how to critique a quantitative research paper example

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Critical Appraisal for Health Students

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Appraisal of a Quantitative paper: Top tips

• Introduction

Critical appraisal of a quantitative paper (RCT)

This guide, aimed at health students, provides basic level support for appraising quantitative research papers. It's designed for students who have already attended lectures on critical appraisal. One framework for appraising quantitative research (based on reliability, internal and external validity) is provided and there is an opportunity to practise the technique on a sample article.

Please note this framework is for appraising one particular type of quantitative research a Randomised Controlled Trial (RCT) which is defined as 

a trial in which participants are randomly assigned to one of two or more groups: the experimental group or groups receive the intervention or interventions being tested; the comparison group (control group) receive usual care or no treatment or a placebo.  The groups are then followed up to see if there are any differences between the results.  This helps in assessing the effectiveness of the intervention.(CASP, 2020)

Support materials

• Framework for reading quantitative papers (RCTs)
• Critical appraisal of a quantitative paper PowerPoint

To practise following this framework for critically appraising a quantitative article, please look at the following article:

Marrero, D.G.  et al  (2016) 'Comparison of commercial and self-initiated weight loss programs in people with prediabetes: a randomized control trial',  AJPH Research , 106(5), pp. 949-956.

Critical Appraisal of a quantitative paper (RCT): practical example

• Internal Validity
• External Validity
• Reliability Measurement Tool

How to use this practical example 

Using the framework, you can have a go at appraising a quantitative paper - we are going to look at the following article:

Marrero, d.g.  et al  (2016) 'comparison of commercial and self-initiated weight loss programs in people with prediabetes: a randomized control trial',  ajph research , 106(5), pp. 949-956.,            step 1.  take a quick look at the article, step 2.  click on the internal validity tab above - there are questions to help you appraise the article, read the questions and look for the answers in the article. , step 3.   click on each question and our answers will appear., step 4.    repeat with the other aspects of external validity and reliability. , questioning the internal validity:, randomisation : how were participants allocated to each group did a randomisation process taken place, comparability of groups: how similar were the groups eg age, sex, ethnicity – is this made clear, blinding (none, single, double or triple): who was not aware of which group a patient was in (eg nobody, only patient, patient and clinician, patient, clinician and researcher) was it feasible for more blinding to have taken place , equal treatment of groups: were both groups treated in the same way , attrition : what percentage of participants dropped out did this adversely affect one group has this been evaluated, overall internal validity: does the research measure what it is supposed to be measuring, questioning the external validity:, attrition: was everyone accounted for at the end of the study was any attempt made to contact drop-outs, sampling approach: how was the sample selected was it based on probability or non-probability what was the approach (eg simple random, convenience) was this an appropriate approach, sample size (power calculation): how many participants was a sample size calculation performed did the study pass, exclusion/ inclusion criteria: were the criteria set out clearly were they based on recognised diagnostic criteria, what is the overall external validity can the results be applied to the wider population, questioning the reliability (measurement tool) internal validity:, internal consistency reliability (cronbach’s alpha). has a cronbach’s alpha score of 0.7 or above been included, test re-test reliability correlation. was the test repeated more than once were the same results received has a correlation coefficient been reported is it above 0.7 , validity of measurement tool. is it an established tool if not what has been done to check if it is reliable pilot study expert panel literature review criterion validity (test against other tools): has a criterion validity comparison been carried out was the score above 0.7, what is the overall reliability how consistent are the measurements , overall validity and reliability:, overall how valid and reliable is the paper.

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Writing Quantitative Research Studies

• Reference work entry
• First Online: 13 January 2019
• Cite this reference work entry

• Ankur Singh 2 ,
• Adyya Gupta 3 &
• Karen G. Peres 4  

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Summarizing quantitative data and its effective presentation and discussion can be challenging for students and researchers. This chapter provides a framework for adequately reporting findings from quantitative analysis in a research study for those contemplating to write a research paper. The rationale underpinning the reporting methods to maintain the credibility and integrity of quantitative studies is outlined. Commonly used terminologies in empirical studies are defined and discussed with suitable examples. Key elements that build consistency between different sections (background, methods, results, and the discussion) of a research study using quantitative methods in a journal article are explicated. Specifically, recommended standard guidelines for randomized controlled trials and observational studies for reporting and discussion of findings from quantitative studies are elaborated. Key aspects of methodology that include describing the study population, sampling strategy, data collection methods, measurements/variables, and statistical analysis which informs the quality of a study from the reviewer’s perspective are described. Effective use of references in the methods section to strengthen the rationale behind specific statistical techniques and choice of measures has been highlighted with examples. Identifying ways in which data can be most succinctly and effectively summarized in tables and graphs according to their suitability and purpose of information is also detailed in this chapter. Strategies to present and discuss the quantitative findings in a structured discussion section are also provided. Overall, the chapter provides the readers with a comprehensive set of tools to identify key strategies to be considered when reporting quantitative research.

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Centre for Health Equity, Melbourne School of Population and Global Health, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia

Ankur Singh

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Adyya Gupta

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Karen G. Peres

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Singh, A., Gupta, A., Peres, K.G. (2019). Writing Quantitative Research Studies. In: Liamputtong, P. (eds) Handbook of Research Methods in Health Social Sciences. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-5251-4_117

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Research essentials. How to critique quantitative research

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• DOI: 10.7748/ncyp.27.9.12.s14

QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH is a systematic approach to investigating numerical data and involves measuring or counting attributes, that is quantities. Through a process of transforming information that is collected or observed, the researcher can often describes a situation or event, answering the 'what' and 'how many' questions about a situation ( Parahoo 2014 ).

• Nursing Research / organization & administration*
• Nursing Research / standards
• Qualitative Research

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Bowling A Research methods in health, 4th edn. Maidenhead: Open University Press/McGraw-Hill Education; 2014

Gliner JA, Morgan GAMahwah (NJ): Lawrence Erlbaum Associates; 2000

Critical Skills Appraisal Programme checklists. 2021; https://casp-uk.net/casp-tools-checklists

Cresswell J, 4th edn. London: Sage; 2013

Grainger A Principles of temperature monitoring. Nurs Stand. 2013; 27:(50)48-55 https://doi.org/10.7748/ns2013.08.27.50.48.e7242

Jupp VLondon: Sage; 2006

Continuing professional development (CPD). 2021; http://www.hcpc-uk.org/cpd

London: NHS England; 2017 http://www.hee.nhs.uk/our-work/advanced-clinical-practice

Kennedy M, Burnett E Hand hygiene knowledge and attitudes: comparisons between student nurses. Journal of Infection Prevention. 2011; 12:(6)246-250 https://doi.org/10.1177/1757177411411124

Lindsay-Smith G, O'Sullivan G, Eime R, Harvey J, van Ufflen JGZ A mixed methods case study exploring the impact of membership of a multi-activity, multi-centre community group on the social wellbeing of older adults. BMC Geriatrics. 2018; 18 https://bmcgeriatr.biomedcentral.com/track/pdf/10.1186/s12877-018-0913-1.pdf

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Parahoo K Nursing research, principles, processes and issues, 3rd edn. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan; 2014

Polit DF, Beck CT Nursing research, 10th edn. Philadelphia (PA): Wolters Kluwer; 2017

Critiquing a published healthcare research paper

Angela Grainger

Nurse Lecturer/Scholarship Lead, BPP University, and editorial board member

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Research is defined as a ‘systematic inquiry using orderly disciplined methods to answer questions or to solve problems' ( Polit and Beck, 2017 :743). Research requires academic discipline coupled with specific research competencies so that an appropriate study is designed and conducted, leading to the drawing of relevant conclusions relating to the explicit aim/s of the study.

Relevance of research to nursing and health care

For those embarking on a higher degree such as a master's, taught doctorate, or a doctor of philosophy, the relationship between research, knowledge production and knowledge utilisation becomes clear during their research tuition and guidance from their research supervisor. But why should other busy practitioners juggling a work/home life balance find time to be interested in healthcare research? The answer lies in the relationship between the outcomes of research and its relationship to the determination of evidence-based practice (EBP).

The Health and Care Professions Council (HCPC) and the Nursing and Midwifery Council (NMC) require registered practitioners to keep their knowledge and skills up to date. This requirement incorporates being aware of the current EBP relevant to the registrant's field of practice, and to consider its application in relation to the decisions made in the delivery of patient care.

Advanced clinical practitioners (ACPs) are required to be involved in aspects of research activities ( Health Education England, 2017 ). It is for this reason that practitioners need to know how EBP is influenced by research findings and, moreover, need to be able to read and interpret a research study that relates to a particular evidence base. Reading professional peer-reviewed journals that have an impact factor (the yearly average number of citations of papers published in a previous 2-year period in a given journal is calculated by a scientometric index giving an impact factor) is evidence of continuing professional development (CPD).

CPD fulfils part of the HCPC's and the NMC's required professional revalidation process ( HCPC, 2021 ; NMC, 2019 ). For CPD in relation to revalidation, practitioners can give the publication details of a research paper, along with a critique of that paper, highlighting the relevance of the paper's findings to the registrant's field of practice.

Defining evidence-based practice

According to Barker et al (2016:4.1) EBP is the integration of research evidence and knowledge to current clinical practice and is to be used at a local level to ensure that patients receive the best quality care available. Because patients are at the receiving end of EBP it is important that the research evidence is credible. This is why a research study has to be designed and undertaken rigorously in accordance with academic and scientific discipline.

The elements of EBP

EBP comprises three elements ( Figure 1 ). The key element is research evidence, followed by the expert knowledge and professional opinion of the practitioner, which is important especially when there is no research evidence—for example, the most appropriate way to assist a patient out of bed, or perform a bed bath. Last, but in no way of least importance, is the patient's preference for a particular procedure. An example of this is the continued use of thermal screening dots for measuring a child's temperature on the forehead, or in the armpit because children find these options more acceptable than other temperature measuring devices, which, it is argued, might give a more accurate reading ( Grainger, 2013 ).

Understanding key research principles

To interpret a published research study requires an understanding of key research principles. Research authors use specific research terms in their publications to describe and to explain what they have done and why. So without an awareness of the research principles underpinning the study, how can readers know if what they are reading is credible?

Validity and reliability have long been the two pillars on which the quality of a research study has been judged ( Gliner and Morgan, 2000 ). Validity refers to how accurately a method measures what it is intended to measure. If a research study has a high validity, it means that it produces results that correspond to real properties, characteristics, and variations in the part of the physical or social world that is being studied ( Jupp, 2006 ).

Reliability is the extent to which a measuring instrument, for example, a survey using closed questions, gives the same consistent results when that survey is repeated. The measurement is considered reliable if the same result can be consistently achieved by using the same methods under the same circumstances ( Parahoo, 2014 ).

The research topic is known as the phenomenon in a singular sense, or phenomena if what is to be researched is plural. It is a key principle of research that it is the nature of the phenomenon, in association with the study's explicit research aim/s, that determines the research design. The research design refers to the overall structure or plan of the research ( Bowling, 2014 :166).

Methodology means the philosophy underpinning how the research will be conducted. It is essential for the study's research design that an appropriate methodology for the conduct and execution of the study is selected, otherwise the research will not meet the requirements of being valid and reliable. The research methods will include the design for data sampling, how recruitment into the study will be undertaken, the method/s used for the actual data collection, and the subsequent data analysis from which conclusions will be drawn (see Figure 2 ).

Quantitative, qualitative, and mixed-methods studies

A quantitative methodology is where the phenomenon lends itself to an investigation of data that can be numerically analysed using an appropriate statistical test/s. Quantitative research rests on the philosophical view that science has to be neutral and value-free, which is why precise measurement instruments are required ( Box 1 ). Quantitative research is influenced by the physical sciences such as mathematics, physics, and chemistry. The purpose of quantitative studies is to identify whether there are any causal relationships between variables present in the phenomenon. In short, a variable is an attribute that can vary and take on different values, such as the body temperature or the heart rate ( Polit and Beck, 2017 :748).

Quantitative studies can sometimes have a hypothesis. A hypothesis is a prediction of the study's outcome, and the aim of the study is to show either that the hypothesis is demonstrated as proven, or that it is not proven. Often a hypothesis is about a predicted relationship between variables. There are two types of variables, independent and dependent. An independent variable causes a change in the specific phenomenon being studied, while a dependent variable is the change in that phenomenon. The first example in Box 1 might help to clarify the difference.

An example of a hypothesis would be that older people who have a history of falls have a reduction in the incidence of falls due to exercise therapy. The causal relationship is between the independent variable— the exercise therapy—and the dependent variable—a falls reduction.

A qualitative methodology aims to explore a phenomenon with the aim of understanding the experience of the phenomenon from the perspective of those affected by it. Qualitative research is influenced by the social and not the physical sciences. Concepts and themes arise from the researcher/s interpretation of the data gained from observations and interviews. The collected data are non-numerical and this is the distinction from a quantitative study. The data collected are coded in accordance with the type of method being used in the research study, for example, discourse analysis; phenomenology; grounded theory. The researcher identifies themes from the data descriptions, and from the data analysis a theoretical understanding is seen to emerge.

A qualitative methodology rests on the philosophical view that science cannot be neutral and value-free because the researcher and the participants are part of the world that the research study aims to explore.

Unlike quantitative studies, the results of which can often be generalised due to the preciseness of the measuring instruments, qualitative studies are not usually generalisable. However, knowledge comparisons can be made between studies that have some similarity of focus. For example, the uncovering of causative or aggravating factors leading to the experiences of pain management for oncology patients, and for patients who have rheumatoid arthritis, or another long-term health problem for which pain is a characteristic feature. The validity of a qualitative study relates to the accurate representation of the data collected and analysed, and which shows that data has been saturated, meaning no new data or analysed findings are forthcoming. This is demonstrated in a clear data audit trail, and the study's findings are therefore seen as credible (see the second example in Box 1 ).

Box 1.Research study examples

• An example of a quantitative research study Kennedy and Burnett (2011) conducted a survey to determine whether there were any discernible differences in knowledge and attitudes between second- and third-year pre-registration nursing students toward hand-hygiene practices. The collected data and its subsequent analysis is presented in numerical tables and graphs, but these are supported by text explaining the research findings and how these were ascertained. For full details, see 10.1177/1757177411411124
• 2. An example of a qualitative research study Morse et al (2014) undertook an exploratory study to see what coping strategies were used by women awaiting a possible diagnosis of breast cancer. Direct quotes from the study participants appeared in the writing up of the research because it is a requirement of qualitative research that there be a transparent data audit trail. The research showed two things, both essential requirements of qualitative research. First, how the collected data were saturated to ensure that no data had been left inadequately explored, or that the data coding had been prematurely closed and, second, having captured the breadth and depth of the data findings, the researchers showed how the direct quotes were thematically coded to reveal the women's coping strategies. For full details, see 10.1188/14.ONF.350-359
• 3. An example of a mixed-methods study Lindsay-Smith et al (2018) investigated and explored the impact on elderly people's social wellbeing when they were members of a community that provided multi-activities. The study combined a quantitative survey that recorded participants' sociodemographic characteristics and measured participation in activities with a focus group study to gauge participants' perceptions of the benefits of taking part in the activities. For full details, see https://bmcgeriatr.biomedcentral.com/track/pdf/10.1186/s12877-018-0913-1.pdf

Sometimes a study cannot meet its stated research aims by using solely a quantitative or a qualitative methodology, so a mixed-methods approach combining both quantitative and qualitative methods for the collection and analysis of data are used. Cresswell (2013) explains that, depending on the aim and purpose of the study, it is possible to collect either the quantitative data first and analyse these, followed by the qualitative data and their analysis. This is an explanatory/exploratory sequence. Or the qualitative data may be collected first and analysed, followed by the quantitative; an exploratory/explanatory process. Whichever approach is used, the cumulative data analyses have to be synthesised to give a clear picture of the overall findings ( Box 1 ).

The issue of bias

Bias is a negative feature of research because it relates to either an error in the conceptualisation of the study due to the researcher/s adopting a skewed or idiosyncratic perspective, or to errors in the data analysis. Bias will affect the validity and reliability of a study, so it is important that any bias is eliminated in quantitative studies, or minimised and accounted for in qualitative studies.

Scientific and ethical approval

It should be noted that, before any research study proceeds, the research proposal for that study must have been reviewed and agreed to by a scientific and ethics committee. The purpose of a scientific and ethics committee is to see that those recruited into a study are not harmed or damaged, and that the study will contribute to the advancement of knowledge. The committee pays particular attention to whether any bias might have been introduced to a study. The researchers will have detailed the reason why the study is required, the explicit aim/s and purpose of the study, the methodology of the study, and its subsequent design, including the chosen research methods for the collection of the data (sampling and study recruitment), and what method/s will be used for data analysis.

A literature review is undertaken and the established (published) international literature on the research topic is summarised to highlight what is already known on the topic and/or to show any topic gaps that have not yet been researched. The British Educational Research Association (BERA) (2018) also gives guidance for research proposals that are deemed to be educational evaluation studies, including ‘close-practice’ research studies. Any ethical issues such as how people will be recruited into the study, the gaining of informed voluntary consent, any conflict of interest between the researcher/s and the proposed research topic, and whether the research is being funded or financially supported by a particular source will also have been considered.

Critiquing a published research paper

It is important to remember that a published paper is not the research report. It is a sample of the research report. The research author/s are presenting their research findings as a succinct summary. Only a passing mention might be made that ethical approval and voluntary informed consent were obtained. However, readers can be assured that all publications in leading journals with a good reputation are subject to an external peer review process. Any concerns about a paper's content will have been ironed out prior to publication.

It will be apparent that there are several particular research designs. The Critical Skills Appraisal Programme (CASP) provides online information to help the interpretation of each type of study, and does this by providing questions to help the reader consider and critique the paper ( CASP, 2021 ).

General points for critiquing a paper include the following:

• The paper should be readable and have explicit statements on the purpose of the research, its chosen methodology and design
• Read the paper thoroughly to get a feel for what the paper is saying
• Consider what the researcher/s says about any ethical issues and how these have been handled
• Look at how the data were collected and analysed. Are the explanations for these aspects clear? In a quantitative study, are any graphs or charts easy to understand and is there supporting text to aid the interpretation of the data? In a qualitative study, are direct quotes from the research participants included, and do the researcher/s show how data collected from interviews and observations were coded into data categories and themes?
• In a mixed-method study, how are the quantitative and qualitative analyses synthesised?
• Do the conclusions seem to fit the handling of the data's analysis?
• An important test of validity is whether the study's title relates well to the content of the paper and, conversely, whether the content reflect a corresponding match to the study's title.

Finally, remember that the research study could have been conducted using a different methodological design provided the research aims would still have been met, but a critique of the paper relates to what has been published and not what otherwise might have been done.

A Critique of Quantitative Research

People especially researchers erroneously assume that quantitative research is the most applicable in most situations. This assumption has been in existence for a long time. Such scholars are convinced that quantitative research is the most appropriate for policy making and enactment of laws especially those that are related to business operations. Other challenges that are facing the society are also assumed to be solvable through quantitative analysis.

To this end, the research by Kartiwi and MacGregor is perceived to be the solution for the problems faced by SMEs in attempts to adopt e-commerce marketing strategies. The study was conducted to identify the actual barriers facing SMEs. In this paper, the researcher critiqued the article reporting the findings of the study. It was found that the quantitative analysis had several shortcomings that impacted on the operations of SMEs as a whole.

A Critique of Quantitative Research Article

Introduction.

This research was conducted to identify barriers to the adoption of electronic commerce in small and medium-sized enterprises (herein referred to as SMEs) in developed and developing countries. This is a cross-country comparison which was carried out by Mira Kartiwi and Robert MacGregor from the Australian University of Wollongong in the year 2007.

Research Summary

The research was carried out to identify barriers hindering the adoption of e-commerce among SMEs. The study assumed a quantitative analysis methodology where data and report were compiled quantitatively. Empirical data was collected from two countries representing developed as well as developing countries.

This was from Sweden and Indonesia respectively. Characteristics of these countries were compared and conclusions were made from the responses of participants from the two countries. Barriers were also identified from literature in the field and a comparison was carried out between the two countries. The research was focused on small business enterprises and their unique features which were compared to those of other big companies.

This paper is a critique of the article reporting the findings of this comparative study. In this paper, the author is going to analyze several aspects of the article. These include the appropriateness and inappropriateness (where applicable) of employing quantitative research methodology as opposed to qualitative research design or using a combination of the two.

Barriers that face e-commerce in general have been adequately analyzed by the quantitative research carried on both developed as well as developing countries. The two countries used different approaches as far as e-commerce is concerned. Therefore making use of one form of analysis (in this case quantitative analysis) can be considered as inappropriate.

This is considering that the information gleaned from numbers varies from one region to the other and more importantly some significant aspects in the two countries cannot be tested or verified using numbers (Hall, 2012). For instance the developed country would describe its barriers as technical while in the real sense there were organizational barriers also.

Therefore if research is carried out to gather some information on these two countries there is need to make use of different types of data collection methods. In many cases, quantitative analysis has been used to find solutions for the two issues specified. These are the organizational and technical issues. These two categories are different and therefore continued research based on quantitative methodology comprises the accuracy of the data that is collected (Hall, 2012).

Reports indicate that SMEs are being affected significantly since their role in the economies is reducing at a high rate than it is expected. This is seen when gross domestic product (herein referred to as GDP) stagnates or slows down drastically (Blili & Raymond, 2009). To respond to this effect, the SMEs are embracing global markets to trade their products and services, a phenomenon referred to as e-commerce.

This move has radically changed the operation of most SME business operators. Many people find e-commerce to be a more appropriate and more convenient mean of trading using computer networks. This being the case, e-commerce can be regarded as a potential business trend across the globe. Many business operators are opting for it as opposed to the traditional physical market. This is despite the fact that in e-commerce, the entrepreneurs are not in a position to meet their clients on a face to face basis or physically.

The increasing popularity of e-commerce among SMEs is evident because reports indicate those business using internet services and other forms of technology in conducting their trade perform better than their counterparts who are not using these services (Bajaj & Nag, 2009). It seems that Kartiwi & MacGregor (2007) are very much aware of this fact. This is the reason why they found it important to conduct a study in this field.

SMEs across the globe are adopting this technology to address the barriers that are hindering them from fully contributing to the growth of GDP around the world. The barriers have been widely documented after extensive studies were conducted. Kartiwi & MacGregor (2007) make their contribution to the knowledge in this field by conducting the research and documenting their findings in this article. They note SMEs and other businesses from the developing countries have not fully embraced e-commerce for various reasons.

This is despite the fact that the entrepreneurs are fully aware (most of the times at least) of the potential benefits of using e-commerce. One such reason why they have not embraced the initiative is simply because e-commerce as a form of trade is not static spatially or chronologically. Rather, it is a dynamic and fluid phenomenon that varies from one geographical location to the other and from one time to the other. SMEs and other businesses seem to have difficulties keeping track of this dynamism. This is especially so because the organizational level and structure that is supposed to incorporate e-commerce are not efficient in most of these nations (Bajaj & Nag, 2009).

Characteristics of Small and Medium Enterprises from the Perspective of the Article

Small and medium enterprises around the world have various characteristics that set them apart from other forms of businesses. It is important to analyze how Kartiwi & MacGregor (2007) address this issue in their research. This is considering that a study in this field has to acknowledge these characteristics if its contribution to the field is to be taken seriously.

In addition to this, the paper needs to examine the problems that are associated with the barriers associated with SME operations in both developed and developing nations (as far as e-commerce is concerned). It is noted that various studies have made efforts to differentiate SMEs from other forms of enterprises using the characteristics of those SMEs as the yardstick. Based on the findings of other studies conducted in the past, a critical analysis was carried out by Kartiwi & MacGregor (2007) to identify the specific features that are perceived to be unique to SMEs in both developing and developed nations.

This was aimed at justifying the quantitative approach that the scholars were planning to adopt for the study. To this end, this author notes that the study by Kartiwi & MacGregor (2007) can be considered as a significant contribution to the field of SME and e-commerce in developed and developing nations in the world. This is given the fact that the two scholars explicitly acknowledge the variation between the experiences of SMEs and other forms of business enterprises as far as e-commerce is concerned based on the characteristics (Abdullah & Bakar, 2007).

From the findings of studies in this field, it is noted that features that are unique to SMEs can be classified into two broad categories. This is the approach scholars such as Abdullah & Bakar (2007) have adopted in examining SMEs in developed and developing nations in the world. The first category touches on the external features of the business enterprises while the other category looks at the internal features or traits. The latter revolves around management and operational issues including decision making and organizational structure.

This is for example those traits touching on who is managing the SMEs, the major stakeholders in SMEs, the profile of employees in the business as well as the strategies adopted to market the products of the company. The external features of SMEs include market components and the environment within which the business operates (Abdullah & Bakar, 2007).

Given the two categories of characteristics of SMEs from the perspective of various scholars in the field, this author is of the view that the use of quantitative research methodology by Kartiwi & MacGregor (2007) is not appropriate. At least, the scholars should have combined this methodology with a qualitative approach. It is not appropriate to subject both internal and external attributes of SMEs to one type of research methodology (in this case the quantitative research methodology). The importance contribution of a qualitative methodology is lost to the study as a result.

Research Questions

Research questions are the basis on which scholars and researchers address the research problem. In other words, it is noted that by formulating and answering the research questions, researchers would have inevitably addressed the objectives of the study (or the problem identified). When questions structured to address the research problem are not sufficient enough, the purpose of the research becomes ambiguous.

This happens when the conclusions are drawn fail to address the problems identified. The same case applies to a research hypothesis. The hypothesis needs to be based on sufficient evidence to address the identified variables put in place by the researcher (Glesne & Peshkin, 2008). To this end, it is noted that the research questions and the research hypothesis are related in more than one way. Both of them need to be stated clearly by the researcher at the beginning of the study.

With regard to the study conducted by Kartiwi & MacGregor (2007), this author will try to find out how well the research question and the research hypothesis were formulated. The author will also try to identify how well the research questions and the research hypothesis were addressed in the study.

The justification for a given hypothesis is to solve the research problem identified (Glesne & Peshkin 2008). In the hypothesis, the researcher tries to come up with a tentative statement that shows the likely relationship between two or more variables. The hypothesis may be based on a question which scrutinizes the research problem. The hypothesis statement tends to melt-down the problem into something that can be tested statistically. It can also be used to falsify the information handed in after the research.

This case applies to the study conducted by Kartiwi & MacGregor (2007) touching on the adoption of e-commerce among SMEs in developed and developing nations. In such a case, the researcher may contend that the performance of SMEs in most developing countries and some developed countries are declining due to their inability to incorporate e-commerce in their operations.

After the hypothesis is formulated, scientific methods are then used to make sure that the testable hypothesis revolving around the research problem formulated can either support or falsify the assumptions made (Glesne & Peshkin, 2008).

As already indicated, the study by Kartiwi & MacGregor (2007) focused on SMEs and was a comparison of SMEs in developed and developing countries. The comparison was meant to highlight the barriers that are supposed to be tackled. However it is noted that more than four years after the completion of the study, the barriers have not yet been tackled successfully. From this angle, this author can analyze the appropriateness (or lack of it thereof) of the study that was undertaken.

As a result of the methodology that was adopted to address the research questions, the authors were unable to make predictions on the barriers facing SMEs and adoption of e-commerce at the time. This is significant given that prediction is an important aspect of quantitative research. Given that it failed to predict, it can be concluded that the methodology adopted for study (quantitative) was therefore not reliable (Patton, 2009).

A researcher who becomes fixated on one particular methodology (in this case quantitative analysis) loses focus as a result of impartialities and other personal biases dominating the results. To avert such a scenario, researchers need to adopt an array of methodologies to find out whether they can arrive at the same results using different tactics.

In other words, the researcher can duplicate the study using a different methodology and compare the results. In this case, Kartiwi & MacGregor (2007) should have duplicated the study using a qualitative methodology and see whether the results obtained using the two methodologies are the same or not.

Given that the researchers failed to do this, it is little wonder then that SMEs are still stuck as far as adoption of e-commerce is concerned. No theory was formulated from the results that were made. It is noted that in an efficient quantitative research, a hypothesis needs to be drawn, tested and then theory drawn from it (Patton, 2009). But the quantitative analysis by the two researchers failed to achieve this. It just came up with half truths and half facts that did not lead to a solid solution.

A Critique of the Research Methodology Adopted

As already alluded to in this paper, the research methodology that was employed in the case study was insufficient simply because the researchers focused on one strategy which is quantitative research. A competent research that achieves the objectives set should ideally combine both quantitative and qualitative research methodologies (Creswell, 2007).

This is what most scholars call exploratory research where the researcher starts by exploring the environment within which the research is going to take place using qualitative research methods. The results acquired are then tested using quantitative data to identify the relationship between the various variables.

The first method is meant to gather qualitative data using various strategies such as interviewing retailers and other stakeholders involved in the SMEs business operations. Such questions are best structured from a qualitative point of view (Creswell, 2007). This is for example questions touching on the factors that discourage SMEs from adopting e-commerce in their business operations. Such questions are effectively tackled from a qualitative perspective. This is for example through the use of an interview schedule as opposed to a questionnaire.

A Critique of Data Collection Methods

In this section, this author is going to examine the various data collection methods vis-à-vis the method that was used by Kartiwi & MacGregor (2007). The effectiveness of these alternatives will be addressed in the context of the method used by the two scholars.

Quantitative research has been referred by many scholars as an anguish analysis which was used to solve barriers facing SMEs sectors. The data that was collected could have been enough to solve several major problems but the data analysis method that it was subjected to made it hard to address several issues adequately as a result of an “……….inadequate point of view” (Hadjimonolis, 2010: p. 22).

Before the study the features that were seen to hinder the incorporation of technology in the SME operations were analyzed. The data was then collected based on the assumption that the SMEs have common traits. Data collection can be conceptualized the process of gathering information in an attempt to have an in-depth knowledge of the variables identified. This is by using the standard and applicable methods to answer the research questions put in place to solve the research problem (Denzin & Lincoln, 2006).

Data collection is a process that is carried out in many fields ranging from social sciences to business studies. Methods used to collect the data vary from one field to the other but the results and ethics applied are meant to remain the same (Morse, 2008). As the author of this paper had stated earlier, the focus of this section is to critique the research methodology adopted in the study by Kartiwi & MacGregor (2007). The data collection method in this research will be critically analyzed.

Adoption of e-commerce by SMEs was the major concern of this quantitative research. It is noted that the study and the results were supposed to inform recommendations on the best strategies that SMEs can use to adopt e-commerce in the developing and developed countries. However, it is noted that the data collection method adopted in this study fails to bear fruits. The researchers made use of questionnaires to collect information from the respondents. The questionnaires were structured and addressed specific sections of the research problem.

This author argues for the adoption of both qualitative and quantitative data collection methods for a study of this magnitude. For instance both quantitative and qualitative data collection methods should be employed to come up with conclusions drawn from the research.

Integrity is paramount in any research as the results obtained are supposed to address both the research problem and the challenges faced on the ground. It does not matter whether the correct instrument was used to collect quantitative data or not but results from the method can be misleading.

Cases of misleading data are evident given that the other methods (apart from quantitative research methods) were not put into consideration. The collected data has various impacts on the research variables depending on the methods used. In this case, the quantitative data collection method adds a twist to the questions meant to solve the research problem (Templeton, 2011).

In most case studies, quantitative data collection methods tend to deviate from the questions that are supposed to address the research problem. For example the quantitative analysis in this article is not sufficient to address the questions touching on the barriers facing SMEs in both developed and developing nations. Inability to address the questions adequately has hindered SMEs from expanding rapidly enough due to misleading recommendations from studies conducted in the field.

Most of the questions were formulated based on information gathered from the literature in the field highlighting on the barriers facing SME ventures (Hall, 2012). This automatically misleads other researchers who embark on extensive investigations based on the literature and findings of other studies conducted in the past. The results tend to compromise the economic situation necessary for the efficient operation of the SMEs. Another method needs to be employed to investigate the real cause of the stagnant in the growth of SMEs especially in developing nations.

Inaccurate and unreliable data collection methods employed in quantitative research analysis has negative impacts on the economy and those who are taking part in the study itself. This is given the fact that if future researchers are compelled to replicate the same study, the results will vary significantly from those made in the initial study. This means that the quantitative data collection methods adopted by Kartiwi & MacGregor (2007) has possible errors ranging from inaccurate data collection to possible misleading conclusions drawn from the analysis of the results obtained (Hall, 2012).

This author is forced to go back and critically analyze the measures put in place to maintain integrity in data collection in this study. Accurate data collection methods ensure that the results will be accurate too. However this does not mean that during the study the measures put in place to ensure integrity was upheld were not given priority.

The fact is the data collected might have been analyzed in the wrong way. For example maybe other strategies should have been employed to collect the required data. Human thinking and psychological orientation are not well catered for when quantitative research is employed in isolation.

This is given that the quality of data collected may be compromised in one way or the other and that is why it is important to apply multiple data collection methods. This is to make sure that collection of data is perfected before proceeding to the next stage. Whether Kartiwi & MacGregor (2007) did this or not is debatable.

Most quantitative studies require large samples to improve the accuracy of the data collected. In this particular research, the two scholars are faced with logistical challenges inherent in the study design as far as gathering the large sample from the universe or study population is concerned. It is noted that historically such research methodologies have been known to bear fruits but with this particular study this author feels differently. The author notes that the continued use of such research designs in most academic fields today is degrading the quality of data obtained (Hadjimonolis, 2010).

With reference to the study by Kartiwi & MacGregor (2007), the SMEs can be regarded as illustrations of a situation where quantitative data collection and analysis was applied to make conclusions. But since then, no concrete solutions have been found for all businesses across the globe. This is as far as embracing e-commerce as a mode of transacting business is concerned.

The question is why is this so? What is the problem? The author of this paper argues that with the increased rate of innovations (driven by rapid increase in use of technology), the SMEs are supposed to embrace technology and take off as far as economic development is concerned. But this is not the case especially in the developing nations.

At this juncture, the reader will agree with this author that despite all the measures and mechanisms put in place to articulate the growth of SMEs, the research by Kartiwi and MacGregor failed to meet the criteria needed to address all the problems. The approach that was adopted to analyze the barriers faced was not adequate. This is because if the approach was adequate, the barriers would have faded away. This is as opposed to improving the growth of GDP in the respective nations.

It is to be noted that each country has a preferred set of research methods and data collection instruments. Instruments vary with research methods adopted. As a result of this, quantitative methods are not preferred in data collection in the developing countries (Hadjimonolis, 2010). This however may not be the case in the developed nations.

Appropriateness of Data Used in this Research

The author will now focus on the appropriateness of the data collected using the quantitative data collection methods. The main concern here is to critically analyze the intended consumer of the data and how it was made available to them. Another concern at this juncture is the criteria that were used to evaluate the data collected from the field. For instance, how many crises were resolved or addressed in attempts to tackle barriers facing the SMEs?

The approach was to find out the number of crises resolved and duration of time required to solve them at any given point. The compilation of data was to be based on the way the problem was tackled and not the measures needed to be put in place to catapult the business enterprise to success. The researcher also sought to analyze why a significant number of businesses are still stuck (Hadjimonolis, 2010).

The analysis of the barriers faced by SMEs needs to be carried out by assessing where the barriers originate from, methods that have been used to solve the problems at one point during the crisis and any challenges that were identified at the time. This gives an insight on why the data collected may not have been sufficient enough to come up with strategies to address the problems that are experienced by SMEs. The problems faced by the SMEs were dragging the GDP of most countries down.

Another inappropriate strategy that has undermined the quantitative analysis used is the amount of the data used or in other words the size of the sample used. The author of this paper concurs that this method requires large amounts of data and the larger the size of the sample the more accurate the results.

With reference to the research done by the two scholars, generalization of the findings will automatically lead to a generalization of the problem facing SMEs. With this in mind, it is noted that the specific problems will still dominate the SME sector and as a result drag the economy behind.

In the developed countries, the findings of the study may be generalized because SMEs in these countries are easily studied or analyzed and the problems identified are solved right away. But on the other hand, the barriers facing SMEs as far as embracing e-commerce is concerned are triggered by something else which needs to be analyzed using other research methods (Templeton, 2011). This will help solve the problems accordingly without necessarily making a comparison between the two economies.

It is noted that the SMEs in developed countries can greatly benefit if the research design incorporates other data collection and data analysis methods as opposed to quantitative analysis alone. This calls for variations in data collection methods which is paramount to make conclusions which may in turn solve the problem at hand with immediate effect.

Finally, it is to be noted that the data obtained in this research is entirely quantitative. It should be noted that qualitative data gives rise to refined results that are rich in information which is necessary to embark on actual implementation of strategies as opposed to the data obtained through quantitative means.

Description and Critical Analysis of Statistical Methods Used in the Study

Quantitative research methods assume that statistical analysis can only be carried out on quantitative data. This is wrong given that several statistical analyses can be carried out using qualitative data. For instance, the use of rating of scales acquired from qualitative data collection methods will lead to more accurate results as opposed to employing quantitative research methods throughout the study.

There is a difference between qualitative and quantitative data but both are used to address problems identified in the research. If both sets of data are compared in a given research, the comparison may help researchers who adopt scientific research designs come up with a solution to a particular problem (Creswell, 2009).

Another confusing aspect of quantitative researchers is the misconception that data acquired from quantitative data collection methods is to be solely used in quantitative research. This may be true but not in all cases. Some important information can be gleaned from qualitative research design which may require qualitative data. This is for example when trying to capture attitudes and opinions of stakeholders in the SME sector. Without this, the researchers may have wasted the opportunity to obtain significant information that would have adequately addressed the SME barriers.

Exploratory strategy is another approach that many successful studies have adopted and the results are recommendable. The process involves combination of both quantitative and qualitative research methodologies. The study begins by adopting the qualitative research design which tends to explore the potential problems in a given area. The researcher then embarks on quantitative research. Findings from quantitative research alone are not sufficient to make conclusions.

The author of this paper wonders how the information touching on the retailers was obtained. For example, the open ended questions (which were sufficiently structured in a qualitative format) for retailers and also for customers were aimed at getting an insight on most of the barriers facing SME operations. The findings from these questions have not been used anywhere given that the study is entirely based on the quantitative data collected.

Discussion of the Statistical Results

The results of this study need to be discussed and analyzed extensively so that the stakeholders can implement the necessary strategies. First, the problem with quantitative research is that it has no room for criticizing the findings made once the research is completed. This is the initial stage of criticizing research findings before any other researcher does so. The research design does not allow the scholars to make recommendations for further study.

It is expected that since this is a wide area, the quantitative research would make recommendations for the benefit of future studies in the field (Weaver, 2010). This has not been addressed at all in by Kartiwi and MacGregor in their study.

The analysis did not address the relevance of the topic to identify the barriers. This is given that the research was unable to come up with relevant data to tackle all the potential barriers making SMEs not to adopt e-commerce in their operations. The researcher briefly identified the purpose of the study well in advance. However, the research did not take into account the importance of reminding the reader about the questions that were supposed to be dealt with in the study.

The purpose of the study was to identify the barriers hindering SMEs from adopting e-commerce and making it part of their business operations. But the quantitative analysis that followed failed to revisit the problem. Instead the researchers seem to have shifted their focus and the reader is led to believe that the whole process is a move to break barriers in SMEs in general. This is as opposed to breaking barriers to help SMEs adopt the e-commerce strategy (Weaver, 2010).

The research further confuses the reader by failing to state whether the aim of the study was met as it was expected or whether the findings were surprising and not as per the initial expectations. The quantitative analysis adopts a complex format in presenting the findings to the targeted consumer. The reader or the target consumer of the study needs to understand the findings and graphical representations should be recorded to make it easier for the reader.

Many researchers contend that quantitative research is accurate but at to some extent it is misleading. This is especially so when it comes to the reporting and representation of statistical data. This is considering the way the researchers present the data in a confusing order. Normally, the reader would find it easy to comprehend the data if it is presented from the most important to the least important. In other words the quantitative analysis failed to present the findings based on the level of significance criteria.

This aspect enables the reader to understand statistical significance of the findings as well as the significance of the SMEs to the economy. This quantitative analysis seems to throw words here and there just because it is approaching the problems from a scientific point of view. The researchers seem to agree that they should not logically present information for the sake of the reader (Stouthamer & Bok, 2007).

The research by Kartiwi and MacGregor is not the first one in this field. Other studies have addressed similar problems in this field and that is the reason why a literature review needs to be carried out. After the review the researchers were required to formulate the hypothesis plausibly so that the results would automatically follow the format. This research has denied the reader the opportunity to see this. The idea is to allow the reader to have access to theoretical frameworks that have been used before digging for more information.

In most quantitative case studies, the researchers do not give the reader the chance to define and predict the identified questions. The study makes use of people on the ground and this limits the findings. This is given the fact that people tend to change and it is hard to predict their behavior. This compromises the data as well as the findings that are made. Quantitative methodologies used alone can never address this problem adequately. This is without the use of other methods to address the contradictions exhibited in negative and positive findings (Creswell, 2009).

Conclusions from the Quantitative Study

The conclusions made in this study are less descriptive . This being the case, they fail to provide the implications of the research itself. The author of this paper has stated earlier that the research by the two scholars does not proceed from the general to the specific. It does not add value to the knowledge that already exists in the field. For this reason, the SMEs are not aware of the next step to take to address the problems facing them.

The conclusions did speculate on the barriers that need to be addressed in an attempt to adapt e-commerce as an alternative strategy. But the end product is not clear enough to give the reader an idea on what the researchers are talking about. A take home message is supposed to be a lucid weighty phrase to convince the reader on the need for SMEs to adopt the e-commerce strategy (Hadjimonolis, 2010). However the researchers state that there are other studies which are in progress to address other limitations associated with SMEs and adoption of e-commerce.

A clear generalization of important findings has not been made. This was meant to go beyond the sample of used in the study and into the population. Research questions are related to the references made at the end of the study. This denied the researcher the opportunity to conclude and make substantial recommendations for current and future operations of SMEs.

Again the recommendations that were made applied to any SME striving to excel at any level with or without e-commerce. But there is need for further recommendations from a qualitative point of view to provide a deeper meaning to the research question.

Abdullah, A., & Bakar, A. (2007). Small and medium enterprises in Asian Pacific countries . Huntington: Nova Science Publishers.

Bajaj, K., & Nag, D. (2009). E-commerce: The cutting edge of business . New Delhi: Tata.

Blili, S., & Raymond, L. (2009). Information technology: Threats and opportunities for small medium-sized enterprises. International Journal of Information Management, 13 (6), 439-448.

Creswell, J. R. (2007). Research design: Qualitative and quantitative approaches . Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

Creswell, J. W. (2009). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative and mixed methods approach . California: SAGE Publications Inc.

Denzin, N., & Lincoln, Y. (2006). Handbook of qualitative research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

Glesne, C., & Peshkin, A. (2008). Becoming qualitative researchers: An introduction. White Plains: Longman Publishing.

Hadjimonolis, A. (2010). Barriers to innovation for SMEs in a small less developed country (Cyprus). Technovation, 19 (9), 561-570.

Hall, C. (2012). Profile of SMEs and SME issues- Singapore: Asia-Pacific Economies.

Kartiwi, M., & MacGregor, R. C. (2007). Electronic commerce adoption barriers in SMEs in developed and developing countries: A cross-country comparison. Journal of Electronic Commerce in Organizations, 5 (3), 35-51. London: McGraw-Hill.

Morse, J. (2008). Critical issues in qualitative research methods . Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

Patton, M. (2009). Qualitative evaluation and research method s. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

Stouthamer, L. M., & Bok, W. (2007). Data collection and management: A practical guide. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

Templeton, J. (2011).  The focus group: A strategic guide to organizing, conducting, and analyzing the focus group interview . Chicago, IL: Probus Publications.

Weaver, W. (2010). The Delphi forecasting method . Phi Delta Kappan , 52 (5), 267-273.

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Acute care nurses face critical challenges in their understanding and acceptance of spirituality and its role in care and treatment. It is important to identify the issues that are most critical in the development of effective spiritual care in the nursing environment. Recognizing the spiritual needs of individual patients is critical to their recovery and wellbeing, and nurses play a significant role in this process. The holistic nature of nursing practice and the ability to provide effective spiritual care to patients are key factors in achieving optimal patient care and treatment across disciplines. Therefore, it is imperative to address these concerns and their impact on nursing practice and future objectives.

Introduction

An article by Gallison et.al (2013) addresses the significance of spiritual care and the role of nurses in this practice. A quantitative study conducted by the authors indicates that there are significant factors associated with spiritual care and treatment of patients in a variety of nursing settings that impact patient outcomes (Gallison et.al, 2013). However, many concerns emphasize the role of spiritual differences in shaping how nurses provide care and treatment to their patients, particularly when spiritual support is necessary (Gallison et.al, 2013). In this capacity, the study aims to demonstrate that there are a number of weaknesses in spiritual care that must be improved upon in order to accommodate the needs of patients in an effective manner (Gallison et.al, 2013). It is expected that the framework for spiritual care will be supported by the ability of nurses to recognize the significance of spiritual care and its influence on patient wellbeing and related outcomes (Gallison et.al, 2013).

The article emphasizes the importance of developing new perspectives that support spiritual care and treatment for patients (Gallison et.al, 2013). In this context, there are a number of inherent weaknesses within the modern healthcare system that limit the ability to provide effective spiritual care, such as limited time to spend with patients and lack of support at the institutional level (Gallison et.al, 2013). It is imperative for nurses to recognize that patients often face significant challenges for which their faith is their saving grace; therefore, this faith must be addressed as a key component of the care and treatment plan (Gallison et.al, 2013). In many instances, it has been determined that patients do not receive the desired level of spiritual care during hospitalization that has a negative impact on their perceptions of the healthcare experience in this manner (Gallison et.al, 2013).

The article provides further evidence of the importance of spirituality in the care and treatment process by addressing the AACN Synergy Model for Patient Care, which includes factors that consider patient spirituality, characteristics, wellness, and the nurse-patient relationship (Gallison et.al, 2013). It is important to identify these factors and to determine how to best move forward to provide effective care and treatment to these patients using spiritual means (Gallison et.al, 2013). The literature review within the article provides important insights into spiritual care in nursing practice to improve patient outcomes, including the discussion of several studies designed to identify the problems associated with the lack of spiritual care in many patient care settings (Gallison et.al, 2013). This section also provides examples of spiritual reinforcements and support systems in the lives of patients who have been beneficial in this manner (Gallison et.al, 2013).

The chosen research method for the study was designed to describe the ability of nurses to understand and exercise full awareness of the spiritual needs of their patients (Gallison et.al, 2013). The study explored several clinical units at a large academic medical center in New York City, where nurses were asked to participate and to complete a Spiritual Care Practice Questionnaire to determine the level of spiritual care provided across units, along with the perceived barriers to providing spiritual care in these settings (Gallison et.al, 2013). Upon completion of these questionnaires, the data collection process was developed using descriptive statistics in various forms in order to formulate the study results and to draw conclusions (Gallison et.al, 2013).

The study results indicated that the population sample was relatively young and female, and that many participants found it difficult to spend sufficient time with patients to address their spiritual needs in the desired manner (Gallison et.al, 2013). In this context, it was observed that nurses possess very different perspectives regarding the application of spiritual care to their patients (Gallison et.al, 2013). Some nurses shared their experiences and found it very helpful to communicate with their patients in this manner (Gallison et.al, 2013). It was determined that nurses possess different levels of awareness of spiritual care in the practice setting; however, perhaps most important was that patient care needs of a spiritual nature are largely unrecognized or perhaps ignored (Gallison et.al, 2013). It is necessary to develop a stronger and more effective communication strategy as a means of exploring different approaches to spiritual care that will be effective in treating patients in this manner (Gallison et.al, 2013). Although there are a variety of different types of spiritual beliefs, nurses must be accepting of all beliefs so that the provision of spiritual care is not compromised in any way (Gallison et.al, 2013). This practice will support the ongoing development and growth of patient care and treatment so that it is optimized for all patients who seek spiritual guidance and care in the healthcare setting and beyond (Gallison et.al, 2013).

Unfortunately, many nurses do not possess the knowledge and skills that are necessary to provide adequate spiritual care and support (Chan, 2010). In this context, there are other factors that must be considered because this need remains largely unmet in many organizations (Chan, 2010). However, nurses’ perceptions of spiritual care are generally positive, even if they do not exercise this type of care in their daily routines (McSherry and Jamieson, 2011). Therefore, it is necessary to develop additional training methods that will enable nurses to improve their spiritual knowledge and understanding and the need to provide this type of support to nurses (McSherry and Jamieson, 2011). It is important to identify the specific nature and extent of spiritual care as a means of improving outcomes and reflecting upon spirituality as a form of care in nursing practice (Carson, 2011).

The article by Gallison et.al (2013) addresses some of the relevant issues associated with spiritual care and treatment of patients in nursing practice settings. It is imperative to develop new ideas and approaches which demonstrate that nurses understand and recognize the importance of spiritual care as part of their daily practice routine. The research study demonstrated that it is necessary to determine different approaches to improve patient care for those who seek spiritual guidance and support. Even if nurses are uncomfortable with the idea of providing spiritual care, they must demonstrate their willingness to cooperate with this requirement and to develop methods of working with patients that will satisfy this need. Under these conditions, it is likely that nurses will experience more satisfying outcomes when their patients achieve greater health and wellbeing upon discharge from the hospital or while under continuous treatment.

Carson, V.B. (2011). What is the essence of spiritual care? Journal of Christian Nursing, 28(3), 173.

Chan, M.F. (2010). Factors affecting nursing staff in practicing spiritual care. Journal of Clinical Nursing, 19(15-16), 2128-2136.

Gallison, B.S., Xu, Y., Jurgens, C.Y., and Boyle, S.M. (2013). Acute care nurses’ spiritual care practices. Journal of Holistic Nursing, 31(2), 95-103.

McSherry, W., and Jamieson, S. (2011). An online survey of nurses’ perceptions of spirituality and spiritual care. Journal of Clinical Nursing, 20(11-12), 1757-1767.

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• Volume 22, Issue 1
• How to appraise qualitative research
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• Calvin Moorley 1 ,
• Xabi Cathala 2
• 1 Nursing Research and Diversity in Care, School of Health and Social Care , London South Bank University , London , UK
• 2 Institute of Vocational Learning , School of Health and Social Care, London South Bank University , London , UK
• Correspondence to Dr Calvin Moorley, Nursing Research and Diversity in Care, School of Health and Social Care, London South Bank University, London SE1 0AA, UK; Moorleyc{at}lsbu.ac.uk

https://doi.org/10.1136/ebnurs-2018-103044

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Introduction

In order to make a decision about implementing evidence into practice, nurses need to be able to critically appraise research. Nurses also have a professional responsibility to maintain up-to-date practice. 1 This paper provides a guide on how to critically appraise a qualitative research paper.

What is qualitative research?

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Useful terms

Some of the qualitative approaches used in nursing research include grounded theory, phenomenology, ethnography, case study (can lend itself to mixed methods) and narrative analysis. The data collection methods used in qualitative research include in depth interviews, focus groups, observations and stories in the form of diaries or other documents. 3

Authenticity

Title, keywords, authors and abstract.

In a previous paper, we discussed how the title, keywords, authors’ positions and affiliations and abstract can influence the authenticity and readability of quantitative research papers, 4 the same applies to qualitative research. However, other areas such as the purpose of the study and the research question, theoretical and conceptual frameworks, sampling and methodology also need consideration when appraising a qualitative paper.

Purpose and question

The topic under investigation in the study should be guided by a clear research question or a statement of the problem or purpose. An example of a statement can be seen in table 2 . Unlike most quantitative studies, qualitative research does not seek to test a hypothesis. The research statement should be specific to the problem and should be reflected in the design. This will inform the reader of what will be studied and justify the purpose of the study. 5

Example of research question and problem statement

An appropriate literature review should have been conducted and summarised in the paper. It should be linked to the subject, using peer-reviewed primary research which is up to date. We suggest papers with a age limit of 5–8 years excluding original work. The literature review should give the reader a balanced view on what has been written on the subject. It is worth noting that for some qualitative approaches some literature reviews are conducted after the data collection to minimise bias, for example, in grounded theory studies. In phenomenological studies, the review sometimes occurs after the data analysis. If this is the case, the author(s) should make this clear.

Theoretical and conceptual frameworks

Most authors use the terms theoretical and conceptual frameworks interchangeably. Usually, a theoretical framework is used when research is underpinned by one theory that aims to help predict, explain and understand the topic investigated. A theoretical framework is the blueprint that can hold or scaffold a study’s theory. Conceptual frameworks are based on concepts from various theories and findings which help to guide the research. 6 It is the researcher’s understanding of how different variables are connected in the study, for example, the literature review and research question. Theoretical and conceptual frameworks connect the researcher to existing knowledge and these are used in a study to help to explain and understand what is being investigated. A framework is the design or map for a study. When you are appraising a qualitative paper, you should be able to see how the framework helped with (1) providing a rationale and (2) the development of research questions or statements. 7 You should be able to identify how the framework, research question, purpose and literature review all complement each other.

There remains an ongoing debate in relation to what an appropriate sample size should be for a qualitative study. We hold the view that qualitative research does not seek to power and a sample size can be as small as one (eg, a single case study) or any number above one (a grounded theory study) providing that it is appropriate and answers the research problem. Shorten and Moorley 8 explain that three main types of sampling exist in qualitative research: (1) convenience (2) judgement or (3) theoretical. In the paper , the sample size should be stated and a rationale for how it was decided should be clear.

Methodology

Qualitative research encompasses a variety of methods and designs. Based on the chosen method or design, the findings may be reported in a variety of different formats. Table 3 provides the main qualitative approaches used in nursing with a short description.

Different qualitative approaches

The authors should make it clear why they are using a qualitative methodology and the chosen theoretical approach or framework. The paper should provide details of participant inclusion and exclusion criteria as well as recruitment sites where the sample was drawn from, for example, urban, rural, hospital inpatient or community. Methods of data collection should be identified and be appropriate for the research statement/question.

Data collection

Overall there should be a clear trail of data collection. The paper should explain when and how the study was advertised, participants were recruited and consented. it should also state when and where the data collection took place. Data collection methods include interviews, this can be structured or unstructured and in depth one to one or group. 9 Group interviews are often referred to as focus group interviews these are often voice recorded and transcribed verbatim. It should be clear if these were conducted face to face, telephone or any other type of media used. Table 3 includes some data collection methods. Other collection methods not included in table 3 examples are observation, diaries, video recording, photographs, documents or objects (artefacts). The schedule of questions for interview or the protocol for non-interview data collection should be provided, available or discussed in the paper. Some authors may use the term ‘recruitment ended once data saturation was reached’. This simply mean that the researchers were not gaining any new information at subsequent interviews, so they stopped data collection.

The data collection section should include details of the ethical approval gained to carry out the study. For example, the strategies used to gain participants’ consent to take part in the study. The authors should make clear if any ethical issues arose and how these were resolved or managed.

The approach to data analysis (see ref  10 ) needs to be clearly articulated, for example, was there more than one person responsible for analysing the data? How were any discrepancies in findings resolved? An audit trail of how the data were analysed including its management should be documented. If member checking was used this should also be reported. This level of transparency contributes to the trustworthiness and credibility of qualitative research. Some researchers provide a diagram of how they approached data analysis to demonstrate the rigour applied ( figure 1 ).

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Example of data analysis diagram.

Validity and rigour

The study’s validity is reliant on the statement of the question/problem, theoretical/conceptual framework, design, method, sample and data analysis. When critiquing qualitative research, these elements will help you to determine the study’s reliability. Noble and Smith 11 explain that validity is the integrity of data methods applied and that findings should accurately reflect the data. Rigour should acknowledge the researcher’s role and involvement as well as any biases. Essentially it should focus on truth value, consistency and neutrality and applicability. 11 The authors should discuss if they used triangulation (see table 2 ) to develop the best possible understanding of the phenomena.

Themes and interpretations and implications for practice

In qualitative research no hypothesis is tested, therefore, there is no specific result. Instead, qualitative findings are often reported in themes based on the data analysed. The findings should be clearly linked to, and reflect, the data. This contributes to the soundness of the research. 11 The researchers should make it clear how they arrived at the interpretations of the findings. The theoretical or conceptual framework used should be discussed aiding the rigour of the study. The implications of the findings need to be made clear and where appropriate their applicability or transferability should be identified. 12

Discussions, recommendations and conclusions

The discussion should relate to the research findings as the authors seek to make connections with the literature reviewed earlier in the paper to contextualise their work. A strong discussion will connect the research aims and objectives to the findings and will be supported with literature if possible. A paper that seeks to influence nursing practice will have a recommendations section for clinical practice and research. A good conclusion will focus on the findings and discussion of the phenomena investigated.

Qualitative research has much to offer nursing and healthcare, in terms of understanding patients’ experience of illness, treatment and recovery, it can also help to understand better areas of healthcare practice. However, it must be done with rigour and this paper provides some guidance for appraising such research. To help you critique a qualitative research paper some guidance is provided in table 4 .

Some guidance for critiquing qualitative research

• ↵ Nursing and Midwifery Council . The code: Standard of conduct, performance and ethics for nurses and midwives . 2015 https://www.nmc.org.uk/globalassets/sitedocuments/nmc-publications/nmc-code.pdf ( accessed 21 Aug 18 ).
• Barrett D ,
• Cathala X ,
• Shorten A ,

Patient consent for publication Not required.

Competing interests None declared.

Provenance and peer review Commissioned; internally peer reviewed.

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