fast food research paper example

• Research article
• Open access
• Published: 15 February 2022

Determining intention, fast food consumption and their related factors among university students by using a behavior change theory

• Alireza Didarloo 1 ,
• Surur Khalili 2 ,
• Ahmad Ali Aghapour 2 ,
• Fatemeh Moghaddam-Tabrizi 3 &
• Seyed Mortaza Mousavi 4 , 5  

BMC Public Health volume  22 , Article number:  314 ( 2022 ) Cite this article

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Today, with the advancement of science, technology and industry, people’s lifestyles such as the pattern of people’s food, have changed from traditional foods to fast foods. The aim of this survey was to examine and identify factors influencing intent to use fast foods and behavior of fast food intake among students based on the theory of planned behavior (TPB).

A cross-sectional study was conducted among 229 university students. The study sample was selected and entered to the study using stratified random sampling method. Data were collected using a four-part questionnaire including Participants’ characteristics, knowledge, the TPB variables, and fast food consumption behavior. The study data were analyzed in SPSS software (version 16.0) using descriptive statistics (frequencies, Means, and Standard Deviation) and inferential statistics (t-test, Chi-square, correlation coefficient and multiple regressions).

The monthly frequency of fast food consumption among students was reported 2.7 times. The TPB explained 35, 23% variance of intent to use fast food and behavior of fast food intake, respectively. Among the TPB variables, knowledge ( r  = .340, p  < 0.001) and subjective norm ( r  = .318, p  < 0.001) were known as important predictors of intention to consume fast foods - In addition, based on regression analyses, intention ( r  = .215, p  < 0.05), perceived behavioral control ( r  = .205, p  < 0.05), and knowledge ( r  = .127, p  < 0.05) were related to fast food consumption, and these relationships were statistically significant.

Conclusions

The current study showed that the TPB is a good theory in predicting intent to use fast food and the actual behavior. It is supposed that health educators use from the present study results in designing appropriate interventions to improve nutritional status of students.

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Over the past few decades, non-communicable diseases such as eczema, asthma, cancer, type 2 diabetes, obesity, etc. have increased in developed countries [ 1 , 2 ]. Also, these diseases are more prevalent with increasing urbanization in developing countries [ 3 , 4 , 5 ]. The occurrence of many non-communicable diseases is related to diet [ 6 ]. Food habits are rooted from cultural, environmental, economic, social and religious factors. An effective factor in the development of chronic diseases is lifestyle, dietary patterns and habits. Inappropriate food habits and unhealthy environments have increased the incidence of non-communicable diseases in the world [ 7 , 8 ].

Many developing countries with a tendency towards Western dietary culture go away from traditional and local diets [ 6 ]. Healthy foods with nutrients have been replaced by new foods called fast foods [ 9 ]. Fast food is the food prepared and consumed outside and often in fast food restaurants [ 10 ]. Fast food is often highly processed and prepared in an industrial fashion, i.e., with standard ingredients and methodical and standardized cooking and production methods [ 10 ]. In fast food, vitamins, minerals, fiber and amino acids are low or absent but energy is high [ 9 ]. Fast food consumption has increased dramatically in the last 30 years in European and American countries [ 11 ].

Previous studies reported patterns of inappropriate and harmful food consumption in Iranian children and adolescents [ 12 , 13 ]. Most fast food customers are adolescents and youth, as these products are quickly and easily produced and relatively inexpensive [ 14 ]. One Iranian study shows that 51% of children eat inappropriate snacks and drinks over a week [ 15 ]. It is also reported that adults today consume fast food more than previous generations [ 16 ]. Faqih and Anousheh reported that 20% of adolescents and 10% of adults consumed sandwiches 3 or more times a week [ 17 ].

According to two studies, children and adolescents who consume fast food have received more energy, saturated fat, sodium, carbohydrates and more sugar than their peers, but they have less fiber, vitamin A and C, and less fruit and vegetables [ 18 , 19 ]. Also, because of the use of oils to fry these foods at high temperatures, these types of foods may contain toxic and inappropriate substances that threaten the health of consumers [ 20 ].

In a study in the United States on young people between 13 and 17 years old, it was found that there is a significant relationship between weight gain and obesity with pre-prepared foods [ 21 ]. According to the Center for Disease Control and Prevention (2007–2008), 17% of children aged 2 to 19 years and 34% of those aged 20 years and older were obese [ 22 ]. Many Health problems were caused by human health behavior(e.g. exercising regularly, eating a balanced diet, and obtaining necessary inoculations, etc.) and studying behavior change theories/models provides a good insight into the causes and ways of preventing these problems [ 23 ]. One of these theories is the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB), which is a developed form of the Theory of reasoned action (TRA), and describes a healthy behavior that is not fully under the control of a person [ 24 ]. This theory can successfully predict eating habits and behaviors, and recently this theory has received considerable attention from researchers in identifying norms and beliefs related to the use of fast food [ 25 ].

Based on the TPB, intention to conduct a behavior with following three concepts is controlled: 1. Attitudes (positive and negative evaluation of a behavior), 2. Subjective norms (social pressure received from peers, family, health care providers for doing or not doing a given health behavior), 3. Perceived behavior control (This refers to a person’s perception of the ease or difficulty of performing the behavior of interest.) [ 26 , 27 , 28 ].

The TPB has been tested on different behaviors such as healthy food choice [ 24 ], physical activity [ 29 ], and fast food consumption [ 30 ]. For instance, the study conducted by Seo et al. showed that fast food consumption behavior was significantly associated with behavioral intention and perceived behavioral control. In addition, their findings highlighted that behavioral intention was significantly related to subjective norm and perceived behavioral control [ 28 ].

Given that our study population has cultural diversity and nutritional behaviors different from the societies of other countries and According to the mentioned materials, the researchers decided to test the study with the aim of investigating and explaining the intention and behavior of fast food consumption and their related factors based on the TPB among Urmia University of Medical Sciences students. The results of this study will increase the awareness and knowledge about fast food and, in addition, its results can be used in research, hospitals and healthcare settings.

This cross-sectional study was performed on students of Urmia University of Medical Sciences located in northwest Iran in academic year of 2018–2019. The inclusion criteria for the study are females and males who studied at Urmia University of Medical Sciences, and students’ voluntary participation in the study and obtaining written consent from the students and University principals for the students’ participation in the study. The lack of willingness to continue participating in the study and not signing the informed consent form were considered as exclusion criteria.

According to the results of the study of Yar Mohammadi and et al. [ 31 ], with a 95% confidence interval and an error of 0.05, using the formula for estimating the proportion in society, taking into account the 10% drop rate, sample size was estimated 330students. A randomized stratified sampling method was used to select the study samples. The study sample was randomly selected from each of the strata based on the share of the total sample.

Questionnaire

The data gathering tool in this study was a self-reported questionnaire (Additional file  1 ), which was designed according to the existing measures in scientific literature [ 32 , 33 , 34 ]. The study instrument was translated from English to Persian using a standard forward-backward translation technique [ 35 ]. The original instrument was translated by a bilingual specialist. The Persian version was then retranslated into English by two independent bilingual professionals to assess retention of the original meaning in the source language. Subsequently, translators worked separately in the translation process and then prepared the final version of the Persian translation. Content validity of The Persian version of questionnaire was evaluated by a panel of experts such as 3 nutrition specialists, 3 health education specialists, and 2 instrument designers. After receiving their comments, crucial revisions were conducted in the study tool. Finally, validity of the study instrument was confirmed. The present questionnaire including four following sections:

General characteristics

The first part contains personal information such as age, gender, weight, height, field of study, student education, father’s education, mother’s education, father job, mother’s job, ethnicity, marital status, participating in nutrition educational classes, students’ monthly income, family’s monthly income, housing status, information resource for healthy nutrition.

Constructs of the TPB

The second part contains questions about the constructs of the theory of planned behavior (attitude, subjective norms, perceived behavioral control and behavioral intention). In general, attitudes, subjective norm and perceived behavioral control of students were measured using indirect items. The internal reliability of all subscales of the TPB variables was good, with a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.852.

Attitude toward fast food use

The attitude of the people was evaluated using 28 indirect items (14 items of behavioral beliefs, 14 items of expectations evaluation) based on five-point the Likert scale (from strongly agree to strongly disagree) or (from very important to not at all important), and the score of each item varied from 1 to 5. The minimum and maximum score for the attitude subscale was 14 and 350, respectively. The internal reliability of attitude subscale was good, with a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.778.

Subjective norm

Subjective norms of students were measured by 10 indirect items (5 items of normative beliefs, 5 items of motivation to comply) based on five-point the Likert scale (from strongly agree to strongly disagree) or (from very important to not at all important), and the score of each item varied from 1 to 5. The minimum and maximum score for the subjective norm subscale was 5 and 125, respectively. The internal reliability of subjective norm subscale was good, with a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.726.

Perceived behavioral control

Perceived behavioral control were measured by 18 indirect items (9 items of control beliefs, 9 items of perceive power) based on five-point the Likert scale (from strongly agree to strongly disagree) or (from extremely difficult to extremely easy), and the score of each item varied from 1 to 5. The minimum and maximum score for the perceived behavioral control subscale was 9 and 225, respectively. The internal reliability of subscale of perceived behavioral control was good, with a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.815.

Behavioral intention

Behavioral intention was evaluated by 8 items based on five-point the Likert scale (from strongly agree to strongly disagree), and the score of each item varied from 1 to 5. The minimum and maximum score for the Behavioral intention subscale was 8 and 40, respectively. The internal reliability of behavioral intention subscale was good, with a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.821.

Knowledge of participants

And the third and fourth parts are items related to food knowledge and fast food behavior. Students’ knowledge of fast food was evaluated by 14 items, and the score of each item varied from 0 to 2. The minimum and maximum score for the knowledge subscale was 0 and 28, respectively. The internal reliability of students’ knowledge was good, with a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.783.

Fast food use

Students’ fast food consumption was assessed by frequency of use in a past month. The term “Fast food” was defined as hamburgers, doughnuts, hot dog, snack, pizza, fried chicken and fried potatoes. The frequency of fast food use was analyzed for each food category.

Statistical analyses

All statistical analyzes were performed using SPSS 16.0 software. Descriptive statistics methods such as frequencies, means and standard deviations were used along with independent t and χ2 tests. Pearson correlation test was used to investigate the relationship between TPB variables with intent to use fast food and the real use of fast food. Multiple regressions were used for further analysis.

Descriptives

A total of 330 students were selected and recruited to the study, but some subjects (31 samples) were excluded from the study due to incomplete questionnaires (21cases), and no return of questionnaires (10 cases). Statistical analyses were performed on 229 students. Of these, 28.4% of the students were males and 71.6% were females. The results of the study showed that the average age for all the students was 22.10 ± 3.30 (the average age for male and female sexes were 22.66 ± 4.47 and 21.84 ± 2.50, respectively). The two sexes differed in terms of BMI, so that the mean of BMI was higher in boy students than in girls, and this difference was statistically significant. Almost more than 72% of the students had normal weight, and 28% of subjects were in other weights. Approximately 20.51, 54.50, 79.77% of the students reported the professional doctoral degree, Azeri ethnicity and single.

In addition, findings revealed that 64.90% of the participants lived in the dormitory, and 35.10% of them lived in personal or rental housing. The most common level of education for father (37.10%) and mother (44.10%) of students was diploma. Nearly, 46.50% of students gained food information (especially fast food) from health care providers, while 53.50% of them received their food information from other sources. Most students had zero monthly income, but 61.61% of the students reported their family’s monthly income more than 50 million Rials and 38.39% of their family had income lower than the mentioned amount. Table  1 provides detailed information on students’ characteristics.

Main analysis

Table 2 presents the mean score of knowledge and variables of the study-related theoretical framework. As the mean score of subjective norm, perceived behavioral control and behavioral intention in male students compared to female students was high, but those were not significant statistically( p  > 0.05).

Some variables of the TPB were significantly correlated with each other ( P  < 0.01, Table  3 ). In particular, fast food consumption behavior was highly ( r  = 0.382) correlated with behavioral intention. Multiple regression analyses were conducted to determine the relative importance of the variables of the TPB to behavioral intention and fast food consumption behavior (Tables  4 and 5 ). In these analyzes, when the attitude toward behavior, subjective norms, and perceived control was regressed to behavioral intention, the model was very significant ( P  = 0.000) and explained 0.347 of variance of behavioral intention. While attitude and perceived behavioral control were not significant, the subjective norms and students’ knowledge were significantly related to the intention to eat fast food. It seems that subjective norms and students’ knowledge to be the most important predictors of behavioral intent. Table  4 shows more information about predictors of behavioral intention.

The second model, using fast food consumption as a dependent variable, was also very significant ( P  = 0.000), and explained nearly a quarter of the variance (0.231) of fast food consumption. Both behavioral intention and perceived behavioral control were significantly associated with fast food consumption, of which behavioral intention appeared to be more important. Table  5 presents more information about predictors of fast food consumption.

This investigation was conducted on a sample of university students to assess the status of their fast-food consumption. It also examined the factors affecting behavioral intent and fast food consumption by applying the TPB. The results of the present study showed that students consumed fast food at an average of 2.7 times a month. Fast food in male students was often reported more than female students. A study on fast food consumption among students at Daejeon School reported monthly frequencies of fast food types: 2.7 for burgers, 2.1 for French fries, 1.8 for chicken [ 24 ]. Results of Kim study and other similar researches [ 31 , 36 ] approximately were in line with findings of the present study.

Given that most men do not have the time and skill to make traditional foods, and because of a lot of work, they prefer to turn to fast-foods, and so they are more likely to use fast foods. Meanwhile, the results of some studies indicate that most women are not very happy from high weight and are more likely to reduce their weight [ 37 ]. Therefore women do not have a positive attitude toward obesogenic foods compared to men [ 38 ], which can be a reason for consuming less fast food among women. Instead, the results of a study done by Seo et al. In Korea indicated that fast food consumption among high school students was 4.05 times a month and this consumption was reported among boys more than girls [ 28 ]. The results of the Korean study were contrary to the results of the study, meaning that fast food in Korean samples was more than Iranian. The reason for this difference can be traced to factors such as sample size, cultural, social, and economic characteristics of the samples.

Performing and not performing the behavior by a person is a function of several factors based on the theory of planned behavior. One of these factors is the person’s intention and desire to do the behavior. Behavioral intention itself is also affected by factors such as attitude, students’ knowledge, social pressure, and perceived behavioral control. In the present study, based on linear regression analysis, students’ knowledge and social pressure were both related to their intention and consume fast foods. That is, students who had the necessary information about nutrition, especially fast foods, had a high intent to choose and consume foods.

Several studies have examined the relationship between knowledge of foods and their contents and attitudes toward fast foods and processed foods or relationship between attitudes toward food additives and food choice behavior [ 39 , 40 , 41 , 42 ]. Aoki et al. [ 39 ] found that information about food and its contents positively or negatively affects attitudes and intentions towards food. They pointed out that food information was important for consumers in choosing food. Back and Lee [ 43 ] found that consumers had inadequate and incorrect information about foods, which could affect their attitudes or intent. These studies suggest that providing more information about foods and their compounds can help them to improve their attitude towards foods. Therefore, training on the performance, benefits and safety of foods, including positive and negative sides, should prevent misunderstandings about food supplements and reduce food safety concerns.

The findings of the present investigation showed that subjective norms of students were effective on intent to use fast foods. Friends had the most impact on the plan to eat fast foods, as expected. In addition, the normative beliefs of students were also more positive for friends than family and teachers. This conclusion suggests that most training programs should focus on their friends as a critical group that may affect intent to use fast foods.

Results of some previous studies were similar to findings of the current study. One study conducted by Mirkarimi et al. highlighted that subjective norms had the main role on students’ intent to use fast foods [ 44 ]. In the other words, they found that behavioral intention was affected by subjective norms. In addition, the study of Yarmohammadi and et al. showed that subjective norms predict intention and behavior [ 31 ].

In this study, TPB demonstrated to be a sound conceptual framework for explaining closely35% of the variance in students’ behavioral intention to consume fast-food. Among the TPB variables, subjective norm and knowledge of students were the most important predictors of intention to use fast foods. These findings are consistent with other results that identify that subjective norms have a significant effect on consuming fruits and vegetables [ 45 ]. In study of Lynn Fudge, Path analysis highlighted that TPB explained adolescent fast-food behavioral intention to consume fast food. The model identified subjective norms had the strongest relationship with adolescent behavioral intention to consume fast food [ 46 ].

The results of this study showed that the attitude toward fast food behavior did not predict intent and the behavior. However, some studies have reported contradictory findings with the study. For example, the findings of Stefanie and Chery’s study showed that attitude was a predictor for intent to use healthy nutrition [ 47 ]. Yarmohammadi and colleagues stated in their study that attitude was the most important predictor of behavioral intent [ 31 ]. In the study of determinants of fast food intake, Dunn et al. has identified attitude as a predictor of the intent of fast food consumption [ 32 ]. The results of studies by Seo et al., Ebadi et al., along with the findings of this study, showed that attitude toward fast food consumption is not significantly related to behavioral intention [ 28 , 48 ]. Based on the findings of the current study, fast-food consumption of students was also influenced by some the TPB variables. Multiple linear regression analyses revealed that the constructs of the TPB explained fast food use behaviors with R-squared (R 2 ) of 0.23. In these analyses, intention, perceived behavioral control, and knowledge were known as effective factors on fast-food consumption. Among the TPB constructs, behavioral intention was the most important predictor of fast-food consumption. The intention plays a fundamental role in the theory of planned behavior. The intentions include motivational factors that influence behavior and show how much people want to behave and how hard they try to do the behavior [ 49 ]. In study Ebadi et al., regression analysis showed the intention as a predictor of fast food consumption behavior [ 48 ]. In studies of Stefanie et al. and Seo et al., has reported intention as correlate of the behavior [ 28 , 47 ]. All these studies confirmed and supported this part of our study findings. In addition, the results indicated that perceived behavioral control directly influenced the behavior of fast-food consumption. Some investigations confirmed this portion of our results. For instance, the results of Dunn et al. showed that perceived behavioral control (PBC) and intent predicted the behavior of fast food consumption [ 32 ]. Also, in the study of Seo et al., regression analysis showed that fast food consumption behavior was correlated with perceived behavioral control [ 28 ]. Yarmohammadi et al. found that in predicting behavior, perceived behavioral control along with intention could predict 6% of behavior [ 31 ]. Although this study provides valuable knowledge regarding the relationships between behavioral intent and TPB variables, this study, like other studies, has a number of limitations. First, a cross-sectional study was used to examine the relationship between the variables. Due to the fact that in cross-sectional studies, all data are collected in a period of time, as a result, these studies do not have the necessary ability to examine the cause-and-effect relationships between variables. Second, the results of this type of study can only be generalized to populations with similar characteristics and have no generalizability beyond that. Third, since the data of this study were collected using the self-report questionnaire, the respondents may have errors and bias in completing the questionnaire and this can affect the results of the study.

In sum, this study was conducted to identify factors influencing intention and behavior of fast-food consumption among students by using the theory of planned behavior. The findings revealed that changeability of students’ intention to use fast food and their real behavior is dependent on the TPB variables. As this theoretical framework explained 35, 23% of intent to consume fast-foods and fast-food consumption, respectively. Among the TPB constructs, knowledge and subjective norm were known as the most important predictors of intention to use fast foods. In addition, the results indicated that intention and perceived behavioral control were the most important factors influencing consumption of fast foods among participants. It is imperative that health educators and promoters use these results in designing suitable educational interventions to improve people’s nutritional behavior.

Availability of data and materials

The datasets generated during and/or analyzed during the current study are not publicly available due to confidentiality of data and subsequent research, but are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

Abbreviations

Theory of Planned Behavior

Theory of Reasoned Action

Statistical Package for Social Sciences

Body Mass Index

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Acknowledgements

The article authors hereby express their gratitude to Vice Chancellors for Research of Urmia University of Medical Sciences and Education Department for supporting this study.

This study is supported by Urmia University of Medical Science, grant number(No: 2017–2323) .

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Social Determinants of Health Research Center, Clinical Research Institute, Urmia University of Medical Sciences, The Province of Western Azarbaijan, Urmia, 5756115198, Iran

Alireza Didarloo

Faculty of Health, Urmia University of Medical Sciences, the Province of Western Azarbaijan, Urmia, 5756115198, Iran

Surur Khalili & Ahmad Ali Aghapour

Reproductive Health Research Center, Urmia University of Medical Sciences, the Province of Western Azarbaijan, Urmia, 5756115198, Iran

Fatemeh Moghaddam-Tabrizi

Faculty of Paramedical Sciences, Urmia University of Medical Sciences, the Province of Western Azarbaijan, Urmia, 5756115198, Iran

Seyed Mortaza Mousavi

Department of Paramedical Science, School of Paramedical Sciences, Urmia University of Medical Sciences, Urmia, Iran

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Contributions

All authors contribute in conceive, design of this study. A.D, S.K, A.A,FTM and S.M contributed to the design and implementation of the research, to the analysis of the results and to the writing of the manuscript. All authors revised the manuscript critically for important intellectual content and read and approved the final manuscript.

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Correspondence to Seyed Mortaza Mousavi .

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Additional file 1..

The questionnire used in the study to collect the data. The first part of the questionnaire included General characteristics. The second part of the questionnaire consisted of the Constructs of TPB. The third part consisted of knowledge of participants. The fourth part consisted of Fast food use.

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Didarloo, A., Khalili, S., Aghapour, A.A. et al. Determining intention, fast food consumption and their related factors among university students by using a behavior change theory. BMC Public Health 22 , 314 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-022-12696-x

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Satisfaction and revisit intentions at fast food restaurants

• Amer Rajput 1 &
• Raja Zohaib Gahfoor 2  

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This study is to identify the positive association of food quality, restaurant service quality, physical environment quality, and customer satisfaction with revisit intention of customers at fast food restaurants. Additionally, word of mouth is investigated as moderator on the relationship of customer satisfaction with revisit intentions of customers at fast food restaurants. Data were collected through a questionnaire survey from 433 customers of fast food restaurants through convenience sampling. Hypotheses of proposed model were tested using structural equation modeling with partial least squares SEM-PLS in SMART PLS 3. The results confirmed the positive association of food quality, restaurant service quality, physical environment quality, and customer satisfaction with revisit intentions of customers at fast food restaurants. However, word of mouth does not positively moderate the relationship of customer satisfaction with revisit intentions of customers at fast food restaurants. This study emphasizes the importance of revisit intention as a vital behavioral reaction in fast food restaurants. This study reveals revisit intention’s positive association with food quality, restaurant service quality, physical environment quality, and customer satisfaction based on stimulus-organism-response (S-O-R) theory. Furthermore, it is identified that social conformity theory does not hold its assumption when consumers experience quality and they are satisfied because word of mouth does not moderate the relationship of customer satisfaction with revisit intention of customer.

Introduction

Background of the study.

Hospitality industry is observing diversified changes in highly competitive environment for restaurants [ 1 ]. Consumers are becoming conscious of food quality (FQ), restaurant service quality (RSQ), and physical environment quality (PEQ) of the fast food restaurants. Consumers switch easily in case of just one evasive experience [ 2 , 3 ]. Fast food restaurants must attract new customers and retain the existing customers. There is a growing trend in Pakistani culture to dine out at fast food restaurants with family, friends, and colleagues [ 4 ]. Restaurants focus to provide a dining experience by combining tangible and intangible essentials [ 5 ]. Decisive objective is to achieve customer satisfaction (CS), word of mouth (WOM), and future revisit intention (RVI) at fast food restaurant.

Restaurants differ in offerings, appearance, service models, and cuisines; this classifies restaurants as downscale and upscale [ 6 , 7 ]. Revisit intention is the willingness of a consumer to revisit a place due to satisfactory experience. Customer satisfaction generates a probability to revisit in presence or absence of an affirmative attitude toward the restaurant [ 8 ]. Revisit intention is a substantial topic in hospitality research [ 8 , 9 , 10 ]. To date there has been little agreement on that word of mouth can affect revisit intention after experience of customer satisfaction. For instance, when a customer is satisfied at a fast food restaurant experience, however, the customer’s family and friends do not share the same satisfying experience. Will this word of mouth affect the customer’s revisit intention? Food quality is acknowledged as a basic component of the restaurant’s overall experience to affect consumer revisit intention. Fast food quality is substantially associated with customer satisfaction and it is an important predictor of behavioral intention [ 11 ]. Service quality is an essential factor to produce consumers’ revisit intentions [ 12 ]. Furthermore, physical environment quality affects behavior of consumers at restaurants, hotels, hospitals, retail stores, and banks [ 13 ]. Physical environment quality is a precursor of customer satisfaction [ 9 ]. This suggests that customer satisfaction is associated with fast food quality, restaurant service quality, physical environment quality, and revisit intention.

Aims of the study

This study is to investigate the association of fast food quality, restaurant service quality, physical environment quality with customer’s revisit intention through mediation of customer satisfaction using S-O-R theory and moderation of word of mouth on the relationship of customer satisfaction with revisit intention based on social conformity theory. This study empirically tests a conceptual research framework based on S-O-R and social conformity theory adding value to the knowledge. Objectives of the study are given below.

To investigate the association of fast food quality, restaurant service quality, and physical environment quality with revisit intention through customer satisfaction based on S-O-R theory in the context of Pakistani fast food restaurants.

To investigate moderation of WOM on relationship of customer satisfaction with revisit intention based on social conformity theory in the context of Pakistani fast food restaurants.

Furthermore, little empirical evidence is present about customer satisfaction with respect to fast food restaurant service quality [ 14 ]. Customer satisfaction is a post-consumption assessment in service industry. Customer satisfaction acts as the feedback mechanism to boost consumer experience [ 15 ]. Customer satisfaction brings competitive advantage to the firm and produces positive behavioral revisit intention [ 16 ]. Marketing literature emphasizes customer satisfaction in anticipation of positive word of mouth, revisit intention, and revisit behavior [ 5 ]. Behavioral intention is assessed through positive WOM, and it is important in service industry [ 15 ], whereas social influence in shape of WOM affects the behavior of individuals toward conformity leading to a driving effect based on social conformity theory [ 17 ].

• Food quality

Food quality plays a central role in the restaurant industry. Food quality is essential to satisfy consumer needs. Food quality is a substantial condition to fulfill the needs and expectations of the consumer [ 18 ]. Food quality is acknowledged as a basic component of the restaurant’s overall experience. Food quality is a restaurant selection’s most important factor, and it is considerably related to customer satisfaction [ 11 ]. Food quality affects customer loyalty, and customer assesses the restaurant on the basis of food quality [ 19 ]. Food quality entails food taste, presentation, temperature, freshness, nutrition, and menu variety. Food quality influences customers’ decisions to revisit the restaurant [ 20 ]. Academic curiosity is increasing in the restaurant’s menus, as variety of menu items is considered the critical characteristic of food quality [ 11 ]. Taste is sensual characteristic of food. Taste is assessed after consumption. Nonetheless, customers foresee taste before consumption through price, quality, food labels, and brand name. Taste of food is important to accomplish customer satisfaction. Presentation of food enhances dining customer satisfaction [ 21 , 22 ]. Customer’s concerns of healthy food substantially affect customer’s expectations and choice of a restaurant [ 23 ]. Freshness is assessed with the aroma, juiciness, crispness, and fresh posture of the food. Food quality enhances customer satisfaction [ 24 ].

• Restaurant service quality

Quality as a construct is projected by Juran and Deming [ 25 , 26 ]. Service quality is comparatively a contemporary concept. Service quality assesses the excellence of brands in industry of travel, retail, hotel, airline, and restaurant [ 27 ]. Restaurant service quality affects dining experiences of customers. Service quality creates first impression on consumers and affects consumers’ perception of quality [ 28 ]. Service industry provides good service quality to the customers to attain sustainable competitive advantage. Customer satisfaction depends on quality of service at the restaurant [ 29 ]. Service quality entails price, friendliness, cleanliness, care, diversity, speed of service, and food consistency according to menu. Customer satisfaction also depends on communication between restaurant’s personnel and the customers [ 30 ]. Consumer’s evaluation of service quality is affected by level of friendliness and care. Service quality leads to positive word of mouth, customer satisfaction, better corporate image, attraction for the new customers, increase revisits, and amplified business performance. Service quality increases revisits and behavioral intentions of customers in hospitality industry [ 12 ].

• Physical environment quality

PEQ is a setting to provide products and services in a restaurant. Physical environment quality contains artifacts, decor, spatial layout, and ambient conditions in a restaurant. Customers desire dining experience to be pleasing; thus, they look for a physical environment quality [ 31 ]. Physical environment quality satisfies and attracts new customers. PEQ increases financial performance, and it creates memorable experience for the customers [ 9 ]. Consumers perceive the quality of a restaurant based on cleanliness, quirky, comfortable welcoming, physical environment quality, and other amenities that create the ambiance [ 32 ]. Effect of physical environment quality on behaviors is visible in service businesses such as restaurants, hotels, hospitals, retail stores, and banks [ 33 ]. Physical environment quality is an antecedent of customer satisfaction [ 34 ]. Thus, restaurants need to create attractive and distinctive physical environment quality.

• Customer satisfaction

Customer satisfaction contains the feelings of pleasure and well-being. Customer satisfaction develops from gaining what customer expects from the service. Customer satisfaction is broadly investigated in consumer behavior and social psychology. Customer satisfaction is described “as the customer’s subjective assessment of the consumption experience, grounded on certain associations between the perceptions of customer and objective characteristics of the product” [ 35 ]. Customer satisfaction is the extent to which an experience of consumption brings good feelings. Customer satisfaction is stated as “a comparison of the level of product or service performance, quality, or other outcomes perceived by the consumer with an evaluative standard” [ 36 ]. Customer satisfaction constructs as a customer’s wholesome evaluation of an experience. Customer satisfaction is a reaction of fulfilling customer’s needs.

Customer satisfaction brings escalated repeat purchase behavior and intention to refer [ 37 ]. Dissatisfied consumers are uncertain to return to the place [ 38 ]. Satisfactory restaurant experience can enhance revisit intention of the consumer. Positive WOM is generated when customers are not only satisfied with the brand but they demand superior core offering and high level of service [ 15 ].

• Word of mouth

Word of mouth is described as “person-to-person, oral communication between a communicator and receiver which is perceived as a non-commercial message” [ 39 ]. WOM is also defined as “the informal positive or negative communication by customers on the objectively existing and/or subjectively perceived characteristics of the products or services” [ 40 ]. Moreover, [ 41 ] defines it as “an informal person to person communication between a perceived non-commercial communicator and a receiver regarding a brand, a product, an organization or a service”. WOM is described as a positive or negative statement made by probable, actual or former customers about a product or a company, which is made available through offline or online channels [ 42 , 43 ]. WOM is an important and frequent sensation; it is known for long time that people habitually exchange their experiences of consumptions with others. Consumers complain about bad hotel stays, talk about new shoes, share info about the finest way of getting out tough stains, spread word about experience of products, services, companies, restaurants, and stores. Social talks made more than 3.3 billion of brand impressions per day [ 44 ].

WOM has substantial impact on consumer’s purchasing decision; therefore, a vital marketing strategy is to initiate positive WOM [ 45 ]. However, negative WOM is more informative and diagnostic where customers express their dissatisfaction [ 38 ]. Word of mouth communications are more informative than traditional marketing communications in service sector. WOM is more credible than advertisement when it is from friends and family [ 46 ]. WOM is a vital influencer in purchase intention. WOM escalates affection that enhances commitment of consumer purchase intention. WOM is generated before or after the purchase. WOM helps the consumers to acquire more knowledge for the product and to reduce the perceived risk [ 47 ]. WOM in the dining experience is very important. People tend to follow their peers’ opinions when they are to dine out.

• Revisit intention

To predicting and to explain human behavior is the key determination of consumer behavior research. Consumer needs differ and emerge frequently with diverse outlooks. Revisit intention is to endorse “visitors being willing to revisit the similar place, for satisfactory experiences, and suggest the place to friends to develop the loyalty” [ 48 ]. Consumer forms an attitude toward the service provider based on the experience of service. This attitude can be steady dislike or like of the service. This is linked to the consumer’s intention to re-patronize the service and to start WOM. Repurchase intention is at the core of customer loyalty and commitment. Repurchase intention is a significant part of behavioral and attitudinal constructs. Revisit intention is described as optimistic probability to revisit the restaurant. Revisit intention is the willingness of a consumer to visit the restaurant again. Furthermore, the ease of visitors, transportation in destination, entertainment, hospitability, and service satisfaction influence visitor’s revisit intention.

Consumer behavior encircles the upcoming behavioral intention and post-visit evaluation. Post-visit evaluation covers perceived quality, experience, value, and the satisfaction. Restaurant managers are interested to understand the factors of consumer revisit intention, as it is cost effective to retain the existing customers in comparison with attract new customers [ 49 ]. Substantial consideration is prevailing in literature for the relationship among quality attributes, customer satisfaction, and revisit intention. There is a positive association between customer satisfaction and revisit intention. Indifferent consumer, accessibility of competitive alternatives and low switching cost can end up in a state where satisfied consumers defect to other options [ 2 ]. Consumer behavior varies for choice of place to visit, assessments, and behavioral intentions [ 50 ]. The assessments are about the significance perceived by regular customers’ satisfactions. Whereas, future behavioral intentions point to the consumer’s willingness to revisit the similar place and suggest it to the others [ 51 ].

S-O-R model is primarily established on the traditional stimulus–response theory. This theory explicates individual’s behavior as learned response to external stimuli. The theory is questioned for oversimplifying ancestries of the behaviors and ignoring one’s mental state. [ 52 ] extended the S-O-R model through integrating the notion of organism between stimulus and response. S-O-R concept is embraced to reveal individual’s affective and cognitive conditions before the response behavior [ 53 ]. S-O-R framework considers that environment comprises stimuli (S) leading changes to the individual’s internal conditions called organism (O), further leading to responses (R) [ 52 ]. In S-O-R model, the stimuli comprise of various components of physical environment quality, organism indicates to internal structures and processes bridging between stimuli and final responses or actions of a consumer [ 9 ]. Behavioral responses of an individual in a physical environment quality are directly influenced by the physical environment quality stimulus [ 54 ]. S-O-R framework is implemented in diverse service contexts to examine how physical environment quality affects customer’s emotion and behavior [ 55 ]. The effect of stimulation in an online shopping environment on impulsive purchase is investigated through S-O-R framework [ 56 ]. The effects of background music, on consumers’ affect and cognition, and psychological responses influence behavioral intentions [ 57 ]. Perceived flow and website quality toward customer satisfaction affect purchase intention in hotel website based on S-O-R framework [ 58 ]. Therefore, this study conceptualizes food quality, restaurant service quality, and physical environment quality as stimuli; customer satisfaction as organism; and revisit intention as response.

Moreover, social conformity theory (SCT) is to support the logical presence of WOM in the conceptual framework as a moderator on the relationship of customer satisfaction and revisit intention. Social conformity influences individual’s attitudes, beliefs and behaviors leading to a herding effect [ 17 , 59 ]. Thus, social influence (WOM) moderates the relationship of customer satisfaction and revisit intention. Following hypotheses are postulated, see Fig.  1 .

Conceptual research framework

Food quality is positively associated with customer satisfaction in fast food restaurant.

Restaurant service quality is positively associated with customer satisfaction in fast food restaurant.

Physical environment quality is positively associated with customer satisfaction in fast food restaurant.

Customer satisfaction is positively associated with revisit intention of customer in fast food restaurant.

Customer satisfaction mediates between food quality and revisit intention of customer in fast food restaurant.

Customer satisfaction mediates between restaurant service quality and revisit intention of customer in fast food restaurant.

Customer satisfaction mediates between physical environment quality and revisit intention of customer in fast food restaurant.

WOM positively moderates the relationship between customer satisfaction and revisit intention of customer in fast food restaurant.

There are two research approaches such as deductive (quantitative) and inductive (qualitative). This study utilized the quantitative research approach as it aligns with the research design and philosophy. Quantitative research approach mostly relies on deductive logic. Researcher begins with hypotheses development and then collects data. Data are used to determine whether empirical evidence supports the hypotheses [ 60 ]. The questionnaires survey is used. This study chose the mono-method with cross-sectional time horizon of 6 months. Deductive approach is utilized in this study. Cross-sectional time horizon also known as “snapshot” is used when investigation is related with the study of a specific phenomenon at a particular time [ 61 ]. Questionnaire survey is mostly used technique for data collection in marketing research due to its effectiveness and low cost [ 62 ]. Data are collected through self-administered questionnaires. Following the footsteps of Lai and Chen [ 63 ] and Widianti et al. [ 64 ] convenience sampling is applied. Famous fast food restaurants in twin cities (Rawalpindi and Islamabad) of Pakistan were chosen randomly. Furthermore, 650 questionnaires (with consideration of low response rate) were distributed to the customers at famous fast food restaurants. Moreover, researchers faced difficulty in obtaining fast food restaurant’s consumers data.

It yielded a response rate of 68.92% with 448 returned questionnaires. Fifteen incomplete questionnaires are not included; thus, 433 responses are employed for data analysis from fast food restaurant customers. The obtained number of usable responses was suitable to apply structural equation modeling [ 65 , 66 , 67 , 68 ].

Sample characteristics describe that there are 39.7% females and 60.3% males. There are 31.4% respondents of age group 15–25 years, 48.3% of age group 26–35, 12.2% of age ranges between 36 and 45, 6.7% of age ranges between 46 and 55, and 1.4% of age group is above 56 years. The educational level of the respondents indicates that mostly respondents are undergraduate and graduate. Occupation of respondents reflects that 28.6% work in private organizations and 24.9% belong to student category. Monthly income of 29.3% respondents ranges between Rupees 20,000 and 30,000 and 25.6% have monthly income of Rupees 41,000–50,000. Average monthly spending in fast food restaurants is about Rupees 3000–6000, see Table  1 .

Measures of the constructs

Food quality is adopted from measures developed by [ 69 ]. Food quality contains six items such as: food presentation is visually attractive, the restaurant offers a variety of menu items, and the restaurant offers healthy options. Restaurant service quality is adopted with six items [ 70 ]. This construct contains items such as: efficient and effective process in the welcoming and ushering of the customers, efficient and effective explanation of the menu, efficient and effective process in delivery of food. Physical environment quality is adopted with four items [ 71 ], and one item is adopted from measures developed by [ 70 ]. The items are such as: the restaurant has visually striking building exteriors and parking space, the restaurant has visually eye-catching dining space that is comfortable and easy to move around and within, and the restaurant has suitable music and/or illumination in accordance with its ambience. Revisit intention is measured through four adapted items [ 8 ]; such as: I would visit again in the near future and I am interested in revisiting again. Customer satisfaction is measured by three adopted items [ 29 ]; such as: I am satisfied with the service at this restaurant, and the restaurant always comes up to my expectations. Word of mouth is measured with four adopted items such as: my family/friends mentioned positive things I had not considered about this restaurant, my family/friends provided me with positive ideas about this restaurant [ 72 ]. Each item is measured on 5-point Likert scale, where 1 = strongly disagree, 3 = uncertain, and 5 = strongly agree.

Results and discussion

Validity and reliability.

Validity taps the ability of the scale to measure the construct; in other words, it means that the representative items measure the concept adequately [ 73 ]. The content validity is executed in two steps; firstly, the items are presented to the experts for further modifications; secondly, the constructive feedback about understanding of it was acquired by few respondents who filled the questionnaires. Each set of items is a valid indicator of the construct as within-scale factor analysis is conducted.

The factor analyses allotted the items to their respective factor. Fornell and Lacker’s [ 74 ] composite reliability p is calculated for each construct using partial least squares (PLS) structural equation modeling and Cronbach’s coefficient α [ 75 ]. Cronbach’s α is used to evaluate the reliability of all items that indicates how well the items in a set are positively related to one another. Each Cronbach’s α of the instrument is higher than .7 (ranging from .74 to .91); see Table  2 .

Common method bias

Same measures are used to collect data for all respondents; thus, there can be common method bias [ 76 ]. Firstly, questionnaire is systematically constructed with consideration of study design. Secondly, respondents were assured for the responses to be kept anonymous [ 77 ]. Common method bias possibility is assessed through Harman’s single factor test [ 78 , 79 , 80 , 81 , 82 , 83 ]. Principal axis factor analysis on measurement items is exercised. The single factor did not account for most of the bias and it accounted for 43.82% variance that is less than 50%. Thus, common method bias is not an issue [ 80 , 81 ].

SEM-PLS model assessment

Survey research faces a challenge to select an appropriate statistical model to analyze data. Partial least squares grounded structural equation modeling (SEM-PLS) and covariance-based structural equation modeling (CB-SEM) are generally used multivariate data analysis methods. CB-SEM is based on factor analysis that uses maximum likelihood estimation. PLS-SEM is based on the principal component concept; it uses the partial least squares estimator [ 84 ]. PLS-SEM is considered appropriate to examine complex cause–effect relationship models. PLS-SEM is a nonparametric approach with low reservations on data distribution and sample size [ 84 ].

Measurement model assessment

To evaluate convergent validity measurement model (outer model) is assessed that includes composite reliability (CR) to evaluate internal consistency, individual indicator reliability, and average variance extracted (AVE) [ 85 ]. Indicator reliability explains the variation in the items by a variable. Outer loadings assess indicator reliability; a higher value (an item with a loading of .70) on a variable indicates that the associated measure has considerable mutual commonality [ 85 ]. Two items RSQ 14 and PEQ 24 are dropped due to lower value less than .60 [ 86 ]. Composite reliability is assessed through internal consistency reliability. CR values of all the latent variables have higher values than .80 to establish internal consistency [ 85 ]; see Table  2 .

Convergent validity is the extent to which a measure correlates positively with alternative measures of the same variable. Convergent validity is ensured through higher values than .50 of AVE [ 74 ], see Table  2 . Discriminant validity is the degree to which a variable is truly distinct from other variables. Square root of AVE is higher than the inter-construct correlations except customer satisfaction to hold discriminant validity [ 74 ]. Additional evidence for discriminant validity is that indicators’ individual loadings are found to be higher than the respective cross-loadings, see Table  3 .

Structural model assessment

Structural model is assessed after establishing the validity and reliability of the variables. Structural model assessment includes path coefficients to calculate the importance and relevance of structural model associations. Model’s predictive accuracy is calculated through R 2 value. Model’s predictive relevance is assessed with Q 2 , and value of f 2 indicates substantial impact of the exogenous variable on an endogenous variable in PLS-SEM [ 85 ]. SEM is rigueur in validating instruments and testing linkages between constructs [ 87 ]. SMART-PLS produces reports of latent constructs correlations, path coefficients with t test values. The relationships between six constructs of food quality, restaurant service quality, physical environment quality, customer satisfaction, word-of-mouth, and revisit intention are displayed in Fig.  2 after bootstrapping. Bootstrapping is a re-sampling approach that draws random samples (with replacements) from the data and uses these samples to estimate the path model multiple times under slightly changed data constellations [ 88 ]. Purpose of bootstrapping is to compute the standard error of coefficient estimates in order to examine the coefficient’s statistical significance [ 89 ].

Bootstrapping and path coefficients

Food quality is positively associated to customer satisfaction in fast food restaurant; H 1 is supported as path coefficient = .487, T value = 8.349, P value = .000. Restaurant service quality is positively associated with customer satisfaction; H 2 is supported as path coefficient = .253, T value = 4.521, P value = .000. Physical environment quality is positively associated with customer satisfaction in fast food restaurant; H 3 is supported as path coefficient = .149, T value = 3.518, P value = .000. Customer satisfaction is positively associated with revisit intention of customer in fast food restaurant; H 4 is supported as path coefficient = .528, T value = 11.966, P value = .000. WOM positively moderates the relationship between customer satisfaction and revisit intention of customer in fast food restaurant; H 8 is not supported as path coefficient = − .060, T value = 2.972, P value = .003; see Table  4 .

Assessing R 2 and Q 2

Coefficient of determination R 2 value is used to evaluate the structural model. This coefficient estimates the predictive precision of the model and is deliberated as the squared correlation between actual and predictive values of the endogenous construct. R 2 values represent the exogenous variables’ mutual effects on the endogenous variables. This signifies the amount of variance in endogenous constructs explained by total number of exogenous constructs associated to it [ 88 ]. The endogenous variables customer satisfaction and revisit intention have R 2  = .645 and .671, respectively, that assures the predictive relevance of structural model. Further the examination of the endogenous variables’ predictive power has good R 2 values.

Blindfolding is to cross-validate the model’s predictive relevance for each of the individual endogenous variables with value of Stone–Geisser Q 2 [ 90 , 91 ]. By performing the blindfolding test with an omission distance of 7 yielded cross-validated redundancy Q 2 values of all the endogenous variables [ 88 ]. Customer satisfaction’s Q 2  = .457 and RVI’s Q 2  = .501; this indicates large effect sizes. PLS structural model has predictive relevance because values of Q 2 are greater than 0, see Table  5 .

Assessing f 2

Effect size f 2 is the measure to estimate the change in R 2 value when an exogenous variable is omitted from the model. f 2 size effect illustrates the influence of a specific predictor latent variable on an endogenous variable. Effect size f 2 varies from small to medium for all the exogenous variables in explaining CS and RVI as shown Table  6 .

Additionally, H 5 : CS mediates between food quality and RVI is supported as CS partially mediates between FQ and RVI. Variation accounted for (VAF) value indicates that 70% of the total effect of an exogenous variable FQ on RVI is explained by indirect effect. Therefore, the effect of FQ on RVI is partially mediated through CS. Similarly, the VAF value indicates that 70% of the total effect of an exogenous variable RSQ and 35% VAF of PEQ on RVI is explained by indirect effect. Therefore, the effects of RSQ and PEQ on RVI are also partially mediated through CS. H 6 is supported as the effect of CS is partially mediated between RSQ and RVI of customer in fast food restaurant. H 7 is supported as the effect of CS is partially mediated between PEQ and RVI of customer in fast food restaurant, see Table  7 . This clearly indicates that customer satisfaction mediates between all of our exogenous variables (food quality, restaurant service quality and physical environment quality) and dependent variable revisit intention of customer in fast food restaurant [ 88 , 92 ] (Additional files 1 , 2 and 3 ).

This is interesting to note that food quality, restaurant service quality, physical environment quality, and customer satisfaction are important triggers of revisit intention at fast food restaurants. However, surprisingly, word of mouth does not moderate the relationship of customer satisfaction with revisit intention of customer at fast food restaurant. The results of the study correspond with some previous findings [ 15 , 29 , 32 , 69 , 93 ]. Positive relationship between customer satisfaction and revisit intention is consistent with the findings of the previous studies [ 5 , 8 , 94 , 95 , 96 ]. Food quality is positively associated with revisit intention; this result as well corresponds to a previous study [ 24 ]. Furthermore, interior and amusing physical environment is an important antecedent of revisit intention at a fast food restaurant; this finding is congruent with previous findings [ 29 , 70 , 97 , 98 ] and contrary to some previous studies [ 9 , 15 ].

Intensified competition, industry’s volatile nature, and maturity of the business are some challenges that fast food restaurants face [ 5 ]. Amid economic crunch, competition becomes even more evident, driving fast food restaurants to look for unconventional ways to appeal the customers. In fact, these findings somehow show that significance of physical environment quality in creating revisit intention is probably lower in comparison with food quality and restaurant service quality. Nonetheless, fast food restaurant’s management should not underrate the fact that physical environment quality considerably affects the revisit intention. Due to this, the importance of physical environment quality must not be overlooked when formulating strategies for improving customer satisfaction, revisit intention and creating long-term relationships with customers.

Managerial implications

The results imply that restaurant management should pay attention to customer satisfaction because it directly affects revisit intention. Assessing customer satisfaction has become vital to successfully contest in the modern fast food restaurant business. From a managerial point of view, the results of this study will help restaurant managers to better understand the important role of food quality, restaurant service quality and physical environment quality as marketing tool to retain and satisfy customers.

Limitations

There are certain limitations with this study. This study is cross sectional, and it can be generalized to only two cities of Pakistan. Scope of research was limited as the data were collected from two cities of Pakistan (Islamabad and Rawalpindi) using convenience sampling.

Future research

A longitudinal study with probability sampling will help the researchers to comprehensively investigate the relationships among the constructs. Moreover, it would be useful for future research models to add information overload as an explanatory variable and brand image as moderating variable in the research framework. Additionally, moderation of WOM can be investigated in other relationships of conceptual model.

The study encircles the key triggers of customer satisfaction and revisit intention in fast food restaurants. It also offers a model that defines relationships between three factors of restaurant offer (food quality, restaurant service quality, and physical environment quality), customer satisfaction, word of mouth, and revisit intention at fast food restaurants. The model specially focuses the revisit intention as dependent variable of conceptual model despite behavior intentions. The findings suggest the revisit intention is positively associated with customer satisfaction, food quality, restaurant service quality, and physical environment quality in a fast food restaurant.

However, contrary to the findings of a previous study [ 99 ], WOM do not positively moderate between the relationship of customer satisfaction and revisit intention. The empirical findings confirm the significant impact of food quality, restaurant service quality, physical environment quality, and customer satisfaction which are important antecedents of revisit intention at fast food restaurant through mediation of customer satisfaction. Moreover, findings of the research support the assumptions of SOR theory strengthening our conceptual model which states the external stimuli (FQ, RSQ, PEQ) produced internal organism (CS) which led to the response (RVI). However; assumption of social conformity theory failed to influence the satisfied customer. In other words, customer satisfaction plays dominating role over social influence (i.e. WOM) in making revisit intention. Therefore, WOM was not able to influence the strength of relationship of CS and RVI.

Availability of data and materials

The datasets used and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

Abbreviations

Social conformity theory

Stimulus-organism-response

Structural equation modeling with partial least squares

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The authors gratefully acknowledge the conducive research environment support provided by Department of Management Sciences at COMSATS University Islamabad, Wah Campus and Higher Education Commission Pakistan for provision of free access to digital library.

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Rajput, A., Gahfoor, R.Z. Satisfaction and revisit intentions at fast food restaurants. Futur Bus J 6 , 13 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1186/s43093-020-00021-0

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128 Brilliant Fast Food Essay Topics & Examples

The phenomenon of comfort food that takes a short time to prepare and tastes good has become extremely popular in the world, with chains such as McDonalds having an enormous global presence. However, the adverse health effects associated with the emergence of fast food have led to its nickname, junk food.

There is an obesity epidemic throughout the world, but people do not adopt healthy eating habits even as more and more issues surface. As such, you should cover some key points to write an outstanding essay on one or more fast food essay topics and show your understanding of the topic.

In this article we will reveal some tips and ideas for writing, as well as research questions on fast food.

👍 Tips for Essay Writing on Fast Food

🏆 best fast food topics & essay examples, ✅ simple & easy fast food essay topics, 💡 most interesting fast food topics to write about, ❓ fast food questions for research paper.

Your fast food essay should discuss the advantages as well as disadvantages of fast food compared to traditional healthy food.

Food items that contain excessive fat or were not good for one’s health have existed for a long time, but were never prominent enough to impact the population significantly.

Fast food options became popular because they pioneered the ideas of food being easily accessible, quick to make, and tasty nevertheless.

Compared to the usual cooking experience people went through at home as well as outdoors eating places, the new phenomenon constituted a revolution.

Fast food became popular with the population due to its significant benefits compared to other methods.

However, the disadvantages of excessive consumption of junk food emerged eventually, leading to the release of various legislation governing the dangers of a poor diet.

With its emphasis on fat and sugars, fast food can lead to a variety of issues, examples including uncontrolled weight gain, heart disease, dental issues, shortness of breath, and other adverse outcomes.

Obesity is now an issue that affects many people in the United States as well as other countries. It can also be difficult to stop consuming junk food because of its instant gratification properties.

Due to its concentration on taste over nutrition, healthy food can feel bland and uninteresting by comparison, leading the person to switch back.

You should discuss potential solutions to the issues created by fast food, but the issue is complex and complicated by the conditions of some of the people affected.

In Australia, some aboriginal people live too far from large cities to receive regular shipments of healthy food that will not spoil, so they have to rely on fast food that is packed with preservatives.

As a result, many become obese and malnourished at the same time. There is no easy solution to the issue, and as such, most options have to be theoretical or supported by evidence. The essay format is generally not suitable for in-depth discussions of topics related to the resolution of these issues.

Here are some additional tips that will make your essay truly outstanding:

• Try to rely on facts that are supported by research and evidence rather than the popular perception.
• The concept of fast food extends beyond chains such as McDonalds to ready-made meals and various snacks in stores.
• Remember to follow usual essay writing guidelines such as an academic tone, the separation of section with titles, and the use of an introductions and fast food essay conclusions.

Here, at IvyPanda you can find lots of fast food essay titles and other useful samples that will help you create an excellent paper! Check them below!

• Fast Food Industry: Arguments for and Against For instance, those who believe that fast food industry is beneficial to them and other members of the society will expect the findings of this research to be in support of their beliefs.
• Fast Food in Campus: Advantages and Disadvantages On the other hand, a classmate mentions that fast foods lead to obesity among university students who eat from fast-food restaurants.
• Fast Food vs. Home Cooking: Lifestyle and Traditions The good thing with this business is that the food was from natural products hence healthy, a fact that has since changed Many people are very busy for the better part of the day and […]
• Survey to Study the Relationship Between Fast Food Consumption and Obesity The survey aims to analyze if there is any connection between consumption of fast food and obesity. The study aims to ascertain the relationship between fast food consumption and obesity.
• Fritter’s Fast Food Restaurants: Overview Very fast and inexpensive to manufacture, Fritters can find their customers both in restaurants and kiosks, and in pre-prepared form.
• Fast Food Restaurants: Classification Most restaurants offer these services at their premises, whereby customers come, have their meals and leave for example the Deising’s chain of restaurants, while others especially the well-established ones offer take-out services and delivery services […]
• The Negative Consequences of Employing High School Students in Fast Food Restaurants In addition, high school students should be advised that education and their careers are more important as compared to working at fast food restaurants.
• McDonald’s Corporation: Analyzing Fast Food Industry A glance of the profit margins of the major players in the US industry will provide a more clear perception of the fast food industry’s success in 2009 in global perspective: Key Competitors Profits 2009 […]
• Global Challenges Faced By Fast Food Companies For instance the price strategy is usually determined by a number of factors such as the number of competitors in the market, the availability and costs of raw materials and the existent product substitutes in […]
• The Fast Food Industry Lots of people claim that the growth of the rate of obese people correlates with the growth of fast food chains in the region.
• The Consequences of Fast Food The most evident effect of fast food is obesity among others and these effects are what will be considered as the basis of discouraging the intake of fast food while encouraging other healthier options.
• Wendy’s Fast Food Restaurant The design has the potential to elaborate on the cause of failures inherent in the establishment and possess the capacity to make recommendations on combating the challenges.
• Influencing Consumer Behavior: the changing image of ‘fast food’ Some of the factors that consumers may be influenced with include the cost, what their friends and family members say, where the restaurant is located, the duration the meal takes, and by how the consumers […]
• Employment Relations in Fast Food Restaurants It is therefore imperative to ensure the comfort of employees and for good employment relations to be built and extended there are certain advantages and legal constitutions that have to be established for the sake […]
• Causes and Effects of Fast Food: Reputation for Unhealthy Eating By setting this price to a low value, fast food companies can exclude traditional restaurants from the selection, improve throughput, and increase their brand equity.
• Social Media Marketing Plan: Subway Fast Food Attract The main objective of this digital marketing plan is to attract the younger customers’ market through the Subway’s website and a twitter fun page in order to increase the customer traffic in its stores.
• The Film “Super Size Me 2: Holy Chicken!”: How the Fast Food Industry Interacts With Its Customers Another obvious cause and effect relationship portrayed in the film concerns the rise in the threat of diseases such as diabetes as the effect of the food choices that McDonald’s provides to its customers.
• Fast Food Ban Necessity in Schools Schools should not offer fast foods because they lead to the development of bad habits, long-time health complications and influence students to spend money unnecessarily.
• Fast Food and Gender: Is There a Relation? The study was to observe the gender that formed the majority of the customer base in respect to fast foods. In this case, it was important to select a predetermined restaurant that specializes in fast […]
• Fast Food Drive-throughs In this respect, the drive-through services are aimed at reducing the throughput time and serving a maximum number of clients in the minimum time compared to other similar services.s such, it is necessary to compare […]
• Improvements of Supply Chain Processes in the Fast Food Industry: Subway The purposes of the research are to analyze the service delivery stage of the internal supply chain process typical of the Subway restaurants located in Dubai, the United Arab Emirates; identify drawbacks in these areas […]
• Impact of Fast Food on Human Body Firstly, it is the economics of fast food fast food is the cheapest food on the market in terms of a calorie per dollar.
• HRM in the Fast Food Industry: US, Germany, and Australia It should be mentioned that the term human-resource relations refers to the programs that an organization puts in place in order to ensure that the employees receive the benefits that are guaranteed by legislation.
• The Jungle and Fast Food Nation Though both books talk about the food industry and the ills that plague it, it is important to establish that, Eric Schlosser’s aim of writing Fast Food Nation was to make the public know the […]
• Fast Food Industry in the US This paper will discuss the fast food industry in the US with an emphasis on the positive as well as the negative impacts it has on American economy.
• Fast Food History and Global Presence The popularity of fast-food restaurants at the time could be associated with the increased numbers of people moving to the city centers during the Great Depression.
• Green Management in Fast Food Restaurants The corporations have to acquire large amounts of capital to operate efficiently and survive in the market because of the high demand of social responsibility in the food industry.
• The Fast Food Mass Production Problem Mass production was planned as a phenomenon to ensure the supply of food in sufficient quantities to cover the loss of production in the sale and, at the same time, meet the economic needs of […]
• The Environment of Fast Food Chains The basic research question is based upon the fact as what is actual scenario of HK fast food industry and what marketing strategies are being used commonly by the industry?
• The Culture of Fast Food Consumption Thesis Statement: The purchase of fast food is largely driven by the convenience of purchase, enjoyment of taste, and pricing. However, it is worth sorting out the reasons for consuming fast food and the main […]
• The Reasons Behind the Popularity of Fast Food in the Context of the Lebanese Market Nowadays, in Beirut, the variety of traditional dishes which can be prepared quickly and served as fast food is amazing, from the kebab, to the falafel; most dishes are represented.
• Media Plan of a Fast Food Chain Subway Food The uniqueness and importance of this media for Subway Foods is that the sender of the advertising message, who can be regarded as the seller, does not know in advance what he will receive in […]
• An Analysis of Marketing Strategies of Local vs. International Brands in the Fast Food Sector This comes as no surprise, considering that the UK is one of the world’s largest economies in the world, has one of Europe’s highest populations and is the largest consumer of fast food in the […]
• Fast Foods More Harm Than Good The rest of the life of such a child is upsetting as the child is ridiculed in and out of school, through his/her adolescence, and even in college.
• The Fast-Food Industry and Legal Accountability for Obesity The principle of least harm in ethics is closely associated with the fast food industry; this is mainly because of the basic fact that fast food increases chances of obesity to its consumers.
• Motivational Issues in the Fast Food Sector Fast food refers to a type of cuisine produced in mass and marketed by some eateries, presentation stands, and service establishments for fast and effective production and delivery.
• Fast Food, Fat Profits: Obesity in America With the current trends in the consumption of foods, statistics show that, by the year 2015, a third of America will be obese.
• American Fast Food in Foreign Countries On the one hand, fast food chains like McDonald’s are at risk of pushing local cafes away, leading the latter to bankruptcy.
• Fast Food: What We Eat by Eric Schlosser The industry became the cause of multiple economic trends and shifted the behaviors of consumers. In conclusion, the fast-food industry has had a great influence on economics, society, and politics.
• The Effects of Fast Food Consumption on Obesity Afterward, Lane et al.combined homogeneous conditions and conducted a meta-analysis to determine the effect of fast food consumption on their development.
• Fast Food Restaurant: Emergency Procedure It is essential to lay out a clear communication plan to ensure the team maintains functional capacity during a hurricane threat.
• Drive-Thru Dreams and Fast Food Nation by Adam Chandler In the introduction to his book, Drive-Thru Dreams: A Journey through the Heart of America’s Fast-Food Kingdom, Adam Chandler uses pathos as the central appeal to convince the audience in the strength of his reasoning.
• Fast Food Effects on Human Health The phenomenon results in the ideological perspectives of increased obesity and the emergence of lifestyle diseases. The popularity and consumption rate of fast-food restaurants is one of the trending issues in cities and towns.
• Slow and Fast Food Values by Alice Waters Uniformity is a fast-food value that causes people to lose their individuality because of the pressure to conform. Awareness is a fundamental value in the current fast-food world.
• McDonald’s in the International Fast Food Market In her article, Visard discusses the current position of McDonald’s in the international fast food market and the food chain’s most recent attempts to adapt its resource spending and product positioning strategies during the ongoing […]
• Employee Retention & Staff Turnover in Fast Food Industry Whilst the recruitment strategy errors include the lack of such documents as A Set of Competencies and The Perfect Candidate, the lack of recruitment specialists, and the provision of insufficient information to the candidate. It […]
• Customer Loyalty in Fast Food Industry Under Current Economic Crisis The objective of this research is to evaluate different customer loyalty programs offered by companies operating in the UK Fast Food Industry to induce more sales and assess their effectiveness amid of the current economic […]
• Promoting Fast Food Ingredient Awareness The result of this progress has been the spread of the concept of fast food, meals for those who are busy and do not want to burden themselves with cooking.
• The Fast Food Restaurant Market of Canada More than 100 various franchising offers Growing demand for fast food restaurant franchising Wide variety of demanded franchises with diverse prices and distinct revenue potential Growing possibilities to utilize disposable income, which increases proportionally […]
• Ideology of Fast Food Industry Development Demonstrating the parallel that can be drawn between fast food and the ideology values such as the fast pace life and consumerism, it is important to stress that several values resulted from the formation and […]
• The Fast Food Culture in Saudi Arabia The increased consumption of fast food is an issue that has gripped the attention of healthcare providers worldwide. The high incidence of diabetes is perhaps the most notable effect of the excessive consumption of fast […]
• Obesity Prevalence and Fast Food Restaurant Prevalence The purpose of this study is to examine the relationship between obesity prevalence and fast food restaurant prevalence in the United States.
• Regulation of the Fast Food Industry: Review The rapid growth of the fast food industry has led to the high consumption of fast food by many people. The extraordinary growth of the fast food industry has been driven by fundamental changes in […]
• Fast Food: What Is Really in It? Fast food restaurants use TBHQ to eliminate oxidation of fats and oils in order to prolong the expiry date of their foods.
• “The Bitter Truth About Fast Food” by Schlosser While such a regulation is hard to follow, it has been proved that some natural ingredients used in the manufacturing of flavors pose more health risks than artificial ingredients.
• Biotechnology and Animal Welfare: How Genetically Modified Chicken Serves the Demand in Fast Food Chains Beef was the most often used meat for the restaurants due to its containing in burgers, however, in 2020, the tendency started to move in the direction of chicken consumption.
• ”The Ritual of Fast Food” by Margaret Visser At the pace of modern life, people often do not have time to dine fully, and then fast food comes to the rescue.
• Fast Food Nation in the “Omnivore’s Dilemma” by M. Pollan The author’s main purpose in writing this text could be summarized as a plea to food-conscious people that there is more to what they do not know about the food they eat.
• Fast Food Industry: Five Forces of Success The possible threat of market saturation by new sellers inflowing the market. The strength of rivalry or competition in the food industry as franked by existing markets is a pronouncement that helps in the determination […]
• Marketing Case B: Freddy Favors Fast Food and Convenience for College Students Problem Objective Opinion Areas of Strength Areas of Concern Recommendation Conclusion The service and products that are to be offered in a food joint for college students is a problem, as it would require […]
• Branding of Fast Food Industry: Sound and Strategic Brand According to Thomson and Rampton the brand image should be able to provide customers with a degree of excellence and comfort, making them outshine from the rest of the group that is they provide a […]
• The Use of Fast Food Meals in the United State This study focused to investigate the western theory change of lifestyles and it intended to examine the quality of the fast-food meals in the United States industries.
• Environmental Analysis for a New Fast Food Chain in Australia The viability of the restaurant will depend, in a large part, on the stability of the host government as well as the strength of the host country’s political system.
• Fast Food Empire: ”Behind the Counter” by Schlosser Schlosser underlines that the fast food problem in society, culture, and identity is presenting all Americans with profound dilemmas- that are badly in need of clarification and resolution of real life values and ideals Schlosser […]
• Opportunism in Fast Food Chains: Schlosser’s ‘Behind the Counter’ The fast-food chains employ the most disadvantaged members of the American society and provide only training on basic job skills such as getting to work on time.
• Fast Food Epidemic: The Dark Side of American Meal Various reports and studies signify the trends of huge marketing campaigns of fast food chains and the significant correlation this has with fast food consumption.
• Technology in the British Fast Food Industry The use of modern smartphones and apps is an emerging trend that will continue to dictate the performance of business organizations.
• Fast Food Restaurants and Buyers’ Responsibility Fast food and chain restaurants sell their products, but they do not force people to buy them. Thus, people are to be responsible for their behavior and understand the danger of unhealthy food.
• The Work at “Checkers” Fast Food Restaurant The position of a cook is much different, as they are the person who carries out the duties and supports the infrastructure of the restaurant.
• “Fast Food Nation” Movie by Richard Linklater This is a story of how one of the most favorite things in the country is destroying people’s health and undermining the belief that the world is a friendly and kind place where people love […]
• Obesity in Hispanic Adolescents and Fast Food Most of these, however, describe the relationship existing between the prevalence of diabetes in the population and the consumption of fast foods.
• Fast Food, Obesity, Depression, and Other Issues However, in busy communities, fast foods are increasingly being the preferred choice of food because of their price and convenience and that is why they are commonly served in many hotels, cafes and even some […]
• Fast Food Consumption in New Jersey (United States) The survey aimed at evaluating the consumption of fast foods amongst the residents of New Jersey in the USA. Other objectives that were considered during the study included determination of whether the habit contributed to […]
• Factors Contributing to Fast Food Consumption in UAE Nevertheless, the transformation from homemade food to fast food has been so severe and widespread that people have become addicted to fast food in the UAE.
• The Fast Food Danger Awareness Among the Young People However, it is worrying that many people in this society are not aware of the dangers that this industry poses to young people.
• Blue Springs Fast Food Store vs. Blue Gardens Restaurant Analysis The lighting is moderated to give the facility a unique ambiance, and the color of the walls is also very attractive.
• Fast Food War in Singapore: The Stiff Competition and Fight for Customers In this case, the market conditions will allow the firm to choose product attributes that counter the products of their competitors.
• Should Fast Food Qualify As “Food”? Nowadays, it became a commonplace practice among many people to suggest that fast food cannot be considered areal.’ This, of course, implies that the consumption of fast food can hardly be considered beneficial to the […]
• Fast Food Industry and Its Impacts The experiment made in the film shows how consuming of the fast food influences the human body, presents a visual demonstration of the processes happening in our inside organs under the influence of chemicals contained […]
• The Practice of Fast Food in the United States This survey concluded that fast food consumption entails a large intake of junk foods as well as a reduction in the intake of healthy foods.
• Analysis of the Documentary Fast Food, Fat Profits This is one of the issues that can be distinguished. This is one of the limitations that can be singled out.
• Obesity and Fast Food In fact, a larger proportion of the gains in the body mass arise from the escalating promotional activities carried out by the fast-food producing companies such as McDonalds.
• The economical aspects and different perspectives for fast food industry in Canada Figure 1: The leading fast-food companies in Canada Source: Reiter Slcfred stated that Mcdinalds had more than 31000 outlets all over the world, among them 5% restaurants or 1550 outlets are in Canada and highest […]
• Challenges Inherent in Repositioning a Fast Food Chain Much money has to be spent during the repositioning process, and, in a period of financial crisis, as is the current situation, it is very important to come up with some cost-effective strategies to succeed […]
• The Fast-food Industry in Russia For example, the legislation guaranteed the right of workers to organize themselves in labour unions, strike and even challenge the decisions that are made by the management The Russian federation labour laws are a combination […]
• An Analysis of Fast Freeze Foods Ltd This paper focuses on the successes of his management in managing the performance of the company to ensure success in such a turbulent industry as the company is operating.
• Healthy Fast Food Restaurant The project committee has ensured that this project has a number of strengths as it is introduced in this competitive market.
• Deli Depot Fast Food Restaurants Strategy Objectives To improve on the sales of the business hence increasing the profit margin To strategise on how to take over the market from other competitors To come up with a good team of employees […]
• Fast Food on Campus: When Affordable Meals Overshadow the Nutrition Issues Starting Positively Much to the credit of fast food and the companies producing it, there are also a number of positive aspects of providing fast food on the territory of campus.
• The Fast Food Chains “Five Guys” in the USA Five Guys is one of the fastest growing fast food chains in the USA and it is now expanding overseas. One of the reasons for such a success is the thoughtful philosophy of the fast […]
• Fast Food’s Main Detrimental Effects This state of affairs is perfectly explainable, because during the course of recent decades, the effects of a lengthened consumption of fast food on one’s health remained the subject of a number of heated public […]
• “The Omnivore’s Dilemma: The Search for a Perfect Meal in a Fast-Food World” by Michael Pollan The poultry helps in the spreading of manure as the chicken looks for larvae to eat. There are a lot of processed foods available in the market such that one is spoilt for choice.
• Comparison Between the Jungle and Fast Food Nation The writer of the book came up with suggestion on what ought to be done to eliminate the issue of minimal salaries among the citizens, hence, improve the living standards of the people in the […]
• Increased Nutrition Regulations on Fast Food Restaurants Some critics believe that federal policy to increase the cost of healthy food has led to the increase in consumption of the cheaper alternative i.e.fast food.
• Impacts of Fast Food on Childhood Eating Habits The author’s claim that lack of nutritional information on fast food packaging is a major cause of obesity among children and teenagers is not true.
• The Nature of Fast Food Advertising in North American & Its Influence The nature of fast food advertising in North America is such that most fast food restaurants depict the advantages of eating fast food in a bid to entice the clients.
• Fast Food, Quick Problem Emergence, Rapid Addiction and Slow Recovery Process Because of the growing popularity of the fast food products, the concern for the effect that the fast food meals have on the population is growing increasingly big, yet the solutions for the problems and […]
• Fast Food and Hate Groups Harvey would lay his hands on the member’s heads to reconfirm them to the group after which the members would swear an oath to Harvey and Pendgrass that they will uphold the beliefs and convictions […]
• How Has the Fast Food Industry Changed From the 1950s to the Present?
• What Are the Causes of Popularity for Fast Food Restaurants?
• Are Fast Food and Junk Food Companies Ethically Responsible for Customers?
• What Are the Effects of Eating Fast Food?
• How Did Jollibee Build Its Position in the Philippine Fast Food Industry?
• What Are the Key Success Factors That Make the Fast Food Business Model Work?
• Does Consumer Preference Shift Away From Fast Food?
• What Constitutes Good Customer Service and Makes a Company in the Fast Food Industry Indispensable?
• How Are Fast Food Advertising and Childhood Obesity Related?
• What Makes Chipotle Unique Among Other Fast Food Chains?
• Can Apps Make Fast Food Even Faster?
• How Is Fast Food Changing American Food Culture?
• Why Isn’t Fast Food Cheaper Than Healthy Food?
• Are Fast Food Restaurants to Blame for Obesity?
• How Can Fitness Overcome Fast Food?
• What Marketing Strategies Use McDonald’s to Compete With Burger King in the Fast Food Industry?
• Why Are Fast Food Restaurants Popular?
• How Has Healthy Living Culture Brought About Changes in the Fast Food Industry?
• Does Fast Food Have a Possible Connection With Obesity?
• How Do Eco Activists Take Action Towards the Fast Food Industries?
• Should Fast Food Advertisements Be Banned?
• What Retention Strategies Can Be Used by Fast Food Companies?
• How Do Life Styles Affect the Consumption of Fast Food?
• Should Fast Food Companies Be Held Responsibility for Children’s Obesity?
• How Did McDonald’s Change Fast Food?
• Should Fast Food Only Be Sold to People Eighteen and Older?
• How Has the Recession Affected the Fast Food Sector?
• Should Schools Serve Fast Food Like Mcdonald’s?
• What Are Most Serious Negative Effects of Eating Fast Food?
• Why Should Americans Eat Less Fast Food?
• Chicago (A-D)
• Chicago (N-B)

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Food Research Paper

This sample food research paper features: 7300 words (approx. 24 pages), an outline, and a bibliography with 79 sources. Browse other research paper examples for more inspiration. If you need a thorough research paper written according to all the academic standards, you can always turn to our experienced writers for help. This is how your paper can get an A! Feel free to contact our writing service for professional assistance. We offer high-quality assignments for reasonable rates.

Food as Medicine

Domestication of plants and animals, how domestication occurred, domestication of plants, domestication of animals, the present, future directions.

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Introduction

By 2009 the world population has reached 6.7 billion people, according to the U.S. Census Bureau (2009). In 1900, there were “only” 1.65 billion people on earth, 2.5 billion by 1950, with a projected 9 billion by 2050. While a number of factors have affected this exponential increase, not the least of which is reallocation of resources and labor (Boone, 2002), the abundance and distribution of food has played a major role, spurring technology to increase production and distribution. The result is the food crisis emerging in this early part of the 21st century.

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Leading to this crisis, there are four major “events” in the history of food use. The first is cooking—the act of using heat to transform a substance from one state to another. This is an emergent behavior, as no other primate does anything like it. The second event, equally as dramatic, is the domestication of plants and animals; the outcome has been increasing control of resources (plants, animals) to the point of manufacture. This manufacture has included husbandry procedures, breeding, sterilization, and the like—and most recently, genetic engineering. The third event, directly related to manufacture, is the dispersion of foods throughout the world, which is a continuous process beginning at the time of domestication and continuing today, albeit now in the form of globalization. The “typical” diets of China, Italy, France, or anywhere are the result of diffusion and dispersion of these domesticated plants or animals, known as domesticates (Sokolov, 1991). The fourth event is the industrialization of food. This is an ongoing event beginning in the latter part of the 18th century with the invention of canning (Graham, 1981) and continuing today in the form of frozen meals, new packaging materials, ways of reconstituting foods, and, in the near future, creating animal “meat” by tissue engineering (Edelman, McFarland, Mironov, & Matheny, 2005). The purpose of this research paper is to describe the events concerning the human use of food in the past (prehistory to the 1700s) and present, and speculate on the trends for the future.

We are primates, descended from a long line that began around 80 million years ago (Ackermann & Cheverud, 2004). As a group, primates are omnivores and consume nuts, seeds, leaves, stalks, pith, underground roots and storage organs, flowers, insects, lizards, birds, eggs, and mammals. The source of nutrients, or its emphasis, varies from group to group so that it is possible to classify primates by food intake. Table 1 illustrates these groups.

Prosimians, or lower primates, tend to be insect eaters while certain types of these primates prefer lizards or small invertebrates; monkeys—both Old and New World—rely on fruits with a significant input from insects or small vertebrates. Apes eat from a variety of larders (food supplies) depending on type: orangutans eat fruit, gorillas eat stalks and pith, and chimps eat fruit and hunt for mammals—but none eat one type to the exclusion of all else. Physical specializations to extract nutrients from the source vary greatly. Some primates ferment their food; others reingest it.

The shape of teeth and jaws, and the length of gut and digestive tract, also affect different emphases of diet. Fruit eaters, for example, are equipped with molars that are not shaped for crushing or grinding, but are small in relation to their body size (Kay, 2005). Some leaf eaters, like colobines or howler monkeys, have sacculated stomachs containing bacteria that aid in digestion. One type of lemur is probably coprophagous; that is, like rabbits, it ingests its own waste pellets to extract semidigested nutrients. The length of the gut in primates that eat any kind of animal is 4 to 6 times its body length, while that of a leaf eater is 10 to 30 times its body length (Milton, 1993).

Primates, unlike some other mammals, require certain vitamins. The most important substances, vitamins B 12 and C, must be obtained from outside sources. In the case of B 12 , it must be extracted from animals including insects (Wakayama, Dillwith, Howard, & Blomquist, 1984), and for vitamin C, from fruits and a little from muscle meat. Genes controlling the manufacture of these substances were reassigned ( exapted ), as it were, to other functions when the anthropoid group of monkeys, apes, and humans split from prosimians. The genetic information is affirmed by the fact that some prosimian relatives of the earliest primates are still able to synthesize these substances (Milton, 1993).

The model for human evolution derives from the behavior and physiology of African apes, particularly the two kinds of chimpanzees: the bonobo and the common chimpanzee. These primates are more active than either gorillas or orangutans and a good deal more sociable than the orangutan, also known as the red giant of Asia. Their choice of diet is considered an important factor in their activity, as larger primates tend to rely on leaves and foliage, as do gorillas, who have a range of only around 300 meters per day. Fruit eaters are not only more active than foliage eaters, they are more eclectic in their diet, including nuts, seeds, berries, and especially insects of some sort because fruits are an inadequate source of protein (Rothman, Van Soest, & Pell, 2006). They are also considered to be more “intelligent,” as witnessed by recent studies of New World capuchin monkeys, and Old World macaques and chimpanzees. Chimps can take in as much as 500 grams of animal protein a week (Goodall, 1986; Milton, 1993).

Animal protein is considered high-quality food, and the importance of high-quality protein to the evolution of the human brain cannot be underestimated (Leonard, 2002). From only 85 grams (3.5 ounces) of animal protein, 200 kilocalories are obtained. In comparison, this amount of fruit would provide about 100 kilocalories, and leaves would provide considerably less—about 20 kilocalories. The daily range of chimpanzees can extend to about 4 kilometers per day, and their societies are highly complex social groups. It is this complexity that enables them to conduct their hunts, coordinating members as they approach their prey using glances, piloerection, and pointing. Since primates evolved from insectivores at a time when fruits and flowers were also evolving, their ability to exploit this new resource demonstrates the most important characteristic of primates: flexibility.

Primates can readily adapt to extreme conditions like drought. Under harsh conditions, primates will seek (as indeed, humans do) what are called fallback foods. These are foods like bark, or even figs, that are less desirable because they lack ingredients such as fats or sweet carbohydrates (Knott, 2005). Primates have a remarkable repertoire of methods to deal with changes in food availability: They can change their diets; they can change their location; they change their behavior according to the energy they take in (Brockman, 2005).

This flexibility in adapting behavior to changing circumstances was a decisive advantage for the primates, as they implemented the underlying knowledge about resources with the ability to remember locations of specific foods. Equally as important is the ability to evaluate the probability of encountering predators in these locations. The ability to adapt to environmental and social changes depends not only on genetic evolution but, as Hans Kummer (1971) noted, on cultural processes arrived at through group living. The behavioral mode responds more quickly to dynamic situations than does physical evolution.

Gathering, Hunting, and the Beginnings of Food Control

The ancestors of humans continued the food-gathering techniques of their primate predecessors, gathering invertebrates and small vertebrates, as well as plant materials, in the trees, on the ground, and below ground. As prey gets larger, the techniques shift from one individual working to a concerted, group effort. The former is seen in the behavior of capuchin monkeys and baboons, and the more sophisticated planning and coordination is well documented among chimpanzees. With greater reliance on meat, there are more changes in the primate body—the more reliance on protein, the more prevalence of the hormone ghrelin. Ghrelin is active in promoting the organism to eat, and therefore causes an increase in body mass and the conservation of body fat (Cummings, Foster-Schubert, & Overduin, 2005).

The secretion of ghrelin stimulates the growth hormone as it increases body mass. Human brains require huge amounts of energy—as much as 25% of our total energy needs. Most mammals, in contrast, require up to about 5%, and our close relatives, the other nonhuman primates, need about 10% at the most (Leonard, 2002; Leonard & Robertson, 1992, 1994; Paabo, 2003). The brains of our other close relatives, the australopiths, were apelike, measuring about 400 cubic centimeters (cc) at 4 mya. Our ancestor, Homo, experienced rapid brain expansion from 600 cc in Homo habilis at 2.5 mya, to 900 cc in Homo erectus in only a half-million years. This value is just below the lowest human value of 950 cc.

Somewhere near this period of time, Homo erectus began using fire to cook. While the association with fire may have been long-standing (Burton, 2009), its use in transforming plants and animals from one form to a more digestible one appears to have begun after 2 mya, and according to some, the date of reckoning is 1.9 mya (Platek, Gallup, & Fryer, 2002).

Tubers are underground storage organs (USOs) of plants. They became more abundant after about 8.2 mya, when the impact of an asteroid cooled the earth creating an environment favoring the evolution of C4 plants over C3 ones (trees and some grasses). The USOs are often so hard or so large that they cannot easily be eaten, and contain toxic substances. Heat from a fire softens the USO, making cell contents accessible, and it also renders the toxic compounds harmless.

For some years, Richard Wrangham and coworkers (Wrangham & Conklin-Brittain, 2003; Wrangham, 2001; Wrangham, McGrew, de Waal, & Heltne, 1994) have been proposing that cooking was the major influence in human evolution. As explained, the application of heat made USOs more nutritively accessible. Recently, in an experiment to test this hypothesis, captive chimpanzees, gorillas, bonobos, and orangutans were offered cooked and uncooked carrots, and sweet and white potatoes. Apparently there was a strong tendency for the great apes to prefer softer items (Wobber, Hare, & Wrangham, 2008). While monkeys dig for corms and the like (Burton, 1972), the finding that chimpanzees use tools to dig up USOs (Hernandez-Aguilar, Moore, & Pickering, 2007) underscores the appeal of this hypothesis. In addition, there is evidence that Homo had already been using tools for over a half-million years when cooking probably began. The inclusion of “meat” in cooking had to have begun by 1.8 mya because there is substantial evidence of big-game hunting by this date. Equally important to Wrangham and colleagues is the consideration that the jaws and teeth of these members of Homo could not have dealt with the fibrousness and toughness of mammalian meat (Wrangham & Conklin-Brittain, 2003). This is despite the fact that apes and monkeys regularly partake of raw flesh; all primates eat insects, and many eat small vertebrates like lizards.

Insects are not termed meat, although their nutritive value is comparable. Certainly the early Homo was eating mammals. Recent evidence from Homo ergaster shows that this hominin was infested with tapeworms by 1.7 mya and that these parasites came from mammals (Hoberg, Alkire, de Queiroz, & Jones, 2001). The remains suggest that either the cooking time at this site was too short, or the temperature was not high enough to kill the parasitic larvae, but also that these hominins were utilizing fire as an instrument of control in their environment. The knowledge base of our ancestors was extensive: It had to be for them to prosper, and it included knowledge of medicinal qualities of plants in their habitat.

It is now well attested that animals self-medicate (Engel, 2002; Huffman, 1997). Plants are used externally as, for example, insect repellent or poultices on wounds, and internally against parasites and gastrointestinal upsets. They may also regulate fertility, as recent evidence suggests that the higher the fats versus protein or carbohydrate, the more males are born (Rosenfeld et al., 2003), and the higher the omega-6 versus omega-3, the more females are born (Fountain et al., 2007; Green et al., 2008). The fact that the animals seem to know the toxic limits of the substances they use and consume is also significant (Engel, 2002).

As knowledge is passed from generation to generation, it crosses lines of species. Homo erectus became Homo sapiens, and their knowledge base was a compendium of all that had gone before that could be remembered. Hence, the knowledge base included the breeding habits of plants and animals, their annual cycles, and where and when to find them, as well as what dangers were associated with them.

Somewhere between the advent of Homo sapiens, at the earliest around 250,000 years ago, and first evidence around 15 kya, this knowledge became translated into domestication. The process of domestication was first delineated by Zeuner (1963). Foreshortening of the muzzle, lightening of the fur, and crowding of the teeth are characteristic of this condition. There are even changes in the part of the brain relating to fear, as there is a relaxation toward the fearful stimulus—in this case with humans— under domestication (Hare & Tomasello, 2005). Because human care is extended to the domesticate, a relaxation of natural selection occurs as nonadaptive traits are supported. This process is seen in sheep, and laboratory and pet mice, as well as dogs, and whatever other animal has been domesticated.

Evidence of diets having components of domestication is attested to by microwear patterns, detected with an electron microscope. These can be found on teeth; isotope analysis of the ratio of C3 to C4 plants, since the latter include more domesticated plants; biomechanics; and anatomical characteristics, such as tooth size or length of shearing crests on molars. Researchers also experiment with various kinds of abrasion and compare these to the “unknown”—the fossil. Biomechanics, an engineering type of study, analyzes forces and examines tooth and bone under the conditions of different diets.

While earlier in our history, only about 30% of the dietary intake would have come from eating organisms that ate C4 plants, under domestication, the number of animals as well as C4 plants increased. This is known from isotope analysis, which evaluates how CO 2 is taken up by plants, and which can estimate the proportion of C3 to C4 plants in the diet. What’s more, the nature of the diet itself can be understood.

Descriptions of domestication follow different theoretical models. Terms like center, zone, or even homeland relate to a view of process and dispersion. How many separate areas of independent domestication there were relative to subareas that received the domesticate or knowledge on how to domesticate also depends on the scholar. A general consensus is that there were seven separate areas where domestication took place: the Middle East, sub-Saharan Africa, Asia, Mesoamerica, South America, eastern North America, and from the Near East to Europe, with firm evidence dating from between 12,000 and 10,000 BCE in the Fertile Crescent of west Asia. The time of transition between hunting and gathering and cultivation of plants and animals is well documented at a number of sites. One, in the Levant, at Ohalo II near Haifa, has evidence for the earliest brush dwellings (Nadel, 2003) and is fairly typical of this transition period. It is dated radiometrically to 19,500 BP (or radiocarbon years before present, RCYBP), which gives a calibrated date of between 22,500 and 23,500 BP (Nadel, 2003). In this Upper Paleolithic, or Epipaleolithic site, evidence from dentition suggests an abrasive diet emphasizing food based on cereals, fish, and a variety of local animals, especially gazelle. In addition to wild barley, wheat, and fruits, small-grained grasses were well represented in the remains (Weiss, Wetterstrom, Nadel, & Bar-Yosef, 2004). The Ohalo II people occupied the site for at least two seasons, likely spring and autumn (Kislev, Nadel, & Carmic, 1992) and perhaps throughout the year (Bar-Yosef, 1998) in brush huts along the lakeshore. These sites at the end of the Upper Paleolithic along the Mediterranean, and in Europe during the Mesolithic, indicate that plants were relied on as dietary objects and may well have been cared for around campsites to ensure their growth.

The specifics of how domestication occurred in each region differ (Bar-Yosef, 1998). Classical theories seeking to analyze the how and why of domestication focus on the environment, population growth, the organization and management of small-scale societies, trade, and changes in the daily schedule (Sutton & Anderson, 2004) . Extending in time from the 18th century, the discussion of these is too complex and lengthy to be included here. More recently, Boone (2002) invoked an energy-budget model, consonant with contemporary notions of evolutionary demography and ecology. A scenario then emerged based on archaeological evidence that the climate was becoming increasingly unpredictable. These dramatic changes in climate, some of them a result of asteroids (Firestone et al., 2007), caused big game to decrease. The subsistence base changed to accommodate the lessened availability, requiring the diet to become more diverse. Fishing became important as groups moved to rich coastal areas, especially along the Mediterranean (e.g., the Levant and Turkey). Activities changed as a consequence, since traditional jobs were now replaced and the need to “follow the herds” was replaced with sedentism, itself a complex phenomenon defined by activities at a given locale as well as infrastructure developed there (Bar-Yosef, 1998).

While populations over most of prehistory had overall zero growth, the cultural processes that emerged with hominines affected mortality and population increase (Boone, 2002), culturally “buffering” local climatic and environmental changes. Brush huts and other shelters are emblematic of this. Larger groups encouraged specializations to emerge. A concomitant to climate change was the decrease in big game. These had provided substantial amounts of protein, and some, because of their size, had little or no predator response, making them particularly easy for small people with limited technology to overcome (Surovell, Waguespack, & Brantingham, 2005). So proficient had the hominines become that these efforts apparently caused massive extinctions of megafauna worldwide, in particular, proboscideans (Alroy, 2001; Surovell et al., 2005).

The actual effect humans have had on megafauna elsewhere, however, remains controversial (Brook & Bowman, 2002), and the demise of big game may indeed owe more to an extraterrestrial impact around 12 kya and its concomitant effect on climate (Firestone et al., 2007). At the same time, humans were obliged to include in their larder a wide variety of foods that either were not as palatable or required a great deal more effort for the caloric return— rather like the choices of fallback foods that nonhuman primates make under poor environmental conditions. The heads of cereals (wheat or barley, for example) need to be gathered, dried, ground, and boiled to make satisfactory “bread.” They can be, and are, eaten whole, with the consequence of heavy dental abrasion (Mahoney, 2007). The circular process of exploiting new or different resources required techniques and technology to extract nutrients, and in turn, the new methods provided access to new food sources (Boone, 2002): Between the 7th and the 5th millennia, for example, milk was being consumed by farmers in southeastern Europe, Anatolia, and the Levant. The evidence comes from comparing the residue left on pottery sherds—that of fat from fatty acid from milk to carcass fats (Evershed et al., 2008).

In his discussions of the San, Richard Lee (1979) noted that the cultural practice of reciprocal food sharing, as complex as it was, functioned as storage in a climate where there was no other means: As perishable meat was given away, it ensured the giver a return portion some days later. Had the giver kept the entire kill, undoubtedly most of it would have spoiled. Stiner (2001) references Binford’s suggestion that the development of storage systems was one of the technological “inventions” that must have accompanied the broadening of the diet so that the new variety of seeds and grain could be kept for some days. While hunter-gatherers, even until the end of the old ways (until 1965), would gather grain heads as they walked from one camping site to another— an observation documented in the Australian government’s films on the Arunta—the development of implements to break open the grain heads, removing the chaff and pulverizing the germ, perhaps preceded domestication. As grains and grasses became more important in the diet, the gathering of those that failed to explode and release their seed grain became the staple domesticates. The advent of domestication has been dated at the various areas illustrated in Table 2.

Early domestication developed in different ways in different areas, as local people responded to local exigencies in different conditions and with different cultural standards (Evershed et al., 2008). Gathering and colonization were how plants and animals came to be domesticated, with some evidence that people practiced cultivation in naturally growing areas of desirable plants. By removing competitors, distributing water, or protecting from predators, the people were able to enhance the growth of the desired plant. Because plants were gathered and brought back to home base, some seeds took root nearby. Awareness of the relationship of these seeds to the burgeoning plant spurred the next stage. Those plants that were gathered often had less efficient dispersal mechanisms. Their seed heads did not break off, and their seeds did not blow away. This was the case for flax, peas, beans, and many others, facilitating their cultivation. It seems a natural progression to the next step, outright sowing.

Gathering of seeds, and keeping them for the next season, was the final and significant step in the process of domestication, but it requires surplus as well as foresight and storage facilities. The seeds that would become the next season’s crop were selected for some attribute they possessed: The plant had produced more, the seeds were less volatile, less able to disperse, or predators had been kept from taking them. Forms of plants that were more suitable were selected, probably initially unconsciously, and later intentionally—skewing the genetic mix in favor of domestication.

The supposition about animal domestication includes various ideas: Perhaps the cubs of hunted mothers were brought home and raised; some kinds of animals “followed” people home where making a living was easier; animals were kept in corrals or tethered to allow captive ones to mate with the wild until the population grew substantially so that taking them was easier; or animals showing traits such as aggression not favorable to people were eliminated from the gene pool. The “big five” of domesticated animals—pigs, cows, sheep, chickens, and goats—were domesticated in different regions, independently from one another (Diamond, 2002), whereas domestication of plants seems to have diffused through areas. The animals that became domesticated were those that had behavioral traits that permitted it: They were gregarious and lived in herds where following the leader was part of the repertoire. Diamond (2002) suggests that it is the geographic range in which domesticates were found that influenced whether there were single or multiple areas of origin. The range of the big five is so great in each case that they were independently domesticated throughout, whereas the plants had a more limited range and so both domesticates and process diffused.

A population boom is clearly recorded at the centers of domestication (e.g., the city of Jericho in the Near East had up to 3,000 people living in it by 8500 BCE, according to the original researcher, Kathleen Kenyon, although that number has been revised downward [as cited in Bar-Yosef, 1986]). In these centers, there were an impressive number of people supporting themselves on a variety of domesticated plants such as einkorn, emmer wheat, and barley. The city of Teotihuacan in what is now Mexico had a population of 200,000 just before the Spaniards arrived (Hendon & Joyce, 2003). The abundance of food has its repercussions in population size with a concomitant development of trade specializations.

Over time, however, the benefits of agriculture become somewhat overshadowed. Zoonoses from association with farm animals increased. Tapeworms were known from 1.7 mya along with hookworm and forms of dysentery. Because settlements were often near bodies of still water such as marshes or streams, malaria became endemic. The development of agriculture and its concomitant population increase encouraged a variety of contagious diseases in the human population. In addition, noninfectious diseases became increasingly apparent: arthritis; repetitive strain injury; caries; osteoporosis; rickets; bacterial infections; birthing problems; and crowded teeth, anemia, and other forms of nutritional stress, especially in weanlings who were weaned from mother’s milk to grain mush. Caries and periodontal disease accompanied softer food and increased dependence on carbohydrates (Swedlund & Armelagos, 1990). Lung diseases caused by association with campfires, often maintained within a dwelling without proper ventilation, plagued humanity as well (Huttner, Beyer, & Bargon, 2007). Warfare also makes its appearance as state societies fight over irrigation, territory, and resources, and have and have-not groups vie for their privileges (Gat, 2006). Hunter-gatherers were generally not only healthier, but taller. The decrease in height is probably a result of less calcium or vitamin D, and insufficient essential amino acids, because meat became more prized and was only distributed to the wealthy. Women suffered differentially, as males typically received the best cuts and more, especially when meat was not abundant (Cohen & Armelagos, 1984).

The more mouths to feed, the greater the incentive to develop farming techniques to increase supporting output. Implements changed, human labor gave way to animal labor, metal replaced wood, carts and their wheels became more sophisticated, but above all, selection of seed and breed animals became more trait specific as knowledge grew. The associated decrement in variety began early and has continued to the present.

The changes that have taken place in the use of plants and animals are momentous. The idea of change promoted the advances that mark the 18th century. As has too often been the case, warfare encouraged new technology. Napoleon’s dictum that armies run on their stomachs inspired competition to find a way to preserve food for his campaigns. Metal, rather than glass, was soon introduced to preserve food in a vacuum (Graham, 1981). It did not always work: Botulism and lead poisoning from solder used to seal the tin played havoc with health. (Currently, the bisphenol in the solder is also a concern.) Nevertheless, the technique was not abandoned, especially as it meant that food could be eaten out of season. “Exotic” foods from elsewhere could now be introduced from one country to another. The ingredients of Italian spaghetti are an obvious case in point: noodles from China, tomatoes from Mesoamerica, and beef originally from the Fertile Crescent combined in one place at different dates. For very different historical reasons, the Conquistadors brought much of it back to Europe after Columbus’s momentous voyage. Diffusion of crops and techniques had occurred since they were first developed, evident in the “Muslim agricultural revolution” at the height of Islam from 700 CE to the 12th century (DeYoung, 1984; Kaba, 1984; Watson, 1983). During this period, China received soybeans, which arrived in c. 1000 CE, and peanut oil—both staples in the modern Chinese diet. Millet had been more important in China than rice (just as in contemporary west Africa, corn is replacing the more proteinaceous millet), and tea was a novelty until the Tang dynasty.

In “the present,” the kind of foodstuffs that could be dispersed elaborated the inventory. The Industrial Revolution, with its harnessing of fossil fuel (coal) to produce energy (steam), further encouraged the process as travel time diminished. Food could be eaten—fresh—out of season and brought from thousands of miles away. The refrigerator truck could take food from its source, usually unripe, and deliver it thousands of miles away. With this new mechanism, the food value in the produce is diminished, but the extravagance of eating produce out of season remains.

Rivaling the distribution of foodstuffs in its impact on human history is the continued control of breeding. Indeed, Darwin’s great work proposed “natural” selection in contrast to husbandry, or “artificial” selection. Before the gene was known and named—properly a 20th-century achievement— “inheritance” in humans was sufficiently understood in the form of eugenics (with its dubious history) as put forth by Galton in the late 1880s. When Mendel’s findings were recovered in 1900, Bateson named the gene (1905–1906), and Morgan discovered the chromosome (1910), genetics got seriously under way, and culminated, in the context of this research paper, in the Green Revolution.

By the 1960s, famine had become a major world issue, with increasing frequency and severity: the Bengal famine of 1942 to 1945; the famine in China between 1958 and 1961, which killed 30 million people; and the famines in Africa, especially Ethiopia and the west African Sahel in the early 1970s (Sen, 1981) rivaled the famines recorded in ancient history and throughout modern history, especially in the late 19th century. Although the causes of famine are usually environmental, for example drought or pests, the underlying causes are often economic and political (Sen, 1981). In the United States, the President’s Science Advisory Committee (1967) issued a report noting that the problem of famine, worldwide, was severe, and could be predicted to continue unless and until an unprecedented effort to bring about new policies was inaugurated (Hazell, n.d.).

In an attempt to bypass the underlying issues by producing more food for starving millions, the Rockefeller and Ford Foundations initiated what was named the Green Revolution. This was a dramatic change in farming techniques introduced to have-not countries of the time: India, China, and nations throughout Asia and Central America.

Mexico had initiated this decades earlier, in the early 1940s, when Norman Borlaug (1997) developed highyielding, dwarf varieties of plants. Production increased exponentially, and seed and technology from the “experiment” in Mexico was soon exported to India and Pakistan. At the occasion of his Nobel Prize being awarded in 1970, Borlaug noted that wheat production had risen substantially in India and Pakistan: From 1964 to 1965, a record harvest of 4.6 million tons of wheat was produced in Pakistan. The harvest increased to 6.7 million tons in 1968, by which time West Pakistan had become self-sufficient. Similarly, India became self-sufficient by the late 1960s, producing record harvests of 12.3 million tons, which increased to 20 million tons in the 1970s (Borlaug, 1997).

To sustain these harvests, however, petrochemicals had to be employed, and land had to be acquired. The new genetic seeds were bred for traits requiring fertilizers, pesticides, and water. Since the mid-1990s, the enthusiasm for the Green Revolution has waned as the numbers of the hungry have increased worldwide, and production has decreased. According to the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) (2008), the global rice yields have risen by less than 1% per year in the past several decades.

The explanations for the decrease vary, but among the most important is the fact that soil degradation results from intensity of farming, and petrochemicals that do not “feed” the soil itself. Depletion in soil nutrients requires stronger fertilizers; pesticides select for resistant pests and diseases, which in turn require stronger pesticides. Poorly trained farmers overuse the petrochemicals, exacerbating the situation. Irrigation itself causes a serious problem: The evaporation of water leaves a salt residue that accumulates in the soil. There is a concomitant loss of fertility estimated as 25 million acres per year, that is, nearly 40% of irrigated land worldwide (Rauch, 2003). In addition, new genetic breeds have not addressed social factors: Water supplies are regional, and irrigation requires financial resources; and farmers with greater income buy up smaller holdings and can afford to purchase industrial equipment. Access to food was not enhanced by the Green Revolution, especially in Africa (Dyson, 1999), where imports are approximately one third of the world’s rice (IRRI, 2008). It is access to food, more than abundance or pest resistance, that mitigates famine, dramatically demonstrated by Sen (1981). Determining access falls into the hands of government— implementing social security programs, maintaining political stability, and legislating property rights. The small farmers then move to cities, which become overcrowded, and lack employment.

While access has improved in some areas, the increase in population—often occurring exponentially—requires yet greater production. The response has been what, at the end of the 1990s, some have termed frankenfood (Thelwall & Price, 2006), or genetically engineered seed. This combines traits from very different species to enhance the plant. Thus, cold-water genes from fish are put into wheat to enable it to grow in regions not hospitable to the plant, or plants are engineered to resist a herbicide that would otherwise kill it as it destroys competitors. Transgenic genes might allow insemination for a variety of plants into soil that has become infertile due to salinization, and thereby extend productivity to regions where production has long ago ceased (Rauch, 2003).

Genetically modified (GM) plants are spreading throughout the world, even as some countries refuse them entry. The powerful corporations and governments that endorse their use see them as a panacea: New varieties for new climate issues, which themselves, like global warming, have arisen as a result of human activity, not the least of which is the industrialization of food. In addition, farmers are restricted from using seed from engineered plants, even if they blow into their fields, as the seeds are, in effect, copyrighted and the use of them has caused expensive legal challenges (“In Depth,” 2004). While GM crops are less damaging to the environment than typical introduced species, as the numbers and distribution of these increase, the probabilities of them spreading, evolving, and mixing with local varieties increases (Peterson et al., 2000). Early “evidence” at the beginning of the century that transgenes had entered the genomes of local plants in Oaxaca, Mexico, was based on two distinctive gene markers. The studies were corroborated by government agencies but further controlled, and a peer-reviewed study of a huge sample of farms and corn plants did not find transgenes in this region (Ortiz-García et al., 2005). The question therefore remains moot, at least in Mexico, but the issue gave rise to the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety (1999–2000), which regulates the movement of living modified organisms—plant and animal—whether for direct release or for food (Clapp, 2006). A number of countries in Europe and Africa have refused modified seed, although pressure on them to accept the seed continues. The Food and Agriculture Association’s (FAO) Swaminathan (2003) has urged India not to permit a “genetic divide” to exclude it from equality with other developing nations. Anxious that there not be a genetic divide between those countries that pursue transgenic organisms and those that do not, the United Nations World Health Organization (WHO) has echoed this concern (WHO/EURO, 2000).

Over time, selection for certain desired traits and hybridization of stock to develop specific traits (resistance to disease, etc.) has meant the loss of biodiversity in agriculture. Conservation of seed, by agencies like the Global Crop Diversity Trust, and seed banks, like IRRI in the Philippines, and the Svalbard Global Seed Vault in Norway, have been established in order to retain plant biodiversity. Their purpose is to have available strains that can reinvigorate domesticated species with genes from the “wild type.” Because domestication reduces variation, these “banks” become increasingly important (AcostaGallegos, Kelly, & Gepts, 2007).

Certainly there will be more technological advances as the pressure for food continues and the area available for cultivation diminishes. The growth of genetic modification over the past decade has been exponential and is a harbinger of the future. The food crisis in the mid-1970s caused by oil prices, and the world summit on finding solutions, both had little permanent effect. The food crisis in the first decade of the 21st century has multiple causes, not the least of which is climate change. But that is not the cause: It is a concomitant, as Sen (1981) has argued. Newspapers and magazines detail the economic and political actions that seem paramount, and then a climate disaster hits and the crisis becomes full-blown. Australia, for example, has been suffering drought for over a decade, especially in its wheat-growing areas, but its economy can support basic food imports; Canada’s prairies were overwhelmed by a heat wave due to climate change, which reduced its 5-year production of wheat by over 3 million tons. Ironically, one of the major factors is that due to the Green Revolution, the health and diet of billions of people, in China and India in particular, has improved, but this has led to obesity (Popkin, 2008). Their demand for meat, which traditionally was an ingredient in a vegetable-based gravy over a staple, has escalated, and with it a shift from land producing for people to land producing for, especially, cattle. And, world over, the amount of arable land left has decreased from 0.42 hectares per person in 1961 to just about half this figure by the beginning of this century (as cited in Swaminathan, 2003).

Over the past two decades, the rise in the price of oil has caused an escalation of food prices, since transportation by ship, plane, or truck requires energy and global food markets require foodstuffs that once were kept local. Clearly another form of energy needed to be found, and the answer lay in the conversion of biomass to energy. The demand for biofuel, initially created from corn, kept acres out of food production and relegated them to energy manufacture. Currently the move is to find other sources of biomass— like algae, for example—to relieve the pressure on foodstuffs, and ultimately to use waste to create fuel. Then too, agglomeration of land into huge holdings has helped to make farming a business enterprise, subsidized by government and reflected in the market fluctuations in the prices of commodities, where 60% of the wheat trade, for example, is controlled by large investment corporations. The consequence has been that small farmers cannot compete with imports that are cheaper than what they can produce; production cannot compete with demand (IRRI, 2008). An even further result is scarcity in precisely those countries where the crops are grown, resulting in hoarding not only by individuals, but also by governments, for example, the ban on rice in India and Vietnam (IRRI, 2008).

Global organizations such as the G8 and the World Trade Organization (WTO), together with nongovernmental agencies, individual governments, think tanks, and institutes, are “closing the barn door after the horse has escaped” with a variety of stop-gap measures. At the same time, there are clear and significant countertrends occurring. Not the least of these, and perhaps the best established, is the organic movement, whose origins followed the introduction of vast petrochemical use in the 1940s. Since then, the movement has grown out of the “fringe” to become “established.” In the mid-1980s, supermarkets’ recognition of a substantial market for certified-organic produce and meat broadcast the knowledge of the health implications of additives (from MSG to nitrites).

Of course, advances in technology and science focus on ensuring that there will be sufficient food for future populations. Livestock require vast amounts of land to produce the food they eat. By the early 1970s, the calculation was that conversion of cow feed to meat produced amounts to only 15% (Whittaker, 1972), and cows eat prodigious amounts of food. The agriculture department of Colorado State University, for example, reckons a cow eats up to 25 pounds of grain, 30 pounds of hay, and 40 to 60 pounds of silage— per day. One way around this is the virtual “creation” of meat. The future will see the industrial manufacture of meat through tissue engineering (Edelman et al., 2005). Using principles currently devised for medical purposes, cultured meat may actually reduce environmental degradation (less livestock, less soil pollution) and ensure human health through control of kinds and amounts of fat, as well as bacteria. Given the growth of the world’s population, in order to maintain health levels, the current trend of creating, nurturing, and breeding neutraceuticals will be expanded. The Consultative Group on Agriculture Research’s (CGIAR) Harvest Plus Challenge Program is breeding vitamin and mineral dense staples: wheat, rice, maize, and cassava for the developing world (HarvestPlus, 2009). Similarly, the inclusion of zinc, iron, and vitamin A into plant foods is under way in breeding and GM projects. The Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA) terms its efforts Agrosalud as it seeks to increase the food value of beans, especially with regard to iron and calcium content (AcostaGallegos et al., 2007).

There is a distinct interest in returning to victory gardens —those small, even tiny plots of land in urban environments that produced huge quantities of food in the United States, the United Kingdom, and Canada during World War II. By 1943, there were 20 million gardens using every available space: roofs of apartment buildings, vacant lots, and of course backyards. Together they produced 8 million tons of food (Levenstein, 2003). The beginnings of this movement are seen in the community gardens hosted in many cities, and in blogs and Web sites all over the Internet. Cities will also see the development of vertical farms —towering buildings growing all sorts of produce and even livestock. This idea, first promulgated by Dickson Despommier, a professor of microbiology at Columbia University, has quickly found adherents (Venkataraman, 2008). One project, proposed for completion by 2010, is a 30-story building in Las Vegas that will use hydroponic technology to grow a variety of produce. The idea of small plots, some buildings, and some arable land—in effect, a distribution of spaces to grow in—is consonant with the return to “small” and local: the hallmarks of the slow movement.

The future may see a return to local produce grown by small farmers, independent of the industrialized superfarms, utilizing nonhybridized crops from which seed can be stored. The small and local is part of the slow movement, which originated in Italy in the mid-1980s as a protest against fast food and what is associated with it. Its credo is to preserve a local ecoregion: its seeds, animals, and food plants, and thereby its cuisine (Petrini, 2003). It has grown into hundreds of chapters worldwide with a membership approaching 100,000 and has achieved this in only two decades. In concert with this movement is a new respect for, and cultivation of, traditional knowledge. The World Bank, for example, hosts a Web site on indigenous knowledge (Indigenous Knowledge Program, 2009) providing information ranging from traditional medicine, to farming techniques (e.g., composting, terracing, irrigating), to information technology and rural development.

The best example of small, local, and slow, along with exemplary restoration of indigenous knowledge, comes from Cuba. When the United States closed its doors to Cuba in the late 1950s, the Soviet Union became the chief supporter of Cuba, providing trade, material, and financial support. With the fall of communism, and the collapse of the Soviet Union in the 1990s, Cuba could no longer rely on the imports of petrochemicals that had been traded for citrus and sugar and upon which agribusiness depended. Large-scale state farms therefore were broken into local cooperatives; industrial employees were encouraged to work on farms, or to produce gardens in the cities much like victory gardens. A change in the economic system, permitting small-scale farmers to sell their surplus, encouraged market gardening and financial independence. Oxen replaced tractors, and new “old” techniques of interplanting, crop rotation, and composting replaced petrochemicals. Universities found practitioners and taught traditional medicine and farming techniques. It may not be feasible for small and local to exist everywhere, yet the future will see some of each as expedience requires.

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• Iran J Med Sci
• v.46(6); 2021 Nov

Fast Food and Fast Research: Life-threatening Phenomena

Mojtaba kafi.

1 Department of Animal Reproduction, School of Veterinary Medicine, Shiraz University, Shiraz, Iran

Seyed Ali Enjoo

2 Medical Ethics Department, School of Traditional Medicine, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran

Dear Editor

The surge in fast food consumption in recent years is considered a threat to human health. This change in the life habit has raised serious concerns among health policy-makers and medical nutrition researchers. Environmental stress, multitasking, low physical activity, and low academic achievement have been shown to influence the predilection for consuming fast food. 1 We have now faced with one similarly threatening phenomenon among university students and academics, which can be termed “fast research”.

Social pressures, as well as the fear of losing job opportunities, are the two main factors that propel university students to urgently seek a thesis supervisor, so that they can perform their research project in a short time, get published, and then secure a position. The occurrence of the social crisis associated with the emergence of the COVID-19 pandemic has caused depression and anxiety spikes in many postgraduate students as reported by Chirikov and colleagues. 2 This, in turn, may result in conducting fast research programs by students and academics to enable them to publish their papers in a short time. One best example of fast research and publication is certainly the crisis of the COVID-19 pandemic. Web of Science and Scopus indexed more than 23,600 articles on the COVID-19 pandemic published in the first half of 2020. This number included a plethora of research articles, reviews, notes, letters, and editorials related to COVID-19, covering every subject from virology to epidemiology. 3 A rush in, or lack of, the peer-review process, publishing COVID-19 papers in non-specialized journals, and detection of duplicate published images are all telltale signs of fast research. 3 , 4 More than half of the medical research has been reported as useless due to poor framing of the study questions, poor study design, scientific misconduct, and poor reporting of results. 5 Many of these problems are thought to be exacerbated in COVID-19 research. 4 , 6 Furthermore, it has been reported that most early publications on COVID-19 did not contain new information as compared to the H1N1 swine influenza pandemic that occurred in 2009. 7 This is another facet of the fast research and publication phenomena, which hampers the acquisition of valid applied knowledge, but might serve the researcher’s career interests. These issues and the trying conditions of the COVID-19 era can push the researchers and other people towards a point of no return, akin to the event horizon of a black hole. Fast research may lead university students and academics to underthinking and irresponsibility.

Fast food and fast research are both easy to prepare and relatively inexpensive and are favored by people across age and gender divides. Even though they are sometimes stale, they can save people’s lives in an emergency; however, if resorted to frequently, both would deleteriously influence our life in the end.

Conflict of Interest

None declared.

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84 Fast Food Research Topics & Essay Examples

📝 fast food research papers examples, 🍔 best fast food essay titles, ❓ fast food research questions.

• Fast Food and Culture Fast food is used to refer to the food that is prepared and served within a short period of time which is sold in a restaurant or store.
• Obesity Problem in American Schools American schools are in a unique position to help improve youth dietary behaviors and prevent cases of obesity.
• The Effects of Media on Child Obesity This paper will demonstrate that the media has contributed to the prevalence of childhood obesity in the country by highlighting the effects that the media has on child obesity.
• Fast Food Addiction Essay – the Case of UAE This fast food addiction essay explores the causes of obesity in UAE. The United Arab Emirates in one of the world’s most obese countries, and one of the key reasons is junk food consumption.
• Hispanic Adolescents' Obesity and Fast Food Consumption The current study sought to establish the relationship between Hispanic adolescents and fast food consumption.
• Fast Food and Financial Impatience The roots of fast food come from North America, where people often eat out and have a much more hectic lifestyle.
• Poverty and Children in the United States Discussing the issue of the present day chronic cycle of poverty, it would be relevant to mention that children might be regarded as the most unprotected social group that suffers form the above mentioned problem.
• The Fast Food Industry: Negative Impacts Review The fast food industry is one of the largest businesses in the world. Fast food has been recognized to be a large area of assets concerning food.
• Impacts of Fast Foods on the Economy and People Schlosser is right about the addictive nature of eating fast foods by Americans who are already addicted to this diet.
• Preparations of a Food and Nutrition Policy This paper discusses regulating food advertising to children, obesity as a strong health concern, children’s obesity statistics, television ads and child obesity.
• McDonald's Entry into Africa McDonald’s already has limited business in South Africa as well as some few countries in the northern parts of the continent.
• Fast Food’ Effects on Children This is a research paper on the effects of fast food on the society, but specifically, more emphasis is put on the younger generation, the children.
• Argument for and Against the Fast Food Industry in USA Fast food has quickly gained preference in modern society becoming a major source of nutrition in many countries among different demographics and cultures across the world
• Fast Food Companies Should Not Advertise Children Exposing juveniles to processed food has a negative impact on their dietary preferences. Fast food mostly has high fat and artificial sweetener content
• Raising Minimum Wage for Fast Food Workers
• Fast Food and Its Effect on the Body
• The Subway Fast-Food Outlets in Australia Subway is one of the leading fast-food outlets in Australia. They have provided Australian citizens with fast foods such as sandwiches for the longest time possible.
• America’s Obsession With Fast Food and Its Effects on the Population
• Positive and Negative Aspects of Fast Food Restaurants
• Fast Food Employees and Minimum Wage
• An Urban Health Profile Report on Childhood Obesity The researcher reviewed current academic literature on childhood obesity as an urban health issue, paying close attention to those environmental factors.
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• The Risks and Negative Effects From Fast Food
• The Reasons for the Popularity of Fast Food in America
• Fast Food as the Main Cause of Diabetes and Obesity
• The Relationship Between Fast Food and Obesity
• Youth Obesity Prevalence in Florida The high number of childhood obesity cases in Florida is attributed to various factors, including unhealthy dietary behaviors, physical inactivity, and genetics.
• Fast Food Advertising to Children and Childhood Obesity
• Causes of the Rapid Rise of Fast Food Restaurants
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• The Role Fast Food Restaurants Play in Rising Obesity Rates
• Fast Food Consumption and Its Impact on Today’s Generation
• Risk Models in Guiding Nurses The paper discusses that risk models are useful in guiding nurses in their work processes and application of knowledge in practice.
• The Effect of Fast Food Accessibility and Availability on Childhood Obesity
• Fast Food and Its Effects on Health
• The Dangers and Risks of Eating Fast Food
• The Positive and Negative Experiences of Working in the Fast Food Industry
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• Fruit and Vegetable Intake on Fast Food Consumption in Elementary School Children The problem of healthy eating is one of the burning issues in contemporary health care for children in particular because of obesity that affects many preschoolers.
• Behavior Towards Fast Food McDonalds’ in Malaysia
• The Causes for the Popularity of Fast Food Restaurants
• The Demand for Food Away From Home: Full-Service or Fast Food
• Fast Food Consumption Proposition
• Practical Steps to Enjoy Fast Foods Without Getting Obese
• Cue Fast Food Restaurant Business Plan Cue Fast Food Restaurant (CFFR) will seek to meet the growing demand for fast foods in the UAE. Fast food restaurants are an essential part of every urban economy.
• Fast Food Consumer Goods’ Marketing
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• Fast Food Consumption Among College Students
• Marketing Plan for the Fast Food Industry
• Causes for the Popularity of Fast Food Restaurants
• U.S. Fast Food Industry: Economic Growth This paper revealed that the U.S. fast food industry is profitable due to the provision of cheap and rapid dining options as well as the employment of innovations.
• Ethical Issues With Fast Food Companies
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• Providing Low-Quality Food for Customers of the Fast Food Industry
• Wendy’s Fast Food Restaurant: Marketing Research Wendy’s is an international chain of fast-food restaurants which operated in the US and in the international markets under the brand name of Wendy’s.
• Marketing Strategies for Fast Food Outlets
• The Reasons Why People Consume Fast Food
• Fast Food and Why It Should Be Banned
• Industry Analysis on the Global Fast-Food Industry The industry analysis constitutes scrutiny of the dominant economic features, competitive forces, key driving factors, and key success factors of the industry.
• The Controversies Surrounding the Issue of Raising the Wages of Fast Food Workers
• The Apparent and Hidden Dangers of Fast Food
• Do Fast Food Items Have Any Nutritional Value?
• How to Deal With Fast Food Obesity in Kids?
• Should Fast Foods Be Sold in Hospitals?
• Should Packed Fast Foods Have Health Warnings and Guidelines?
• Should Fast Foods Be Taxed More, and Why?
• Why Are Fast Foods So Prevalent in American Society?
• Should Fast-Food Advertising Be Banned?
• Why People Should Reduce Their Intake of Fast Foods, and How to Do It Safely?
• Should Fast Foods Being Considered Unhealthy for Human Intake?
• Some Funny Reasons You Should Stop Consuming Fast Foods
• How to Eat Fast Foods and Still Maintain Your Health Look and Body?
• Are Fast Food Restaurants the Leading Cause of Obesity?
• What Are Most Serious Negative Effects of Eating Fast Food?
• Why Are Americans Obsessed With Fast Food?
• How Do Fast Foods Affect the Health of Children?
• Are Homemade Foods Healthier Than Fast Foods, and Why?
• How Does Fast Food Affect Food Service Wages in the Us?
• What Are the Economic and Social Advantages of the Fast Food Industry?
• Does Fast Food Influence the Economic Situation of the State? How?
• Why Do People Continue Consuming Fast Food Even if They Know That It’s Unhealthy?
• What Is More Dangerous for Health – Smoking or Fast Food?

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