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Learning Objectives
- Determine the purpose and structure of cause and effect in writing
- Understand how to write a cause and effect essay
The Purpose of Cause and Effect in Writing
It is often considered human nature to ask “why?” and “how?” We may want to know how our child got sick so we can better prevent it from happening in the future, or why our colleague received a pay raise because we want one as well. We want to know how much money we will save over the long term if we buy a hybrid car. These examples identify only a few of the relationships we think about in our lives, but each shows the importance of understanding cause and effect.
A cause is something that produces an event or condition; an effect is what results from an event or condition. The purpose of the cause and effect essay is to determine how various phenomena relate in terms of origins and results. Sometimes the connection between cause and effect is clear, but often determining the exact relationship between the two is very difficult. For example, the following effects of a cold may be easily identifiable: a sore throat, runny nose, and a cough. But determining the cause of the sickness can be far more difficult. A number of causes are possible, and to complicate matters, these possible causes could have combined to cause the sickness. That is, more than one cause may be responsible for any given effect. Therefore, cause and effect discussions are often complicated and frequently lead to debates and arguments.
The Structure of a Cause and Effect Essay
The cause and effect essay opens with a general introduction to the topic, which then leads to a thesis that states the main cause, main effect, or various causes and effects of a condition or event.
The cause and effect essay can be organized in one of the following two primary ways:
- Start with the cause and then talk about the effects.
- Start with the effect and then talk about the causes.
For example, if your essay is on childhood obesity, you could start by talking about the effect of childhood obesity and then discuss the cause, or you could start the same essay by talking about the cause of childhood obesity and then move to the effect. Regardless of which structure you choose, be sure to explain each element of the essay completely. Explaining complex relationships requires the full use of evidence, such as scientific studies, expert testimony, statistics, and anecdotes.
Because cause and effect essays determine how phenomena are linked, they make frequent use of words and phrases that denote such linkage. See below Phrases of Causation for examples of such terms.
Phrases of Causation
- as a result
- consequently
The conclusion should wrap up the discussion and reinforce the thesis, leaving the reader with a clear understanding of the relationship that was analyzed.
Self-Practice Exercise 4.8
H5P: Cause and Effect Writing Practice
Exercise Preamble
In this exercise, we will think through the steps of a cause and effect essay. This can be tricky. We’ll start by choosing a topic. You want to pick something you know enough about to make claims about the relationships between cause and effect. For this in-class exercise, there’s no need to do external research, but remember that in a more formal assignment, you’ll want to have good sources for all your claims and to avoid speculation.
Some areas where cause and effect thinking is common include:
- Health and nutrition
For example, you might write a cause and effect essay about whether violent video games cause children to act out, or whether universal basic income programs cause people to live more stable lives. Choose something you can argue from a position of confidence.
Set a timer and freewrite for five minutes about the topic you have chosen.
Can you identify a potential thesis statement from your freewriting? Remember: The cause and effect essay opens with a general introduction to the topic, which then leads to a thesis that states the main cause, main effect, or various causes and effects of a condition or event. In other words, you don’t need to claim the only cause or effect — we know that ideas are complex.
Organizing Your Draft
Which makes the most sense for what you are trying to argue in your thesis statement?
Using point form, sketch out the structure of your essay: how many paragraphs, what will each one focus on, and how will you support it?
Writing a Cause and Effect Essay
Choose an event or condition that you think has an interesting cause and effect relationship. Introduce your topic in an engaging way. End your introduction with a thesis that states the main cause, the main effect, or both.
Organize your essay by starting with either the cause then effect structure, or the effect then cause structure. Within each section, you should clearly explain and support the causes and effects using a full range of evidence. If you are writing about multiple causes or multiple effects, you may choose to sequence either in order of importance. In other words, order the causes from least to most important (or vice versa), or order the effects from least important to most important (or vice versa).
Use the phrases of causation when trying to forge connections between various events or conditions. This will help organize your ideas and orient the reader. End your essay with a conclusion that summarizes your main points and reinforces your thesis. See Appendix 1: Readings: Examples of Essays to read a sample cause and effect essay.
Key Takeaways
- The purpose of the cause and effect essay is to determine how various phenomena are related.
- The thesis states what the writer sees as the main cause, main effect, or various causes and effects of a condition or event.
- The cause and effect essay can be organized in one of these two primary ways:
- Start with the cause and then talk about the effect.
- Start with the effect and then talk about the cause.
- Strong evidence is particularly important in the cause and effect essay due to the complexity of determining connections between phenomena.
- Phrases of causation are helpful to signal links between various elements in the essay.
Essay 1: Expository essay (15%)
In week 7, you will need to submit an expository essay on one of the following topics. Consider these topics as you work through the rest of this chapter and the next. You will need to choose one topic from one of the rhetorical modes below and write a 750- to 900-word essay. You will need to produce a logically organized essay with a thesis statement, well developed and logically organized paragraphs (with topic sentences), and an introduction and conclusion. You will need to support your ideas using one to three sources and include an APA reference list and citations as outlined in the JIBC APA Style Guide. You need to also demonstrate appropriate use of grammar and correct spelling. Remember, your essay should not just be a story; it should demonstrate logical organization and idea development.
Choose any one of the exercises you have completed for Self-Practice 4.1, 4.2, 4.3, 4.4, 4.5, 4.6, 4.7, 4.8, or 4.9 and develop it into your Expository Essay. Consult with your instructor or your classmates if you are having a hard time deciding which activity to develop further.
You need to submit this assignment to your instructor for marking . (15%)
ENGL Resources Copyright © by Tara Horkoff. All Rights Reserved.
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Mastering the art of writing a cause and effect essay – a comprehensive guide for students.
Have you ever wondered about the intricate web of causes and effects that shape our daily lives? The world is an interconnected tapestry, where actions lead to consequences and ripple effects can be felt far and wide. Delving into the realm of cause and effect essay writing allows us to explore this fascinating phenomenon and shed light on the intricate dynamics that drive our world.
Unlocking the secrets of causality becomes a thrilling adventure, where we unravel the threads that bind seemingly unrelated events. This form of essay is a powerful tool to analyze the core reasons behind certain outcomes and elucidate the multifaceted consequences that follow. As we embark on this journey, we will discover that cause and effect essay writing is not merely an exercise in academic observation, but a transformative process that enhances our analytical skills and deepens our understanding of the world.
Embracing the challenge of writing a cause and effect essay grants us the opportunity to gain mastery over the art of logical reasoning and critical thinking. Through meticulous examination and careful evaluation, we can trace the roots of various phenomena, untangle the intricacies of cause and effect relationships, and unlock a deeper comprehension of our surroundings.
Choosing a Topic for Your Cause and Effect Essay
When it comes to crafting a compelling cause and effect essay, one of the most vital steps is selecting the right topic. The topic you choose will lay the groundwork for the entire essay, determining the direction and scope of your analysis. It is essential to choose a topic that is not only engaging but also allows for a deeper exploration of the cause and effect relationship.
To begin, consider your personal interests and passions. Reflect on the issues or phenomena that have caught your attention and inspired your curiosity. By selecting a topic that genuinely interests you, you will be more motivated to dive into thorough research and analysis, resulting in a more compelling essay.
In addition to personal interests, it is also crucial to consider the current relevance and significance of a topic. Look for subjects that are currently generating discourse or have real-life implications. Choosing a topic that is timely and meaningful will not only enhance the relevance of your essay but also demonstrate your understanding of the broader context.
Furthermore, consider the available resources for research. Ensure that there is ample information and scholarly resources available on the topic you choose. Adequate research material will allow for a comprehensive understanding of the cause and effect relationship, enabling you to provide well-supported arguments in your essay.
Lastly, it is important to select a topic that is neither too broad nor too narrow. A broad topic may result in a superficial analysis, while a narrow topic may restrict your ability to explore the cause and effect relationship fully. Striking the right balance will ensure that you can provide a comprehensive analysis within the scope of your essay.
By considering your personal interests, the current relevance of a topic, the availability of research material, and the scope of analysis, you can choose a topic that will lay the foundation for an engaging and insightful cause and effect essay.
Discover how to select a captivating topic that will captivate your audience
When it comes to writing a compelling cause and effect essay, one of the most important factors is choosing a captivating topic that will engage and capture the interest of your readers. The topic you select sets the stage for the entire essay, determining the tone, focus, and overall impact of your writing.
It is crucial to choose a subject that is not only interesting but also relevant and meaningful. Selecting a topic that resonates with your readers will not only motivate them to continue reading but also to connect with and appreciate the content you are presenting.
Consider selecting a topic that is current and trending, as this will immediately grab the attention of your audience. You can explore current events, social issues, or even pop culture phenomena that have a cause and effect relationship worth examining. By choosing a topic that is relevant to the lives of your readers, you are more likely to capture their interest and make them invested in your essay.
Another approach to selecting a compelling topic is to target a subject that is controversial or thought-provoking. Controversial topics often spark debates and discussions, which can create a sense of excitement and engagement among your readers. By presenting different perspectives and analyzing the cause and effect relationships of a controversial issue, you can encourage your audience to think critically and consider different viewpoints.
Additionally, selecting a topic that is unique and rarely explored can also be an effective way to engage your readers. By presenting them with fresh and interesting content, you can pique their curiosity and keep them hooked throughout your essay. Look for lesser-known cause and effect relationships or delve into a subject that hasn’t been extensively covered to provide your readers with a unique and captivating reading experience.
In conclusion, choosing a compelling topic for your cause and effect essay is essential in capturing the attention and interest of your readers. By selecting a relevant, controversial, or unique subject, you can pique their curiosity and make them invested in your writing. Remember to consider your audience’s interests and values when choosing a topic to ensure that it resonates with them and keeps them engaged from start to finish.
Learn the essential components and organization of this type of academic writing
Understanding how to write a cause and effect essay involves knowing the key elements and structure that make up this particular type of academic writing. By grasping the essential components and organization, you will be equipped to effectively convey the relationship between causes and effects in your essay.
One important component of a cause and effect essay is the introduction, which provides an overview of the topic and clearly states the thesis statement. The thesis statement should express the main idea or argument of the essay, outlining the causes and effects that will be discussed.
Following the introduction, the body paragraphs of the essay delve into specific causes and effects. Each paragraph should focus on a single cause or effect, providing clear explanations and supporting evidence. It is important to use transitional words and phrases to guide the reader through the essay, making connections between causes and effects.
Additionally, proper organization is key in a cause and effect essay. One common approach is the chronological organization, where causes are presented in the order in which they occurred, leading to the effects. Another approach is the categorical organization, where causes and effects are grouped together based on common themes or categories.
Finally, a cause and effect essay should conclude with a clear summary of the main points and a restatement of the thesis statement. The conclusion should leave a lasting impression on the reader, emphasizing the significance of the causes and effects discussed in the essay.
By understanding and implementing the essential components and organization of a cause and effect essay, you can effectively analyze and present the causal relationships between events or phenomena. This type of academic writing allows you to explore the causes and effects of various topics, providing a deeper understanding and insight into the subject matter.
Gathering Evidence for Your Cause and Effect Analysis
When it comes to crafting a compelling cause and effect analysis, gathering solid evidence is crucial. In order to effectively support your claims and establish the cause-effect relationship, it is important to gather relevant and reliable evidence from various sources. By doing so, you can strengthen your arguments and provide a well-rounded understanding of the topic at hand.
Identify the Cause and Effect
Before you begin gathering evidence, it is necessary to clearly identify the cause and effect you will be exploring in your essay. This will help you focus your research and ensure that the evidence you collect directly supports your analysis. Clearly defining the cause and effect will also assist you in avoiding any potential tangents or unrelated information in your essay.
Research Scholarly Sources
A key element in gathering evidence for your cause and effect essay is conducting thorough research using reputable, scholarly sources. These sources can include academic journals, books, government publications, and authoritative websites. By utilizing these resources, you will be able to access well-researched and reliable information that adds credibility to your analysis.
Interview Experts or Professionals
In addition to scholarly sources, interviewing experts or professionals in the field related to your cause and effect topic can provide valuable insights and firsthand knowledge. These individuals can offer unique perspectives and experiences that can enhance the depth and quality of your analysis. Be sure to prepare thoughtful and relevant questions to make the most out of your interviews.
Gather Statistical Data
Statistics play a crucial role in a cause and effect essay as they provide quantifiable evidence to support your claims. Gathering statistical data, such as surveys, studies, or reports, helps to strengthen the cause-effect relationship by presenting concrete numbers and trends. Ensure that the statistical data you use is reliable and from credible sources in order to maintain the integrity of your analysis.
Utilize Case Studies or Examples
Using case studies or examples can further enhance the evidence used in your cause and effect analysis. Real-life examples or specific cases provide a practical understanding of the cause-effect relationship and make it easier for readers to connect with your arguments. Choose case studies or examples that are relevant to your topic and effectively illustrate the cause and effect you are discussing.
Gathering evidence is an essential step in writing a compelling cause and effect analysis. By clearly identifying the cause and effect, conducting thorough research, interviewing experts, utilizing statistical data, and incorporating case studies or examples, you can effectively support your claims and provide a well-rounded analysis. Remember to use reliable sources and present the evidence in a clear and organized manner to strengthen your arguments and engage your readers.
Explore effective research methods to support your claims and strengthen your arguments
In order to write a compelling cause and effect essay, it is crucial to support your claims and strengthen your arguments with solid research. By utilizing effective research methods, you can gather relevant evidence and data to back up your statements and make your essay more convincing. This section will explore various research techniques that can help you in this process.
One effective research method is conducting interviews. By directly speaking with experts or people with firsthand experience on the topic you’re discussing, you can gather valuable insights and personal anecdotes that can enrich your writing. Interviewing individuals who have a deep understanding of the cause-and-effect relationship you’re exploring can provide unique perspectives and strengthen your arguments.
Another research method to consider is conducting surveys or questionnaires. By designing well-crafted questions and distributing them to a relevant sample group, you can collect quantitative data that supports your claims. Surveys allow you to gather a large amount of information efficiently and objectively. This data can then be used to analyze patterns, trends, and correlations, which can further strengthen your arguments.
Utilizing scholarly sources such as academic journals and books is also an effective research approach. These sources provide in-depth analysis, research findings, and scholarly opinions on the causes and effects you’re discussing. By referencing reputable and authoritative sources, you can lend credibility to your arguments and demonstrate that your claims are well-supported by existing literature in the field.
Additionally, incorporating statistical data and empirical evidence can significantly strengthen your reasoning. By citing statistics, figures, and studies that provide concrete evidence of the cause-and-effect relationship you’re exploring, you can make your arguments more persuasive. This kind of data adds an objective and factual element to your essay, making it more compelling to readers.
By exploring and utilizing these research methods, you can ensure that your cause and effect essay is well-supported and thoroughly grounded in evidence. The combination of qualitative and quantitative data, expert insights, and scholarly sources will strengthen your arguments and make your essay more persuasive and credible.
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150 Good Cause and Effect Essay Topics
October 25, 2024
Way back in the 6th and 5th centuries BCE, Heraclitus was the first to tell us that the only constant in life is change. His words still ring true today. Every day, our world changes in infinite ways, and even the smallest decisions can end up making history. Cause and effect essays are explorations of exactly this concept. They’re all about examining the domino effect, and writing a cause and effect essay is a great chance to explore the origins and consequences of a historical, social, or natural event or any other type of change that fascinates you (Continue for Cause and Effect Essay Topics and Ideas).
What is a Cause and Effect Essay?
By definition, a cause and effect essay will contain two parts. One part will be the influence (cause) and the other will be the consequence (effect). Your job as a writer is to explore the chain of events that the influence causes to occur. Depending on what topic you choose, you might need to consider the consequences of cultural trends, social changes, historical events, medical and technological inventions, or personal decisions. Your goal will be to offer your reader a clear understanding of 1) what occurred and 2) the outcome of that event.
At first glance, it may seem like a cause and effect essay assignment is primarily asking you to summarize information. But take note: a cause and effect essay is, at its core, an argumentative essay in which you will need to make a solid case for your own unique take on the connection between influences and consequences. For a strong essay, plan to do research and offer your reader many examples to back up your argument.
150 Cause and Effect Essay Topic Ideas
The options are endless, but we’ve gathered 150 cause and effect essay topic ideas to get you started on the right path. Use these ideas to start your research process or take one and put your own unique spin on it.
Ready to start exploring ideas? We’ve divided topics into 11 categories that are sure to spark your interest. Below, explore options in:
- Cause and Effect Essay Topics—Social Issues
Cause and Effect Essay Topics—Science Topics
- Cause and Effect Essay Topics—Environmental Topics
- Cause and Effect Essay Topics—Technology
- Cause and Effect Essay Topics—Mental Health
Cause and Effect Essay Topics—School and Growing Up
Cause and effect essay topics—relationships and family.
- Cause and Effect Essay Topics—Medicine
- Cause and Effect Essay Topics—History
Cause and Effect Essay Topics—Personal Topics
- Cause and Effect Essay Topics—Fun Topics
Social Issues – Cause and Effect Essay Topics
- How social media influences social norms
- The consequences of ageism on elderly well-being
- How fatphobia impacts medical care
- How gender impacts hiring practices
- The role religion plays in shaping social norms
- How economic class impacts medical access and care
- Urban planning’s relationship to city food deserts
- How educational disparities affect social mobility
- The effects of gentrification on city communities
- The effects of gender-based income inequality
- How immigration status impacts medical care
- Causes of homelessness
- The effects of LGBTQ+ media representation
- The consequences of high student debt
- What causes volcanic eruptions
- What causes tidal waves
- What causes earthquakes
- What causes aurorae borealis
- What causes tornadoes or hurricanes
- The consequences of pollution on ecosystems
- How overfishing impacts marine food chains
- How deforestation affects biodiversity
- What causes animals to become endangered
- How wildfires impact humans and the environment
- The benefits of controlled burns
- How GMO foods affect consumer health
- How immunizations affect human health
- The effects of conservation efforts
Environmental Topics
- How fast fashion impacts environmental sustainability
- How air pollution impacts health
- The effects of climate change on coastal regions
- The effects of climate change on low-income communities
- Describe how human behavior impacts the environment
- How do plastics impact the environment
- How does urbanization affect the environment
- How has climate change impacted immigration trends
- How pollution affects marine environments
- The impact of nuclear energy on the environment
- How climate change has influenced weather patterns
- How deforestation contributes to climate patterns
- How climate change alters animal behavior
- How sustainable household practices contribute to climate change relief
- How scientists protect endangered species
Technology – Cause and Effect Essay Ideas
- How AI has affected company hiring practices
- How AI has affected college admissions
- The impact of screen time on sleep
- How automation has impacted career opportunities
- The role technology plays in environmental sustainability
- The impact of technological advances on health care costs
- How technology affects interpersonal relationships
- The effect of technology on productivity
- How social media has impacted our definition of privacy
- How private companies have changed space exploration
- How 3D printing has changed manufacturing
- The effects of online retail on brick and mortar shops
Mental Health
- The effect of academic pressure on mental health
- The impact of mental health stigma on seeking mental health care
- The effects of childhood trauma on mental health
- The influence of work stress on adult mental health
- Bullying and its effects on mental health
- The impacts of mindfulness practices on happiness and well-being
- The relationship between social isolation and mental health
- Social media’s impact on mental health
- The COVID-19 pandemic’s impact on mental health
- The impact of climate change on mental health
- The impact of prejudice on mental health
- The effects of gender stereotypes on mental health
- How immigration status impacts mental health
- Poverty’s impact on access to education
- The relationship between student to teacher ratios and academic performance
- How parents influence academic success
- How parents influence students’ academic interests
- How standardized testing impacts educational outcomes
- The impact of technology on student learning
- The effect of early childhood access to educational resources on later academic performance
- How having parents with college education impacts a students’ likeliness to attend college
- How teacher education level affects educational outcomes
- The impact of extracurricular activities on student success
- How AI has affected education
- How technology has changed dating and romantic relationships
- How smartphones have impacted marriages and relationships
- How gender norms influence dating customs
- How gender norms influence household and family roles
- The role religion plays in dating customs and norms
- How sibling relationships impact family dynamics
- How growing up as a single child influences well-being
- The effect of elder care on a family’s financial well-being
- The gendered break-down of elder care responsibility
- The influence of single-parent households on childhood development
- How financial stress affects families
- How children are affected by multi-generational households
- The impact of divorce on child well-being
- The role religion plays in defining family values and norms
Medicine – Cause and Effect Essay Topics
- The effects of the opioid epidemic
- The effects of the Affordable Care Act on health care access
- How telehealth has impacted healthcare
- The effects of insulin shortages on patient health
- The impact of penicillin on global health
- Choose a medical advancement: how has it affected the medical field?
- How gender shapes medical care outcomes
- How race and ethnicity shape medical care outcomes
- How native language shape medical care outcomes
- The relationship between medical cost and patient health
- How medical malpractice impacts health care costs
- The impact of the AIDS crisis on U.S. society
- How gene sequencing has impacted disease detection and treatment
- How vaccines have impacted global health
- How birth control changed female health outcomes
- How colonization has impacted Indigenous cultures
- How colonization has impacted food and culinary traditions
- The effects of the Civil Rights Movement on social justice in the U.S.
- The effects of Black Lives Matters on social justice in the U.S.
- How early feminist movements impacted gender equality
- How the MeToo movement has impacted gender equality
- How the industrial revolution changed the world
- How the Cold War affected international relations
- How the invention of the computer altered our daily lives
- How globalization has changed economic growth and wealth disparity
- How the fall of the Roman Empire impacted Western civilization
- How the transatlantic slave trade influenced America’s development
- How 9/11 has impacted modern American society
- The causes and effects of the Vietnam War
- The causes and effects of the Iraq War
- Pick a political leader or historical figure: how has their influence shaped history?
- The relationship between music and mood
- The relationship between time spent in nature and mood
- How exercise impacts personal well-being
- How travel affects cultural perspectives
- How social media impacts self-image
- The relationship between goal setting and achievement
- The effect of procrastination on productivity
- The relationship between healthy eating and energy levels
- The impact of daily journaling
- The effect of a competitive environment on well-being and achievement
- How sibling birth order shapes personality
- The relationship between sleep habits and decision-making ability
- How daily affirmations impact well-being
- Reflect on a favorite book: how did it impact you?
- Reflect on a favorite class: how did it impact you?
Fun Cause and Effect Essay Ideas—
- The relationship between owning a pet and stress reduction
- How fashion trends reflect social values and gender norms
- How memes influence internet culture
- How social media influencers shape corporate advertising trends
- The cultural impact of superhero movies
- The relationship between youth sports and childhood development
- How e-sports have changed athletics
- How celebrities impact culture
- How social media influencers impact culture
- The impact of social media on social justice issues
- The relationship between social media and food trends
More Resources
Ready to start writing? Here are expert tips to help you nail your essay:
- 20 Best Websites for Research for Students
- 30 Topic Sentence Examples
- 50 Common Prepositions You Need to Know
- How to Improve Reading Comprehension – 10 Expert Tips
Need to master other essay types? We’ve got all you need to know:
- 160 Good Argumentative Essay Topics for Students in 2024
- Guide to the IB Extended Essay
- How to Write the AP Lang Argument Essay (With Example)
- How to Write the AP Lang Rhetorical Analysis Essay (With Example)
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Christina Wood
Christina Wood holds a BA in Literature & Writing from UC San Diego, an MFA in Creative Writing from Washington University in St. Louis, and is currently a Doctoral Candidate in English at the University of Georgia, where she teaches creative writing and first-year composition courses. Christina has published fiction and nonfiction in numerous publications, including The Paris Review , McSweeney’s , Granta , Virginia Quarterly Review , The Sewanee Review , Mississippi Review , and Puerto del Sol , among others. Her story “The Astronaut” won the 2018 Shirley Jackson Award for short fiction and received a “Distinguished Stories” mention in the 2019 Best American Short Stories anthology.
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IMAGES
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COMMENTS
A cause and effect essay looks at the reasons (or causes) for something, then discusses the results (or effects). For this reason, cause and effect essays are sometimes referred to as reason and result essays. They are one of the most common forms of …
What is a cause and effect essay? A cause and effect essay is an expository essay that explains the relationships between specific conditions and their consequences, …
By understanding and implementing the essential components and organization of a cause and effect essay, you can effectively analyze and present the causal relationships between events or phenomena.
Now it’s your turn. Using the suggested phrases and expressions, organizational strategies, and verb tenses, write a cause-and-effect essay. Choose one of these topics, or come up with your …
What is a Cause and Effect Essay? Essays that explore an event in terms of the relationship between factors that set the ball rolling (causes) and the eventual results (effects) are called cause and effect essays.
Cause and Effect Essay Topics—Environmental Topics. Cause and Effect Essay Topics—Technology. Cause and Effect Essay Topics—Mental Health. Cause and Effect Essay Topics—School and Growing Up. Cause and …
Organize your essay by starting with either the cause-then-effect structure or the effect-then-cause structure. Within each section, you should clearly explain and support the causes and …