference list entries should be alphabetized by the last name of the first author of each work.
• For multiple articles by the same author, or authors listed in the same order, list the entries in chronological order, from earliest to most recent.
• Note again that the titles of academic journals are subject to special rules. See section below.
• Italicize titles of longer works (e.g., books, edited collections, names of newspapers, and so on).
• Do not italicize, underline, or put quotes around the titles of shorter works such as chapters in books or essays in edited collections.

Basic Rules for Articles in Academic Journals

• Present journal titles in full.
• Italicize journal titles.
• For example, you should use  PhiloSOPHIA  instead of  Philosophia,  or  Past & Present   instead of  Past and Present.
• This distinction is based on the type of source being cited. Academic journal titles have all major words capitalized, while other sources' titles do not.
• Capitalize   the first word of the titles and subtitles of   journal articles , as well as the   first word after a colon or a dash in the title, and   any proper nouns .
• Do not italicize or underline the article title.
• Deep blue: The mysteries of the Marianas Trench.
• Oceanographic Study: A Peer-Reviewed Publication

Please note:  While the APA manual provides examples of how to cite common types of sources, it does not cover all conceivable sources. If you must cite a source that APA does not address, the APA suggests finding an example that is similar to your source and using that format. For more information, see page 282 of the   Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association , 7 th  ed.

Tips for Writing an Effective Application Essay

How to Write an Effective Essay

Writing an essay for college admission gives you a chance to use your authentic voice and show your personality. It's an excellent opportunity to personalize your application beyond your academic credentials, and a well-written essay can have a positive influence come decision time.

Want to know how to draft an essay for your college application ? Here are some tips to keep in mind when writing.

Tips for Essay Writing

A typical college application essay, also known as a personal statement, is 400-600 words. Although that may seem short, writing about yourself can be challenging. It's not something you want to rush or put off at the last moment. Think of it as a critical piece of the application process. Follow these tips to write an impactful essay that can work in your favor.

1. Start Early.

Few people write well under pressure. Try to complete your first draft a few weeks before you have to turn it in. Many advisers recommend starting as early as the summer before your senior year in high school. That way, you have ample time to think about the prompt and craft the best personal statement possible.

You don't have to work on your essay every day, but you'll want to give yourself time to revise and edit. You may discover that you want to change your topic or think of a better way to frame it. Either way, the sooner you start, the better.

2. Understand the Prompt and Instructions.

Before you begin the writing process, take time to understand what the college wants from you. The worst thing you can do is skim through the instructions and submit a piece that doesn't even fit the bare minimum requirements or address the essay topic. Look at the prompt, consider the required word count, and note any unique details each school wants.

3. Create a Strong Opener.

Students seeking help for their application essays often have trouble getting things started. It's a challenging writing process. Finding the right words to start can be the hardest part.

Spending more time working on your opener is always a good idea. The opening sentence sets the stage for the rest of your piece. The introductory paragraph is what piques the interest of the reader, and it can immediately set your essay apart from the others.

4. Stay on Topic.

One of the most important things to remember is to keep to the essay topic. If you're applying to 10 or more colleges, it's easy to veer off course with so many application essays.

A common mistake many students make is trying to fit previously written essays into the mold of another college's requirements. This seems like a time-saving way to avoid writing new pieces entirely, but it often backfires. The result is usually a final piece that's generic, unfocused, or confusing. Always write a new essay for every application, no matter how long it takes.

5. Think About Your Response.

Don't try to guess what the admissions officials want to read. Your essay will be easier to write─and more exciting to read─if you’re genuinely enthusiastic about your subject. Here’s an example: If all your friends are writing application essays about covid-19, it may be a good idea to avoid that topic, unless during the pandemic you had a vivid, life-changing experience you're burning to share. Whatever topic you choose, avoid canned responses. Be creative.

6. Focus on You.

Essay prompts typically give you plenty of latitude, but panel members expect you to focus on a subject that is personal (although not overly intimate) and particular to you. Admissions counselors say the best essays help them learn something about the candidate that they would never know from reading the rest of the application.

7. Stay True to Your Voice.

Use your usual vocabulary. Avoid fancy language you wouldn't use in real life. Imagine yourself reading this essay aloud to a classroom full of people who have never met you. Keep a confident tone. Be wary of words and phrases that undercut that tone.

8. Be Specific and Factual.

Capitalize on real-life experiences. Your essay may give you the time and space to explain why a particular achievement meant so much to you. But resist the urge to exaggerate and embellish. Admissions counselors read thousands of essays each year. They can easily spot a fake.

9. Edit and Proofread.

When you finish the final draft, run it through the spell checker on your computer. Then don’t read your essay for a few days. You'll be more apt to spot typos and awkward grammar when you reread it. After that, ask a teacher, parent, or college student (preferably an English or communications major) to give it a quick read. While you're at it, double-check your word count.

Writing essays for college admission can be daunting, but it doesn't have to be. A well-crafted essay could be the deciding factor─in your favor. Keep these tips in mind, and you'll have no problem creating memorable pieces for every application.

What is the format of a college application essay?

Generally, essays for college admission follow a simple format that includes an opening paragraph, a lengthier body section, and a closing paragraph. You don't need to include a title, which will only take up extra space. Keep in mind that the exact format can vary from one college application to the next. Read the instructions and prompt for more guidance.

Most online applications will include a text box for your essay. If you're attaching it as a document, however, be sure to use a standard, 12-point font and use 1.5-spaced or double-spaced lines, unless the application specifies different font and spacing.

How do you start an essay?

The goal here is to use an attention grabber. Think of it as a way to reel the reader in and interest an admissions officer in what you have to say. There's no trick on how to start a college application essay. The best way you can approach this task is to flex your creative muscles and think outside the box.

You can start with openers such as relevant quotes, exciting anecdotes, or questions. Either way, the first sentence should be unique and intrigue the reader.

What should an essay include?

Every application essay you write should include details about yourself and past experiences. It's another opportunity to make yourself look like a fantastic applicant. Leverage your experiences. Tell a riveting story that fulfills the prompt.

What shouldn’t be included in an essay?

When writing a college application essay, it's usually best to avoid overly personal details and controversial topics. Although these topics might make for an intriguing essay, they can be tricky to express well. If you’re unsure if a topic is appropriate for your essay, check with your school counselor. An essay for college admission shouldn't include a list of achievements or academic accolades either. Your essay isn’t meant to be a rehashing of information the admissions panel can find elsewhere in your application.

How can you make your essay personal and interesting?

The best way to make your essay interesting is to write about something genuinely important to you. That could be an experience that changed your life or a valuable lesson that had an enormous impact on you. Whatever the case, speak from the heart, and be honest.

Is it OK to discuss mental health in an essay?

Mental health struggles can create challenges you must overcome during your education and could be an opportunity for you to show how you’ve handled challenges and overcome obstacles. If you’re considering writing your essay for college admission on this topic, consider talking to your school counselor or with an English teacher on how to frame the essay.

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• How to write an essay introduction | 4 steps & examples

How to Write an Essay Introduction | 4 Steps & Examples

Published on February 4, 2019 by Shona McCombes . Revised on July 23, 2023.

A good introduction paragraph is an essential part of any academic essay . It sets up your argument and tells the reader what to expect.

The main goals of an introduction are to:

• Catch your reader’s attention.
• Give background on your topic.
• Present your thesis statement —the central point of your essay.

This introduction example is taken from our interactive essay example on the history of Braille.

The invention of Braille was a major turning point in the history of disability. The writing system of raised dots used by visually impaired people was developed by Louis Braille in nineteenth-century France. In a society that did not value disabled people in general, blindness was particularly stigmatized, and lack of access to reading and writing was a significant barrier to social participation. The idea of tactile reading was not entirely new, but existing methods based on sighted systems were difficult to learn and use. As the first writing system designed for blind people’s needs, Braille was a groundbreaking new accessibility tool. It not only provided practical benefits, but also helped change the cultural status of blindness. This essay begins by discussing the situation of blind people in nineteenth-century Europe. It then describes the invention of Braille and the gradual process of its acceptance within blind education. Subsequently, it explores the wide-ranging effects of this invention on blind people’s social and cultural lives.

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Table of contents

Step 1: hook your reader, step 2: give background information, step 3: present your thesis statement, step 4: map your essay’s structure, step 5: check and revise, more examples of essay introductions, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about the essay introduction.

Your first sentence sets the tone for the whole essay, so spend some time on writing an effective hook.

Avoid long, dense sentences—start with something clear, concise and catchy that will spark your reader’s curiosity.

The hook should lead the reader into your essay, giving a sense of the topic you’re writing about and why it’s interesting. Avoid overly broad claims or plain statements of fact.

Examples: Writing a good hook

Take a look at these examples of weak hooks and learn how to improve them.

• Braille was an extremely important invention.
• The invention of Braille was a major turning point in the history of disability.

The first sentence is a dry fact; the second sentence is more interesting, making a bold claim about exactly  why the topic is important.

• The internet is defined as “a global computer network providing a variety of information and communication facilities.”
• The spread of the internet has had a world-changing effect, not least on the world of education.

Avoid using a dictionary definition as your hook, especially if it’s an obvious term that everyone knows. The improved example here is still broad, but it gives us a much clearer sense of what the essay will be about.

• Mary Shelley’s  Frankenstein is a famous book from the nineteenth century.
• Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein is often read as a crude cautionary tale about the dangers of scientific advancement.

Instead of just stating a fact that the reader already knows, the improved hook here tells us about the mainstream interpretation of the book, implying that this essay will offer a different interpretation.

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Next, give your reader the context they need to understand your topic and argument. Depending on the subject of your essay, this might include:

• Historical, geographical, or social context
• An outline of the debate you’re addressing
• A summary of relevant theories or research about the topic
• Definitions of key terms

The information here should be broad but clearly focused and relevant to your argument. Don’t give too much detail—you can mention points that you will return to later, but save your evidence and interpretation for the main body of the essay.

How much space you need for background depends on your topic and the scope of your essay. In our Braille example, we take a few sentences to introduce the topic and sketch the social context that the essay will address:

Now it’s time to narrow your focus and show exactly what you want to say about the topic. This is your thesis statement —a sentence or two that sums up your overall argument.

This is the most important part of your introduction. A  good thesis isn’t just a statement of fact, but a claim that requires evidence and explanation.

The goal is to clearly convey your own position in a debate or your central point about a topic.

Particularly in longer essays, it’s helpful to end the introduction by signposting what will be covered in each part. Keep it concise and give your reader a clear sense of the direction your argument will take.

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As you research and write, your argument might change focus or direction as you learn more.

For this reason, it’s often a good idea to wait until later in the writing process before you write the introduction paragraph—it can even be the very last thing you write.

When you’ve finished writing the essay body and conclusion , you should return to the introduction and check that it matches the content of the essay.

It’s especially important to make sure your thesis statement accurately represents what you do in the essay. If your argument has gone in a different direction than planned, tweak your thesis statement to match what you actually say.

To polish your writing, you can use something like a paraphrasing tool .

You can use the checklist below to make sure your introduction does everything it’s supposed to.

Checklist: Essay introduction

My first sentence is engaging and relevant.

I have introduced the topic with necessary background information.

I have defined any important terms.

My thesis statement clearly presents my main point or argument.

Everything in the introduction is relevant to the main body of the essay.

You have a strong introduction - now make sure the rest of your essay is just as good.

• Argumentative
• Literary analysis

This introduction to an argumentative essay sets up the debate about the internet and education, and then clearly states the position the essay will argue for.

The spread of the internet has had a world-changing effect, not least on the world of education. The use of the internet in academic contexts is on the rise, and its role in learning is hotly debated. For many teachers who did not grow up with this technology, its effects seem alarming and potentially harmful. This concern, while understandable, is misguided. The negatives of internet use are outweighed by its critical benefits for students and educators—as a uniquely comprehensive and accessible information source; a means of exposure to and engagement with different perspectives; and a highly flexible learning environment.

This introduction to a short expository essay leads into the topic (the invention of the printing press) and states the main point the essay will explain (the effect of this invention on European society).

In many ways, the invention of the printing press marked the end of the Middle Ages. The medieval period in Europe is often remembered as a time of intellectual and political stagnation. Prior to the Renaissance, the average person had very limited access to books and was unlikely to be literate. The invention of the printing press in the 15th century allowed for much less restricted circulation of information in Europe, paving the way for the Reformation.

This introduction to a literary analysis essay , about Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein , starts by describing a simplistic popular view of the story, and then states how the author will give a more complex analysis of the text’s literary devices.

Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein is often read as a crude cautionary tale. Arguably the first science fiction novel, its plot can be read as a warning about the dangers of scientific advancement unrestrained by ethical considerations. In this reading, and in popular culture representations of the character as a “mad scientist”, Victor Frankenstein represents the callous, arrogant ambition of modern science. However, far from providing a stable image of the character, Shelley uses shifting narrative perspectives to gradually transform our impression of Frankenstein, portraying him in an increasingly negative light as the novel goes on. While he initially appears to be a naive but sympathetic idealist, after the creature’s narrative Frankenstein begins to resemble—even in his own telling—the thoughtlessly cruel figure the creature represents him as.

If you want to know more about AI tools , college essays , or fallacies make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples or go directly to our tools!

• Ad hominem fallacy
• Post hoc fallacy
• Appeal to authority fallacy
• False cause fallacy
• Sunk cost fallacy

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Your essay introduction should include three main things, in this order:

• An opening hook to catch the reader’s attention.
• Relevant background information that the reader needs to know.
• A thesis statement that presents your main point or argument.

The length of each part depends on the length and complexity of your essay .

The “hook” is the first sentence of your essay introduction . It should lead the reader into your essay, giving a sense of why it’s interesting.

To write a good hook, avoid overly broad statements or long, dense sentences. Try to start with something clear, concise and catchy that will spark your reader’s curiosity.

A thesis statement is a sentence that sums up the central point of your paper or essay . Everything else you write should relate to this key idea.

The thesis statement is essential in any academic essay or research paper for two main reasons:

• It gives your writing direction and focus.
• It gives the reader a concise summary of your main point.

Without a clear thesis statement, an essay can end up rambling and unfocused, leaving your reader unsure of exactly what you want to say.

The structure of an essay is divided into an introduction that presents your topic and thesis statement , a body containing your in-depth analysis and arguments, and a conclusion wrapping up your ideas.

The structure of the body is flexible, but you should always spend some time thinking about how you can organize your essay to best serve your ideas.

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