what is it like a research paper

• How to write a research paper

Last updated

11 January 2024

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With proper planning, knowledge, and framework, completing a research paper can be a fulfilling and exciting experience. 

Though it might initially sound slightly intimidating, this guide will help you embrace the challenge. 

By documenting your findings, you can inspire others and make a difference in your field. Here's how you can make your research paper unique and comprehensive.

• What is a research paper?

Research papers allow you to demonstrate your knowledge and understanding of a particular topic. These papers are usually lengthier and more detailed than typical essays, requiring deeper insight into the chosen topic.

To write a research paper, you must first choose a topic that interests you and is relevant to the field of study. Once you’ve selected your topic, gathering as many relevant resources as possible, including books, scholarly articles, credible websites, and other academic materials, is essential. You must then read and analyze these sources, summarizing their key points and identifying gaps in the current research.

You can formulate your ideas and opinions once you thoroughly understand the existing research. To get there might involve conducting original research, gathering data, or analyzing existing data sets. It could also involve presenting an original argument or interpretation of the existing research.

Writing a successful research paper involves presenting your findings clearly and engagingly, which might involve using charts, graphs, or other visual aids to present your data and using concise language to explain your findings. You must also ensure your paper adheres to relevant academic formatting guidelines, including proper citations and references.

Overall, writing a research paper requires a significant amount of time, effort, and attention to detail. However, it is also an enriching experience that allows you to delve deeply into a subject that interests you and contribute to the existing body of knowledge in your chosen field.

• How long should a research paper be?

Research papers are deep dives into a topic. Therefore, they tend to be longer pieces of work than essays or opinion pieces. 

However, a suitable length depends on the complexity of the topic and your level of expertise. For instance, are you a first-year college student or an experienced professional? 

Also, remember that the best research papers provide valuable information for the benefit of others. Therefore, the quality of information matters most, not necessarily the length. Being concise is valuable.

Following these best practice steps will help keep your process simple and productive:

1. Gaining a deep understanding of any expectations

Before diving into your intended topic or beginning the research phase, take some time to orient yourself. Suppose there’s a specific topic assigned to you. In that case, it’s essential to deeply understand the question and organize your planning and approach in response. Pay attention to the key requirements and ensure you align your writing accordingly. 

This preparation step entails

Deeply understanding the task or assignment

Being clear about the expected format and length

Familiarizing yourself with the citation and referencing requirements 

Understanding any defined limits for your research contribution

Where applicable, speaking to your professor or research supervisor for further clarification

2. Choose your research topic

Select a research topic that aligns with both your interests and available resources. Ideally, focus on a field where you possess significant experience and analytical skills. In crafting your research paper, it's crucial to go beyond summarizing existing data and contribute fresh insights to the chosen area.

Consider narrowing your focus to a specific aspect of the topic. For example, if exploring the link between technology and mental health, delve into how social media use during the pandemic impacts the well-being of college students. Conducting interviews and surveys with students could provide firsthand data and unique perspectives, adding substantial value to the existing knowledge.

When finalizing your topic, adhere to legal and ethical norms in the relevant area (this ensures the integrity of your research, protects participants' rights, upholds intellectual property standards, and ensures transparency and accountability). Following these principles not only maintains the credibility of your work but also builds trust within your academic or professional community.

For instance, in writing about medical research, consider legal and ethical norms , including patient confidentiality laws and informed consent requirements. Similarly, if analyzing user data on social media platforms, be mindful of data privacy regulations, ensuring compliance with laws governing personal information collection and use. Aligning with legal and ethical standards not only avoids potential issues but also underscores the responsible conduct of your research.

3. Gather preliminary research

Once you’ve landed on your topic, it’s time to explore it further. You’ll want to discover more about available resources and existing research relevant to your assignment at this stage. 

This exploratory phase is vital as you may discover issues with your original idea or realize you have insufficient resources to explore the topic effectively. This key bit of groundwork allows you to redirect your research topic in a different, more feasible, or more relevant direction if necessary. 

Spending ample time at this stage ensures you gather everything you need, learn as much as you can about the topic, and discover gaps where the topic has yet to be sufficiently covered, offering an opportunity to research it further. 

4. Define your research question

To produce a well-structured and focused paper, it is imperative to formulate a clear and precise research question that will guide your work. Your research question must be informed by the existing literature and tailored to the scope and objectives of your project. By refining your focus, you can produce a thoughtful and engaging paper that effectively communicates your ideas to your readers.

5. Write a thesis statement

A thesis statement is a one-to-two-sentence summary of your research paper's main argument or direction. It serves as an overall guide to summarize the overall intent of the research paper for you and anyone wanting to know more about the research.

A strong thesis statement is:

Concise and clear: Explain your case in simple sentences (avoid covering multiple ideas). It might help to think of this section as an elevator pitch.

Specific: Ensure that there is no ambiguity in your statement and that your summary covers the points argued in the paper.

Debatable: A thesis statement puts forward a specific argument––it is not merely a statement but a debatable point that can be analyzed and discussed.

Here are three thesis statement examples from different disciplines:

Psychology thesis example: "We're studying adults aged 25-40 to see if taking short breaks for mindfulness can help with stress. Our goal is to find practical ways to manage anxiety better."

Environmental science thesis example: "This research paper looks into how having more city parks might make the air cleaner and keep people healthier. I want to find out if more green spaces means breathing fewer carcinogens in big cities."

UX research thesis example: "This study focuses on improving mobile banking for older adults using ethnographic research, eye-tracking analysis, and interactive prototyping. We investigate the usefulness of eye-tracking analysis with older individuals, aiming to spark debate and offer fresh perspectives on UX design and digital inclusivity for the aging population."

6. Conduct in-depth research

A research paper doesn’t just include research that you’ve uncovered from other papers and studies but your fresh insights, too. You will seek to become an expert on your topic––understanding the nuances in the current leading theories. You will analyze existing research and add your thinking and discoveries.  It's crucial to conduct well-designed research that is rigorous, robust, and based on reliable sources. Suppose a research paper lacks evidence or is biased. In that case, it won't benefit the academic community or the general public. Therefore, examining the topic thoroughly and furthering its understanding through high-quality research is essential. That usually means conducting new research. Depending on the area under investigation, you may conduct surveys, interviews, diary studies , or observational research to uncover new insights or bolster current claims.

7. Determine supporting evidence

Not every piece of research you’ve discovered will be relevant to your research paper. It’s important to categorize the most meaningful evidence to include alongside your discoveries. It's important to include evidence that doesn't support your claims to avoid exclusion bias and ensure a fair research paper.

8. Write a research paper outline

Before diving in and writing the whole paper, start with an outline. It will help you to see if more research is needed, and it will provide a framework by which to write a more compelling paper. Your supervisor may even request an outline to approve before beginning to write the first draft of the full paper. An outline will include your topic, thesis statement, key headings, short summaries of the research, and your arguments.

9. Write your first draft

Once you feel confident about your outline and sources, it’s time to write your first draft. While penning a long piece of content can be intimidating, if you’ve laid the groundwork, you will have a structure to help you move steadily through each section. To keep up motivation and inspiration, it’s often best to keep the pace quick. Stopping for long periods can interrupt your flow and make jumping back in harder than writing when things are fresh in your mind.

10. Cite your sources correctly

It's always a good practice to give credit where it's due, and the same goes for citing any works that have influenced your paper. Building your arguments on credible references adds value and authenticity to your research. In the formatting guidelines section, you’ll find an overview of different citation styles (MLA, CMOS, or APA), which will help you meet any publishing or academic requirements and strengthen your paper's credibility. It is essential to follow the guidelines provided by your school or the publication you are submitting to ensure the accuracy and relevance of your citations.

11. Ensure your work is original

It is crucial to ensure the originality of your paper, as plagiarism can lead to serious consequences. To avoid plagiarism, you should use proper paraphrasing and quoting techniques. Paraphrasing is rewriting a text in your own words while maintaining the original meaning. Quoting involves directly citing the source. Giving credit to the original author or source is essential whenever you borrow their ideas or words. You can also use plagiarism detection tools such as Scribbr or Grammarly to check the originality of your paper. These tools compare your draft writing to a vast database of online sources. If you find any accidental plagiarism, you should correct it immediately by rephrasing or citing the source.

12. Revise, edit, and proofread

One of the essential qualities of excellent writers is their ability to understand the importance of editing and proofreading. Even though it's tempting to call it a day once you've finished your writing, editing your work can significantly improve its quality. It's natural to overlook the weaker areas when you've just finished writing a paper. Therefore, it's best to take a break of a day or two, or even up to a week, to refresh your mind. This way, you can return to your work with a new perspective. After some breathing room, you can spot any inconsistencies, spelling and grammar errors, typos, or missing citations and correct them. 

• The best research paper format 

The format of your research paper should align with the requirements set forth by your college, school, or target publication. 

There is no one “best” format, per se. Depending on the stated requirements, you may need to include the following elements:

Title page: The title page of a research paper typically includes the title, author's name, and institutional affiliation and may include additional information such as a course name or instructor's name. 

Table of contents: Include a table of contents to make it easy for readers to find specific sections of your paper.

Abstract: The abstract is a summary of the purpose of the paper.

Methods : In this section, describe the research methods used. This may include collecting data , conducting interviews, or doing field research .

Results: Summarize the conclusions you drew from your research in this section.

Discussion: In this section, discuss the implications of your research . Be sure to mention any significant limitations to your approach and suggest areas for further research.

Tables, charts, and illustrations: Use tables, charts, and illustrations to help convey your research findings and make them easier to understand.

Works cited or reference page: Include a works cited or reference page to give credit to the sources that you used to conduct your research.

Bibliography: Provide a list of all the sources you consulted while conducting your research.

Dedication and acknowledgments : Optionally, you may include a dedication and acknowledgments section to thank individuals who helped you with your research.

• General style and formatting guidelines

Formatting your research paper means you can submit it to your college, journal, or other publications in compliance with their criteria.

Research papers tend to follow the American Psychological Association (APA), Modern Language Association (MLA), or Chicago Manual of Style (CMOS) guidelines.

Here’s how each style guide is typically used:

Chicago Manual of Style (CMOS):

CMOS is a versatile style guide used for various types of writing. It's known for its flexibility and use in the humanities. CMOS provides guidelines for citations, formatting, and overall writing style. It allows for both footnotes and in-text citations, giving writers options based on their preferences or publication requirements.

American Psychological Association (APA):

APA is common in the social sciences. It’s hailed for its clarity and emphasis on precision. It has specific rules for citing sources, creating references, and formatting papers. APA style uses in-text citations with an accompanying reference list. It's designed to convey information efficiently and is widely used in academic and scientific writing.

Modern Language Association (MLA):

MLA is widely used in the humanities, especially literature and language studies. It emphasizes the author-page format for in-text citations and provides guidelines for creating a "Works Cited" page. MLA is known for its focus on the author's name and the literary works cited. It’s frequently used in disciplines that prioritize literary analysis and critical thinking.

To confirm you're using the latest style guide, check the official website or publisher's site for updates, consult academic resources, and verify the guide's publication date. Online platforms and educational resources may also provide summaries and alerts about any revisions or additions to the style guide.

Citing sources

When working on your research paper, it's important to cite the sources you used properly. Your citation style will guide you through this process. Generally, there are three parts to citing sources in your research paper: 

First, provide a brief citation in the body of your essay. This is also known as a parenthetical or in-text citation. 

Second, include a full citation in the Reference list at the end of your paper. Different types of citations include in-text citations, footnotes, and reference lists. 

In-text citations include the author's surname and the date of the citation. 

Footnotes appear at the bottom of each page of your research paper. They may also be summarized within a reference list at the end of the paper. 

A reference list includes all of the research used within the paper at the end of the document. It should include the author, date, paper title, and publisher listed in the order that aligns with your citation style.

10 research paper writing tips:

Following some best practices is essential to writing a research paper that contributes to your field of study and creates a positive impact.

These tactics will help you structure your argument effectively and ensure your work benefits others:

Clear and precise language:  Ensure your language is unambiguous. Use academic language appropriately, but keep it simple. Also, provide clear takeaways for your audience.

Effective idea separation:  Organize the vast amount of information and sources in your paper with paragraphs and titles. Create easily digestible sections for your readers to navigate through.

Compelling intro:  Craft an engaging introduction that captures your reader's interest. Hook your audience and motivate them to continue reading.

Thorough revision and editing:  Take the time to review and edit your paper comprehensively. Use tools like Grammarly to detect and correct small, overlooked errors.

Thesis precision:  Develop a clear and concise thesis statement that guides your paper. Ensure that your thesis aligns with your research's overall purpose and contribution.

Logical flow of ideas:  Maintain a logical progression throughout the paper. Use transitions effectively to connect different sections and maintain coherence.

Critical evaluation of sources:  Evaluate and critically assess the relevance and reliability of your sources. Ensure that your research is based on credible and up-to-date information.

Thematic consistency:  Maintain a consistent theme throughout the paper. Ensure that all sections contribute cohesively to the overall argument.

Relevant supporting evidence:  Provide concise and relevant evidence to support your arguments. Avoid unnecessary details that may distract from the main points.

Embrace counterarguments:  Acknowledge and address opposing views to strengthen your position. Show that you have considered alternative arguments in your field.

7 research tips 

If you want your paper to not only be well-written but also contribute to the progress of human knowledge, consider these tips to take your paper to the next level:

Selecting the appropriate topic: The topic you select should align with your area of expertise, comply with the requirements of your project, and have sufficient resources for a comprehensive investigation.

Use academic databases: Academic databases such as PubMed, Google Scholar, and JSTOR offer a wealth of research papers that can help you discover everything you need to know about your chosen topic.

Critically evaluate sources: It is important not to accept research findings at face value. Instead, it is crucial to critically analyze the information to avoid jumping to conclusions or overlooking important details. A well-written research paper requires a critical analysis with thorough reasoning to support claims.

Diversify your sources: Expand your research horizons by exploring a variety of sources beyond the standard databases. Utilize books, conference proceedings, and interviews to gather diverse perspectives and enrich your understanding of the topic.

Take detailed notes: Detailed note-taking is crucial during research and can help you form the outline and body of your paper.

Stay up on trends: Keep abreast of the latest developments in your field by regularly checking for recent publications. Subscribe to newsletters, follow relevant journals, and attend conferences to stay informed about emerging trends and advancements. 

Engage in peer review: Seek feedback from peers or mentors to ensure the rigor and validity of your research . Peer review helps identify potential weaknesses in your methodology and strengthens the overall credibility of your findings.

• The real-world impact of research papers

Writing a research paper is more than an academic or business exercise. The experience provides an opportunity to explore a subject in-depth, broaden one's understanding, and arrive at meaningful conclusions. With careful planning, dedication, and hard work, writing a research paper can be a fulfilling and enriching experience contributing to advancing knowledge.

How do I publish my research paper? 

Many academics wish to publish their research papers. While challenging, your paper might get traction if it covers new and well-written information. To publish your research paper, find a target publication, thoroughly read their guidelines, format your paper accordingly, and send it to them per their instructions. You may need to include a cover letter, too. After submission, your paper may be peer-reviewed by experts to assess its legitimacy, quality, originality, and methodology. Following review, you will be informed by the publication whether they have accepted or rejected your paper. 

What is a good opening sentence for a research paper? 

Beginning your research paper with a compelling introduction can ensure readers are interested in going further. A relevant quote, a compelling statistic, or a bold argument can start the paper and hook your reader. Remember, though, that the most important aspect of a research paper is the quality of the information––not necessarily your ability to storytell, so ensure anything you write aligns with your goals.

Research paper vs. a research proposal—what’s the difference?

While some may confuse research papers and proposals, they are different documents. 

A research proposal comes before a research paper. It is a detailed document that outlines an intended area of exploration. It includes the research topic, methodology, timeline, sources, and potential conclusions. Research proposals are often required when seeking approval to conduct research. 

A research paper is a summary of research findings. A research paper follows a structured format to present those findings and construct an argument or conclusion.

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Writing Guides  /  How to Write the Perfect Research Paper (Professors Guide)

How to Write the Perfect Research Paper (Professors Guide)

A research paper is an in-depth piece of writing about any subject. At almost every level of school, you will be asked to complete a research paper that shows that you understand not just how to write but also how to find information from various sources.

What makes a research paper different from other types of essays? The main difference is that a research paper does require you to investigate what other people have written about the subject.

You might still come up with an argument or thesis statement in a research paper, but the content must be based on an abundance of primary and/or secondary sources.

Want to learn more about how to write a research paper? You have come to the right place!

What is a Research Paper?

A research paper is a type of expository essay , which is written in the third person and explains a topic thoroughly for the reader.

A research paper is not defined by what you are writing about but how.

You are not trying to persuade your reader to take action, as you would in a persuasive essay.

Likewise, you are not trying to describe an event, as in a descriptive essay .

Nor are you telling a story as with a narrative essay .

Even if you structure your essay like a cause and effect  or a compare and contrast paper, the research itself is what defines a research paper.

Tips For Writing Your Research Paper

• Writing a research paper seems daunting a first, but once you get the hang of it, you will be able to write them a lot easier.
• Give yourself a lot of time. If you struggle with time management, learn how to better manage your time by avoiding distractions, and setting aside some time each day to work. Use the Pomodoro Technique to see if that helps you to remain focused on your research paper.
• Make sure you get clarification on what the instructor expects. In particular, ask about:
• How many words?
• How many pages?
• Is there anything you cannot write about?
• Are there specific topics you can choose from?
• Are there any suggestions for topics?
• APA is commonly used in psychology and other social science classes.
• MLA is commonly used in the language arts and art history
• Chicago is commonly used in history

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How to Write Your Research Paper

Take a deep breath. It helps to break down the process of writing the research paper into several steps rather than leaping right into it.

Each step can be followed in order.

1. Pick a Topic

If you have trouble choosing a topic, ask your instructor for help, or refer to the helpful list below.

Do the research and take notes

• a. Use online and academic databases
• b. Use libraries
• c. Conduct interviews
• d. TAKE NOTES

The importance of taking notes during the research process cannot be underestimated. After all, the research defines the research paper. The better your notes, the better your paper.

2.  Organize Your Notes

Organizing your notes according to author or theme will help you prevent accidental plagiarism.

Also, when you organize your notes, you will see themes emerge in your research. Discovering the themes will help you outline your research paper, and create more flow when you write.

When you identify themes in the research, you will also have an easier time coming up with your thesis statement.

3.  Write an Outline

When you have all your themes ready, it is time for you to envision the structure of your research paper.

Choose three of the most common or important themes from your research.

Then, create an outline according to the standard academic outline format:

I.  Introduction

a.  Body Topic 1

b.  Body Topic 2

c.  Body Topic 3

II.  Conclusion

4.  Write a Rough Draft

A rough draft accomplishes two goals. First, it transforms your outline into an essay.

Second, it gives you the opportunity to clean up any messes you made later so when you turn in your paper, it is in even better condition.

5.  Rewrite into the Final Draft

Polishing your rough draft involves making sure your arguments are logical and your ideas are organized. If you worked from an outline, chances are your paper is already logical and all you need is to clean up the prose.

Ask a friend or a writing tutor for help, because sometimes it helps to get a fresh pair of eyes on your paper.

 6.  Format Your Paper

Put your finished draft into the appropriate format (such as APA, MLA, or Chicago).

7.  Proofreading and Editing

Once your final draft is complete, it is important to proofread and edit your work. This step helps with getting your paper to a point where it is free of grammatical errors, spelling mistakes, and formatting issues. Plus, proofreading helps to improve the clarity and coherence of your arguments. You can usually get help from a peer, a tutor, or your professor, if you’re unsure of how to review your paper for any mistakes you might have missed.

8.  Adding Visuals and Appendices

Visuals such as charts, graphs, and images can help with the understanding of your research. Be sure that all visuals are properly labeled and referenced in the text. If your research includes extensive data or supplementary material, you should add an appendix section at the end of your paper.

9.  Writing an Abstract

An abstract is a brief summary of your research paper, usually 150-250 words. It should cover the main objectives, methodology, results, and conclusions of your research. An abstract lets readers quickly grasp the purpose and results of your paper.

How to Do Research

The research itself is the most important but also the trickiest part of the research paper. It is something that many students struggle with them they first start writing.

If you are new to the process of doing research, the best thing you can do is to ask a librarian for help. In some cases, your library will have a class that can show you the best way to search for information in academic databases.

Use keywords. If your topic is Persian history, then your keywords are easy: “Persian History.” If you want to narrow down the search, then you will simply type in additional keywords.

How to Take Good Notes

Taking notes during the research process is critical. You cannot write your paper without referring to the research— otherwise it would not be a research paper.

Therefore, learn how to take good notes.

There are two ways you can take notes: by source, or by theme.

Taking Notes By Source

This method of taking notes is best used if your sources go really into depth about the subject.

It is also a good method to use when you know very little about the subject matter, and are basically starting the from scratch.

To take notes by each source, go through one source at a time and do the following two things:

• Author(s) name
• Title of article
• Title of journal or book
• Page numbers
• Quote or paraphrase as you read, making sure to write down the page number.

Repeat for each source you find. That’s it. It may take a while when you have a lot of sources, but the process is relatively simple.

Taking Notes By Theme

Taking notes by theme is a process best used when you already have some basic ideas about what you will find, or even already have an outline prepared.

Also, this method can be helpful when you have several sources that treat the subject relatively superficially, allowing you to quickly skim them for the essential and most important data such as statistics or the results of original experimental research.

To take notes by theme, do the following:

• Cull facts and information from each source, entering it into each thematic category in your outline.

Most people prefer to do their research on their computer, but if you want to use pen and paper that is fine too.

Where to Get Source Information

Your librarian can help you locate information according to your chosen subject.

You can start easily with online searches. Online searches start with Google, Google Scholar, and other popular search engines you can access easily with your browser.

The benefits of an online search include:

• Familiarizing yourself with the subject
• Being able to come up with some research questions and a hypothesis based on your preliminary research
• There are some credible sources online.

However useful it can be, online research has its drawbacks. The drawbacks of online research include:

• Too much information
• Too few credible sources
• Some professors will not allow online sources

Academic Databases

Academic databases are only available through university libraries or to members.

Some of the most common databases include EBSCO, JSTOR, ProQuest, Questia, and PubMed.

The benefits of using academic databases include;

• Access to credible peer-reviewed sources
• Narrow to a specific time period
• Narrow to a specific journal
• Access to primary sources

The drawbacks of using academic databases include:

• They are only available through subscribers like universities and other educational institutions
• They require advanced research skills and training
• They are not good for learning the basics of a subject.

Are Your Sources Credible?

By now, you will have heard that there is a big difference between credible and non-credible, or unreliable, sources.

You may have also heard that you should use peer-reviewed sources.

Telling the difference between a good and bad source can be challenging, especially with all the bogus academic journals out there.

Just because something has the word “Journal” in the title does not make it a credible or peer-reviewed source.

Peer-Reviewed Sources

The term “ peer-reviewed ” means that the article has been read and critiqued by other academics, professionals, or “experts” in the same field.

If you have doubts as to the veracity of the source, simply check the name of the journal to make sure it is a genuine peer-reviewed journal as opposed to a fake peer-reviewed journal.

Why is Peer-Reviewed Important?

When writing a research paper, it is not enough just to say that you read something on the Internet.

On the Internet, anyone can say anything they want; but what they say is not necessarily true.

The goal of a research paper is to find the truth about a subject and then writing about what you have learned.

How do you know the truth?

The question “What is Truth?” is a good topic for a research paper on philosophy!

Practically speaking, though, you cannot rely on bloggers or even newspapers to count as “expert” sources.

When you are writing a research paper, you need to discover what academics, scholars, or recognized leaders in the field have come up with. The whole point of the research paper is doing the research, and doing the research means reading scholarly, peer-reviewed articles or books.

The reason why scholars and academics are considered “experts” is that they dedicate their lives to studying a specific issue, person, or time period. They are not just any blogger with an opinion.

When you write your research paper, you can add your own conclusions or opinions, but what really counts is how to can synthesize credible information.

If your instructor said it was alright to use Internet sources, then great! But if you have been asked to use academic, peer-reviewed sources only, you have to find those sources in an academic database or Google Scholar .

Research Paper Format

As with other types of academic essay, a research paper will have a certain structure or format.

Some research papers are written in a particular style such as MLA, APA, or Chicago. Always ask your instructor what they prefer or expect.

Basic Format

III.  Conclusion

Expanded Format

a.  Lead-in passage

b.  Thesis statement

II.  Body Section

a.  Topic sentence

b.  Supporting evidence

i.  Quotes or paraphrase

c.  Explanation of supporting evidence

III.  Body Section

IV.  Body Section

V.  Conclusion

a.  The research shows that…(here you can repeat the thesis statement)

Research Paper Outline Example

I. Introduction

A. The first electric car was actually invented in the early 1800s by a Scottish man named Robert Anderson (“Timeline: History of the Electric Car,” 2009).

B. During the twentieth century, the oil and gas industry hindered the emergence of new electric car technologies.

C. The future of electric cars remains to be seen, although it is a significant way of reducing dependence on fossil fuels.

Thesis: Electric cars are an important way to reduce dependence on fossil fuels, thereby reducing greenhouse gas emissions and improving national security.

II. The history of electric cars.

A. Inventors in the United Kingdom, Hungary, the Netherlands, and the United States all devised different versions of an electric car (United States Department of Energy, 2021).

B. Ford’s Model T “dealt a blow to the electric car,” (United States Department of Energy, 2021, p. 1).

III. The rise and fall of oil and gas

A. After it was clear that the internal combustion engine could be mass-produced, it was also clear that the extraction of fossil fuels would be worth the effort.

B. Gas-dependent vehicles dominated the motor vehicle landscape throughout the 20 th century.

C. Starting with the oil embargo of the 1970s, it became clear that dependence on fossil fuels was creating global political and economic instability.

D. The environmental problems that result from the use of fossil fuels have driven interest in electric car research and development.

IV. The present and future scenario.

A. One of the first new-generation electric cars was General Motor’s EV1 (United States Department of Energy, 2021).

B. The Toyota Prius was the first commercially viable and commercially successful hybrid (gas and electric) car on the market (United States Department of Energy, 2021).

C. Tesla makes the first luxury all-electric car, kick-starting a revolution in electric car consumer demand and electric car technology.

V. Conclusion

Research shows that while the twentieth century was the century of dependence on fossil fuels, the twenty-first century is the era of the electric car. Electric cars will greatly improve national security and promote energy independence. Moreover, electric cars will reduce dependence on fossil fuels, which will reduce greenhouse gas emissions. While not a panacea, electric cars are one of the most important features of a global strategy to improve the environment and promote world peace.

“Timeline: History of the Electric Car,” (2009). PBS. http://www.pbs.org/now/shows/223/electric-car-timeline.html

United States Department of Energy (2021). The history of the electric car. https://www.energy.gov/articles/history-electric-car

Research Paper Cover Page

Apa style research paper cover page.

Here is a sample of what an APA research paper cover page will look like:

Explanation

• Note: for APA 7 student papers, a header with a title in all caps (abbreviated if long) is not needed—for a professional paper it is.
• The full title of the paper, centered and bolded.
• The author’s name, centered.
• The institutional affiliation, centered.
• The course name and number, centered.
• The instructor’s name, centered.
• The due date, centered.
• Everything double-spaced

MLA Style Research Cover Page

Here is what your MLA cover page will look like (notice that it is not a separate page)

• The author’s name, instructor’s name, course name and number, and the due date, aligned to the left.
• The title of the paper, centered, after the date.
• Note, everything is double-spaced and there is no additional gap between the information in the top left corner, the title, or the start of the paper.

Chicago Style Research Cover Page

Here is what a Chicago style cover page may look like:

• Note:  the title is all caps at the top with a gap between it and author info
• No double-space

Research Paper Topics

• What Sparked the Enlightenment in Europe?
• Research the history of Vietnam
• The history of the African slave trade prior to the trans-Atlantic slave trade.
• The history of global piracy, from Phoenicia to Singapore.
• Factors shaping the Age of Exploration.

English/Literature

• What do scholars have to say about James Joyce’s Ulyssses ?
• Research the biography of Virginia Woolf and describe how her life influenced her writing.
• What is the influence of American modern literature on the literature of the world, focusing on one region?
• Research one nursing theory of your choice.
• What are the differences between micro, mezzo, and macro-level theories?
• Research the etiology, symptoms, and treatment options for diabetes.
• Trace the history of nursing informatics.
• Research the history of behaviorism and trace its impact on the field of psychology.
• Contextualize the writings of Sigmund Freud. To what degree was he influenced by historical, cultural, political, and social trends?
• Explain the causes and symptoms of schizophrenia in a research paper.
• Research the controversy over treating childhood psychiatric disorders with medications.
• Choose a developmental theory and research its origin and potential application to therapy.

Art and Music

• Explain the rise of German expressionism, in film, art, or both.
• Describe the underground music scene in Tokyo as it emerged in the 1960s, showing how it has evolved since to influence the world.
• Write a research paper on the religious art of either Italy or the Netherlands.
• What role did the visual arts play in the cultures of West Africa?

Current Event Topics

• The Impact of COVID-19 on Education Systems
• Can Regulation Fix the Cryptocurrency Market?
• Climate Change Deep Dive:  What’s Really Going On
• Free Speech on Social Media and Modern Political Campaigns
• Mental Health and Mass Shootings:  What is the Relationship?

Technology and Innovation

• The Evolution of Artificial Intelligence: Opportunities and Ethical Dilemmas
• Can Electric Vehicles Really Replace ICE Vehicles?
• The Impact of 5G Technology on Communities, Communication and IoT
• The Challenges of Cybersecurity in the 21 st Century
• What is the Trilemma—and Does Kaspa Solve the It?

Health and Medicine

• Telemedicine: A Virtual Shift in Healthcare Post-COVID-19
• How Diet and Exercise Impact Diabetes
• Traditional Chinese Medicine on the Rise
• Regulatory Capture:  Ethical Challenges in the CDC and FDA
• How to Obtain Personalized Medicine Today

Social Sciences and Education

• The Impact of Remote Learning on Student Performance
• What are Social Media’s Effects on Mental Health and Society?
• Can Education Really Solve the Problem of Social Inequality?
• The Influence of Culture on Leadership Styles
• The Intersection of History, Media and Psychology in Advertising

Environmental Science and Sustainability

• What are 15 Minute Cities?
• Future Prospects in Renewable Energy
• The Effects of Pollution on Biodiversity and Ecosystems
• Sustainable Agriculture:  Best Practices
• The WEF and Yuval Harari:  Visions for the Future

Business and Economics

• Uber and Amazon Flex:  Pros and Cons of the Gig Economy
• Case Studies in Corporate Social Responsibility:  Successes and Failures
• The Future of Work in View of Automation and AI Machine Learning
• Behavioral Economics: How Emotions Influence Financial Decisions
• The History of Women in Business Leadership

Arts and Culture

• Banksy and the Evolution of Street Art and its Socio-Political Impact
• The Representation of Minorities in Film and Television
• The Influence of Satire on Social Norms
• The History and Development of Animation from Disney to Pixar
• Middle Eastern Museums and the Preservation of Culture

Politics and International Relations

• The Impact of Migration on National Sovereignty and Security
• The Role of the United Nations in Maintaining Peace in the Middle East
• From Ukraine to Palestine:  Protests and War Support
• An Axis of Resistance?  China, Iran, and Russia and the Possibility of a New Order
• The Future of the European Union in Jeopardy

Research Paper Citation Styles

Citation styles are important for maintaining consistency in your work and for turning you into a proper scholar.

When you have been asked to use a specific citation style, you should follow that style throughout the body of your research paper and also in the bibliography or works cited section.

The main citation styles used in research papers include American Psychological Association (APA), Modern Language Association (MLA), and Chicago style. However, Turabian, Harvard style, and American Sociological Association (ASA) are also commonly used.

Research Paper Example

A. Catherine “Katy” Ferguson was born sometime in 1779

B. Although born into slavery and suffering, had a vision of empowerment.

C. Liberated herself and helped to establish one of the first Sunday schools in America.

D. Thesis: Katy Ferguson is a pioneer of early childhood education and personal development; because she had to overcome obstacles, she is an icon of the American Dream.

II. Early Life

A. Catherine “Katy” Ferguson was born in 1779, but her birth records are uncertain.

B. When she was 8 years old, her mother was sold and she had no contact thereafter.

C. Therefore, Katy understood the ramifications of slavery on the human experience; she understood the meaning of freedom.

III. Katy’s Awakening

A. Katy asked for her own freedom when she was 10

B. At 16, Katy found someone to loan her the money, $200, to purchase her own freedom. She eventually paid back the debt by making wedding cakes and teaching Sunday school.

IV. Katy’s Legacy

A. Katy was functionally illiterate but showed how strong leadership was more important.

B. The fact that she was African-American makes Ferguson’s legacy more powerful.

V. Conclusion: Katy Ferguson is an icon of America because she overcame the terrible yoke of slavery to achieve an altruistic vision.

Research Paper

Catherine “Katy” Ferguson was born in 1779; the date is uncertain because as a slave, she and her fellow African-Americans were not considered to be legitimate citizens of the state. When Ferguson was just eight years old, her mother was sold in a slave market. The incident taught Katy Ferguson early about the meaning of freedom, and inspired her to pursue her own. As Hartvik puts it, “the anguish caused by this separation probably produced her concern for destitute children in later life,” (1). Indeed, Ferguson would go on to help poor children by starting a Sunday school in New York City. Katy Ferguson is a pioneer of early childhood education and personal development; because she had to overcome obstacles, she is an icon of the American Dream.

When her mother was sold, “Katy’s life seemed to hang like a millstone around her neck,” (29). The incident left an indelible memory, and Katy started to see the world in a new light. As Pagan describes, Katy Ferguson noticed how African-Americans were systematically deprived of life and liberty. Thus, after being separated from her mother in such a brutal way, Katy Ferguson became determined to terminate the horrific legacy of slavery in her own life. At first she petitioned her master, a Presbyterian minister Ferguson referred to as R.B., for freedom. Ferguson asked R.B. to grant her freedom if she promised to devote her life to the church, but R.B. refused.

However, Katy Ferguson refused to give up. When she was just sixteen years old, Ferguson sought her own freedom by borrowing $200 from a local woman, with the agreement that Katy would pay back the loan in six years. To repay the debt, Katy Ferguson learned how to bake wedding cakes and cakes for parties. Her income eventually earned her enough to pay back most of the loan. Divie Bethune, a “prosperous New York merchant,” raised the remainder of the money to help Ferguson pay back the loan and achieve full emancipation (Hartyik 1). Therefore, Ferguson succeeded in buying her own freedom. Although the system was distasteful and dehumanizing, Ferguson understood the importance of courage and determination.

Around 1814, Catherine Ferguson started to realize a new vision of helping poor children. She was “among the first to provide care for the homeless urchins who, out of the necessity created by destitution, roamed the streets of the city fighting for and stealing what they needed,” (Hartvik 1). Ferguson transformed the life of these young kids, by providing them with the education she never had herself. Ironically, Katy Ferguson was illiterate and yet she began to devote her life to early childhood education. She founded a Sunday school in New York City: which was among the first Sunday schools in the city. The school started in the basement of a church, where the minister welcomed the altruistic Ferguson. At the time, Sunday schools were relatively uncommon and unsupported by clergy, which viewed them as being too secular in nature (Hartvik). Ferguson and her school “sought to provide the poor with the basic rudiments of an education,” (Hartvik 1). Ferguson also held prayer meetings for locals.

Catherine “Katy” Ferguson left a legacy for African-Americans, inspiring former slaves to achieve not only freedom but spiritual liberation too. The socially conscious Ferguson helped poor children regardless of race. Although she could not read, she helped others to obtain an education that would lead to personal and professional development. Ferguson is a role model for all women, too, for although she was married, she did not base her identity on her role as wife and mother but as a leader in the community. Ferguson demonstrated an entrepreneurial spirit as well as an altruistic one. Therefore, Ferguson is an icon of America because she overcame the terrible yoke of slavery to achieve an altruistic vision.

Works Cited

Hartvik, Allen. “Catherine Ferguson: Black founder of a Sunday school.” Retrieved online: http://www.questia.com/googleScholar.qst?docId=5001739539

Pagan, Margaret D. More Than a Slave: The Life of Katherine Ferguson. Moody: 2003.

We hope this article demystified the research paper for you.

A research paper may not be easy to write, but it does not have to be painful, either. By following a few simple steps including choosing a topic, doing the research, taking notes, outlining, and drafting, you can come up with a good research paper of your own.

If you need help, just ask a writing tutor for suggestions on how you can improve your research paper.

Take the first step to becoming a better academic writer.

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• Chicago style citation guide
• Harvard referencing and citing guide
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How To Write A Research Paper

Step-By-Step Tutorial With Examples + FREE Template

By: Derek Jansen (MBA) | Expert Reviewer: Dr Eunice Rautenbach | March 2024

For many students, crafting a strong research paper from scratch can feel like a daunting task – and rightly so! In this post, we’ll unpack what a research paper is, what it needs to do , and how to write one – in three easy steps. 🙂 

Overview: Writing A Research Paper

What (exactly) is a research paper.

• How to write a research paper
• Stage 1 : Topic & literature search
• Stage 2 : Structure & outline
• Stage 3 : Iterative writing
• Key takeaways

Let’s start by asking the most important question, “ What is a research paper? ”.

Simply put, a research paper is a scholarly written work where the writer (that’s you!) answers a specific question (this is called a research question ) through evidence-based arguments . Evidence-based is the keyword here. In other words, a research paper is different from an essay or other writing assignments that draw from the writer’s personal opinions or experiences. With a research paper, it’s all about building your arguments based on evidence (we’ll talk more about that evidence a little later).

Now, it’s worth noting that there are many different types of research papers , including analytical papers (the type I just described), argumentative papers, and interpretative papers. Here, we’ll focus on analytical papers , as these are some of the most common – but if you’re keen to learn about other types of research papers, be sure to check out the rest of the blog .

With that basic foundation laid, let’s get down to business and look at how to write a research paper .

Overview: The 3-Stage Process

While there are, of course, many potential approaches you can take to write a research paper, there are typically three stages to the writing process. So, in this tutorial, we’ll present a straightforward three-step process that we use when working with students at Grad Coach.

These three steps are:

• Finding a research topic and reviewing the existing literature
• Developing a provisional structure and outline for your paper, and
• Writing up your initial draft and then refining it iteratively

Let’s dig into each of these.

Need a helping hand?

Step 1: Find a topic and review the literature

As we mentioned earlier, in a research paper, you, as the researcher, will try to answer a question . More specifically, that’s called a research question , and it sets the direction of your entire paper. What’s important to understand though is that you’ll need to answer that research question with the help of high-quality sources – for example, journal articles, government reports, case studies, and so on. We’ll circle back to this in a minute.

The first stage of the research process is deciding on what your research question will be and then reviewing the existing literature (in other words, past studies and papers) to see what they say about that specific research question. In some cases, your professor may provide you with a predetermined research question (or set of questions). However, in many cases, you’ll need to find your own research question within a certain topic area.

Finding a strong research question hinges on identifying a meaningful research gap – in other words, an area that’s lacking in existing research. There’s a lot to unpack here, so if you wanna learn more, check out the plain-language explainer video below.

Once you’ve figured out which question (or questions) you’ll attempt to answer in your research paper, you’ll need to do a deep dive into the existing literature – this is called a “ literature search ”. Again, there are many ways to go about this, but your most likely starting point will be Google Scholar .

If you’re new to Google Scholar, think of it as Google for the academic world. You can start by simply entering a few different keywords that are relevant to your research question and it will then present a host of articles for you to review. What you want to pay close attention to here is the number of citations for each paper – the more citations a paper has, the more credible it is (generally speaking – there are some exceptions, of course).

Ideally, what you’re looking for are well-cited papers that are highly relevant to your topic. That said, keep in mind that citations are a cumulative metric , so older papers will often have more citations than newer papers – just because they’ve been around for longer. So, don’t fixate on this metric in isolation – relevance and recency are also very important.

Beyond Google Scholar, you’ll also definitely want to check out academic databases and aggregators such as Science Direct, PubMed, JStor and so on. These will often overlap with the results that you find in Google Scholar, but they can also reveal some hidden gems – so, be sure to check them out.

Once you’ve worked your way through all the literature, you’ll want to catalogue all this information in some sort of spreadsheet so that you can easily recall who said what, when and within what context. If you’d like, we’ve got a free literature spreadsheet that helps you do exactly that.

Step 2: Develop a structure and outline

With your research question pinned down and your literature digested and catalogued, it’s time to move on to planning your actual research paper .

It might sound obvious, but it’s really important to have some sort of rough outline in place before you start writing your paper. So often, we see students eagerly rushing into the writing phase, only to land up with a disjointed research paper that rambles on in multiple

Now, the secret here is to not get caught up in the fine details . Realistically, all you need at this stage is a bullet-point list that describes (in broad strokes) what you’ll discuss and in what order. It’s also useful to remember that you’re not glued to this outline – in all likelihood, you’ll chop and change some sections once you start writing, and that’s perfectly okay. What’s important is that you have some sort of roadmap in place from the start.

At this stage you might be wondering, “ But how should I structure my research paper? ”. Well, there’s no one-size-fits-all solution here, but in general, a research paper will consist of a few relatively standardised components:

• Introduction
• Literature review
• Methodology

Let’s take a look at each of these.

First up is the introduction section . As the name suggests, the purpose of the introduction is to set the scene for your research paper. There are usually (at least) four ingredients that go into this section – these are the background to the topic, the research problem and resultant research question , and the justification or rationale. If you’re interested, the video below unpacks the introduction section in more detail. 

The next section of your research paper will typically be your literature review . Remember all that literature you worked through earlier? Well, this is where you’ll present your interpretation of all that content . You’ll do this by writing about recent trends, developments, and arguments within the literature – but more specifically, those that are relevant to your research question . The literature review can oftentimes seem a little daunting, even to seasoned researchers, so be sure to check out our extensive collection of literature review content here .

With the introduction and lit review out of the way, the next section of your paper is the research methodology . In a nutshell, the methodology section should describe to your reader what you did (beyond just reviewing the existing literature) to answer your research question. For example, what data did you collect, how did you collect that data, how did you analyse that data and so on? For each choice, you’ll also need to justify why you chose to do it that way, and what the strengths and weaknesses of your approach were.

Now, it’s worth mentioning that for some research papers, this aspect of the project may be a lot simpler . For example, you may only need to draw on secondary sources (in other words, existing data sets). In some cases, you may just be asked to draw your conclusions from the literature search itself (in other words, there may be no data analysis at all). But, if you are required to collect and analyse data, you’ll need to pay a lot of attention to the methodology section. The video below provides an example of what the methodology section might look like.

By this stage of your paper, you will have explained what your research question is, what the existing literature has to say about that question, and how you analysed additional data to try to answer your question. So, the natural next step is to present your analysis of that data . This section is usually called the “results” or “analysis” section and this is where you’ll showcase your findings.

Depending on your school’s requirements, you may need to present and interpret the data in one section – or you might split the presentation and the interpretation into two sections. In the latter case, your “results” section will just describe the data, and the “discussion” is where you’ll interpret that data and explicitly link your analysis back to your research question. If you’re not sure which approach to take, check in with your professor or take a look at past papers to see what the norms are for your programme.

Alright – once you’ve presented and discussed your results, it’s time to wrap it up . This usually takes the form of the “ conclusion ” section. In the conclusion, you’ll need to highlight the key takeaways from your study and close the loop by explicitly answering your research question. Again, the exact requirements here will vary depending on your programme (and you may not even need a conclusion section at all) – so be sure to check with your professor if you’re unsure.

Step 3: Write and refine

Finally, it’s time to get writing. All too often though, students hit a brick wall right about here… So, how do you avoid this happening to you?

Well, there’s a lot to be said when it comes to writing a research paper (or any sort of academic piece), but we’ll share three practical tips to help you get started.

First and foremost , it’s essential to approach your writing as an iterative process. In other words, you need to start with a really messy first draft and then polish it over multiple rounds of editing. Don’t waste your time trying to write a perfect research paper in one go. Instead, take the pressure off yourself by adopting an iterative approach.

Secondly , it’s important to always lean towards critical writing , rather than descriptive writing. What does this mean? Well, at the simplest level, descriptive writing focuses on the “ what ”, while critical writing digs into the “ so what ” – in other words, the implications . If you’re not familiar with these two types of writing, don’t worry! You can find a plain-language explanation here.

Last but not least, you’ll need to get your referencing right. Specifically, you’ll need to provide credible, correctly formatted citations for the statements you make. We see students making referencing mistakes all the time and it costs them dearly. The good news is that you can easily avoid this by using a simple reference manager . If you don’t have one, check out our video about Mendeley, an easy (and free) reference management tool that you can start using today.

Recap: Key Takeaways

We’ve covered a lot of ground here. To recap, the three steps to writing a high-quality research paper are:

• To choose a research question and review the literature
• To plan your paper structure and draft an outline
• To take an iterative approach to writing, focusing on critical writing and strong referencing

Remember, this is just a b ig-picture overview of the research paper development process and there’s a lot more nuance to unpack. So, be sure to grab a copy of our free research paper template to learn more about how to write a research paper.

Can you help me with a full paper template for this Abstract:

Background: Energy and sports drinks have gained popularity among diverse demographic groups, including adolescents, athletes, workers, and college students. While often used interchangeably, these beverages serve distinct purposes, with energy drinks aiming to boost energy and cognitive performance, and sports drinks designed to prevent dehydration and replenish electrolytes and carbohydrates lost during physical exertion.

Objective: To assess the nutritional quality of energy and sports drinks in Egypt.

Material and Methods: A cross-sectional study assessed the nutrient contents, including energy, sugar, electrolytes, vitamins, and caffeine, of sports and energy drinks available in major supermarkets in Cairo, Alexandria, and Giza, Egypt. Data collection involved photographing all relevant product labels and recording nutritional information. Descriptive statistics and appropriate statistical tests were employed to analyze and compare the nutritional values of energy and sports drinks.

Results: The study analyzed 38 sports drinks and 42 energy drinks. Sports drinks were significantly more expensive than energy drinks, with higher net content and elevated magnesium, potassium, and vitamin C. Energy drinks contained higher concentrations of caffeine, sugars, and vitamins B2, B3, and B6.

Conclusion: Significant nutritional differences exist between sports and energy drinks, reflecting their intended uses. However, these beverages’ high sugar content and calorie loads raise health concerns. Proper labeling, public awareness, and responsible marketing are essential to guide safe consumption practices in Egypt.

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How to Write a Research Paper

Use the links below to jump directly to any section of this guide:

Research Paper Fundamentals

How to choose a topic or question, how to create a working hypothesis or thesis, common research paper methodologies, how to gather and organize evidence , how to write an outline for your research paper, how to write a rough draft, how to revise your draft, how to produce a final draft, resources for teachers .

It is not fair to say that no one writes anymore. Just about everyone writes text messages, brief emails, or social media posts every single day. Yet, most people don't have a lot of practice with the formal, organized writing required for a good academic research paper. This guide contains links to a variety of resources that can help demystify the process. Some of these resources are intended for teachers; they contain exercises, activities, and teaching strategies. Other resources are intended for direct use by students who are struggling to write papers, or are looking for tips to make the process go more smoothly.

The resources in this section are designed to help students understand the different types of research papers, the general research process, and how to manage their time. Below, you'll find links from university writing centers, the trusted Purdue Online Writing Lab, and more.

What is an Academic Research Paper?

"Genre and the Research Paper" (Purdue OWL)

There are different types of research papers. Different types of scholarly questions will lend themselves to one format or another. This is a brief introduction to the two main genres of research paper: analytic and argumentative. 

"7 Most Popular Types of Research Papers" (Personal-writer.com)

This resource discusses formats that high school students commonly encounter, such as the compare and contrast essay and the definitional essay. Please note that the inclusion of this link is not an endorsement of this company's paid service.

How to Prepare and Plan Out Writing a Research Paper

Teachers can give their students a step-by-step guide like these to help them understand the different steps of the research paper process. These guides can be combined with the time management tools in the next subsection to help students come up with customized calendars for completing their papers.

"Ten Steps for Writing Research Papers" (American University)  

This resource from American University is a comprehensive guide to the research paper writing process, and includes examples of proper research questions and thesis topics.

"Steps in Writing a Research Paper" (SUNY Empire State College)

This guide breaks the research paper process into 11 steps. Each "step" links to a separate page, which describes the work entailed in completing it.

How to Manage Time Effectively

The links below will help students determine how much time is necessary to complete a paper. If your sources are not available online or at your local library, you'll need to leave extra time for the Interlibrary Loan process. Remember that, even if you do not need to consult secondary sources, you'll still need to leave yourself ample time to organize your thoughts.

"Research Paper Planner: Timeline" (Baylor University)

This interactive resource from Baylor University creates a suggested writing schedule based on how much time a student has to work on the assignment.

"Research Paper Planner" (UCLA)

UCLA's library offers this step-by-step guide to the research paper writing process, which also includes a suggested planning calendar.

There's a reason teachers spend a long time talking about choosing a good topic. Without a good topic and a well-formulated research question, it is almost impossible to write a clear and organized paper. The resources below will help you generate ideas and formulate precise questions.

"How to Select a Research Topic" (Univ. of Michigan-Flint)

This resource is designed for college students who are struggling to come up with an appropriate topic. A student who uses this resource and still feels unsure about his or her topic should consult the course instructor for further personalized assistance.

"25 Interesting Research Paper Topics to Get You Started" (Kibin)

This resource, which is probably most appropriate for high school students, provides a list of specific topics to help get students started. It is broken into subsections, such as "paper topics on local issues."

"Writing a Good Research Question" (Grand Canyon University)

This introduction to research questions includes some embedded videos, as well as links to scholarly articles on research questions. This resource would be most appropriate for teachers who are planning lessons on research paper fundamentals.

"How to Write a Research Question the Right Way" (Kibin)

This student-focused resource provides more detail on writing research questions. The language is accessible, and there are embedded videos and examples of good and bad questions.

It is important to have a rough hypothesis or thesis in mind at the beginning of the research process. People who have a sense of what they want to say will have an easier time sorting through scholarly sources and other information. The key, of course, is not to become too wedded to the draft hypothesis or thesis. Just about every working thesis gets changed during the research process.

CrashCourse Video: "Sociology Research Methods" (YouTube)

Although this video is tailored to sociology students, it is applicable to students in a variety of social science disciplines. This video does a good job demonstrating the connection between the brainstorming that goes into selecting a research question and the formulation of a working hypothesis.

"How to Write a Thesis Statement for an Analytical Essay" (YouTube)

Students writing analytical essays will not develop the same type of working hypothesis as students who are writing research papers in other disciplines. For these students, developing the working thesis may happen as a part of the rough draft (see the relevant section below). 

"Research Hypothesis" (Oakland Univ.)

This resource provides some examples of hypotheses in social science disciplines like Political Science and Criminal Justice. These sample hypotheses may also be useful for students in other soft social sciences and humanities disciplines like History.

When grading a research paper, instructors look for a consistent methodology. This section will help you understand different methodological approaches used in research papers. Students will get the most out of these resources if they use them to help prepare for conversations with teachers or discussions in class.

"Types of Research Designs" (USC)

A "research design," used for complex papers, is related to the paper's method. This resource contains introductions to a variety of popular research designs in the social sciences. Although it is not the most intuitive site to read, the information here is very valuable. 

"Major Research Methods" (YouTube)

Although this video is a bit on the dry side, it provides a comprehensive overview of the major research methodologies in a format that might be more accessible to students who have struggled with textbooks or other written resources.

"Humanities Research Strategies" (USC)

This is a portal where students can learn about four methodological approaches for humanities papers: Historical Methodologies, Textual Criticism, Conceptual Analysis, and the Synoptic method.

"Selected Major Social Science Research Methods: Overview" (National Academies Press)

This appendix from the book  Using Science as Evidence in Public Policy , printed by National Academies Press, introduces some methods used in social science papers.

"Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper: 6. The Methodology" (USC)

This resource from the University of Southern California's library contains tips for writing a methodology section in a research paper.

How to Determine the Best Methodology for You

Anyone who is new to writing research papers should be sure to select a method in consultation with their instructor. These resources can be used to help prepare for that discussion. They may also be used on their own by more advanced students.

"Choosing Appropriate Research Methodologies" (Palgrave Study Skills)

This friendly and approachable resource from Palgrave Macmillan can be used by students who are just starting to think about appropriate methodologies.

"How to Choose Your Research Methods" (NFER (UK))

This is another approachable resource students can use to help narrow down the most appropriate methods for their research projects.

The resources in this section introduce the process of gathering scholarly sources and collecting evidence. You'll find a range of material here, from introductory guides to advanced explications best suited to college students. Please consult the LitCharts  How to Do Academic Research guide for a more comprehensive list of resources devoted to finding scholarly literature.

Google Scholar

Students who have access to library websites with detailed research guides should start there, but people who do not have access to those resources can begin their search for secondary literature here.

"Gathering Appropriate Information" (Texas Gateway)

This resource from the Texas Gateway for online resources introduces students to the research process, and contains interactive exercises. The level of complexity is suitable for middle school, high school, and introductory college classrooms.

"An Overview of Quantitative and Qualitative Data Collection Methods" (NSF)

This PDF from the National Science Foundation goes into detail about best practices and pitfalls in data collection across multiple types of methodologies.

"Social Science Methods for Data Collection and Analysis" (Swiss FIT)

This resource is appropriate for advanced undergraduates or teachers looking to create lessons on research design and data collection. It covers techniques for gathering data via interviews, observations, and other methods.

"Collecting Data by In-depth Interviewing" (Leeds Univ.)

This resource contains enough information about conducting interviews to make it useful for teachers who want to create a lesson plan, but is also accessible enough for college juniors or seniors to make use of it on their own.

There is no "one size fits all" outlining technique. Some students might devote all their energy and attention to the outline in order to avoid the paper. Other students may benefit from being made to sit down and organize their thoughts into a lengthy sentence outline. The resources in this section include strategies and templates for multiple types of outlines. 

"Topic vs. Sentence Outlines" (UC Berkeley)

This resource introduces two basic approaches to outlining: the shorter topic-based approach, and the longer, more detailed sentence-based approach. This resource also contains videos on how to develop paper paragraphs from the sentence-based outline.

"Types of Outlines and Samples" (Purdue OWL)

The Purdue Online Writing Lab's guide is a slightly less detailed discussion of different types of outlines. It contains several sample outlines.

"Writing An Outline" (Austin C.C.)

This resource from a community college contains sample outlines from an American history class that students can use as models.

"How to Structure an Outline for a College Paper" (YouTube)

This brief (sub-2 minute) video from the ExpertVillage YouTube channel provides a model of outline writing for students who are struggling with the idea.

"Outlining" (Harvard)

This is a good resource to consult after completing a draft outline. It offers suggestions for making sure your outline avoids things like unnecessary repetition.

As with outlines, rough drafts can take on many different forms. These resources introduce teachers and students to the various approaches to writing a rough draft. This section also includes resources that will help you cite your sources appropriately according to the MLA, Chicago, and APA style manuals.

"Creating a Rough Draft for a Research Paper" (Univ. of Minnesota)

This resource is useful for teachers in particular, as it provides some suggested exercises to help students with writing a basic rough draft. 

Rough Draft Assignment (Duke of Definition)

This sample assignment, with a brief list of tips, was developed by a high school teacher who runs a very successful and well-reviewed page of educational resources.

"Creating the First Draft of Your Research Paper" (Concordia Univ.)

This resource will be helpful for perfectionists or procrastinators, as it opens by discussing the problem of avoiding writing. It also provides a short list of suggestions meant to get students writing.

Using Proper Citations

There is no such thing as a rough draft of a scholarly citation. These links to the three major citation guides will ensure that your citations follow the correct format. Please consult the LitCharts How to Cite Your Sources guide for more resources.

Chicago Manual of Style Citation Guide

Some call  The Chicago Manual of Style , which was first published in 1906, "the editors' Bible." The manual is now in its 17th edition, and is popular in the social sciences, historical journals, and some other fields in the humanities.

APA Citation Guide

According to the American Psychological Association, this guide was developed to aid reading comprehension, clarity of communication, and to reduce bias in language in the social and behavioral sciences. Its first full edition was published in 1952, and it is now in its sixth edition.

MLA Citation Guide

The Modern Language Association style is used most commonly within the liberal arts and humanities. The  MLA Style Manual and Guide to Scholarly Publishing  was first published in 1985 and (as of 2008) is in its third edition.

Any professional scholar will tell you that the best research papers are made in the revision stage. No matter how strong your research question or working thesis, it is not possible to write a truly outstanding paper without devoting energy to revision. These resources provide examples of revision exercises for the classroom, as well as tips for students working independently.

"The Art of Revision" (Univ. of Arizona)

This resource provides a wealth of information and suggestions for both students and teachers. There is a list of suggested exercises that teachers might use in class, along with a revision checklist that is useful for teachers and students alike.

"Script for Workshop on Revision" (Vanderbilt University)

Vanderbilt's guide for leading a 50-minute revision workshop can serve as a model for teachers who wish to guide students through the revision process during classtime. 

"Revising Your Paper" (Univ. of Washington)

This detailed handout was designed for students who are beginning the revision process. It discusses different approaches and methods for revision, and also includes a detailed list of things students should look for while they revise.

"Revising Drafts" (UNC Writing Center)

This resource is designed for students and suggests things to look for during the revision process. It provides steps for the process and has a FAQ for students who have questions about why it is important to revise.

Conferencing with Writing Tutors and Instructors

No writer is so good that he or she can't benefit from meeting with instructors or peer tutors. These resources from university writing, learning, and communication centers provide suggestions for how to get the most out of these one-on-one meetings.

"Getting Feedback" (UNC Writing Center)

This very helpful resource talks about how to ask for feedback during the entire writing process. It contains possible questions that students might ask when developing an outline, during the revision process, and after the final draft has been graded.

"Prepare for Your Tutoring Session" (Otis College of Art and Design)

This guide from a university's student learning center contains a lot of helpful tips for getting the most out of working with a writing tutor.

"The Importance of Asking Your Professor" (Univ. of Waterloo)

This article from the university's Writing and Communication Centre's blog contains some suggestions for how and when to get help from professors and Teaching Assistants.

Once you've revised your first draft, you're well on your way to handing in a polished paper. These resources—each of them produced by writing professionals at colleges and universities—outline the steps required in order to produce a final draft. You'll find proofreading tips and checklists in text and video form.

"Developing a Final Draft of a Research Paper" (Univ. of Minnesota)

While this resource contains suggestions for revision, it also features a couple of helpful checklists for the last stages of completing a final draft.

Basic Final Draft Tips and Checklist (Univ. of Maryland-University College)

This short and accessible resource, part of UMUC's very thorough online guide to writing and research, contains a very basic checklist for students who are getting ready to turn in their final drafts.

Final Draft Checklist (Everett C.C.)

This is another accessible final draft checklist, appropriate for both high school and college students. It suggests reading your essay aloud at least once.

"How to Proofread Your Final Draft" (YouTube)

This video (approximately 5 minutes), produced by Eastern Washington University, gives students tips on proofreading final drafts.

"Proofreading Tips" (Georgia Southern-Armstrong)

This guide will help students learn how to spot common errors in their papers. It suggests focusing on content and editing for grammar and mechanics.

This final set of resources is intended specifically for high school and college instructors. It provides links to unit plans and classroom exercises that can help improve students' research and writing skills. You'll find resources that give an overview of the process, along with activities that focus on how to begin and how to carry out research. 

"Research Paper Complete Resources Pack" (Teachers Pay Teachers)

This packet of assignments, rubrics, and other resources is designed for high school students. The resources in this packet are aligned to Common Core standards.

"Research Paper—Complete Unit" (Teachers Pay Teachers)

This packet of assignments, notes, PowerPoints, and other resources has a 4/4 rating with over 700 ratings. It is designed for high school teachers, but might also be useful to college instructors who work with freshmen.

"Teaching Students to Write Good Papers" (Yale)

This resource from Yale's Center for Teaching and Learning is designed for college instructors, and it includes links to appropriate activities and exercises.

"Research Paper Writing: An Overview" (CUNY Brooklyn)

CUNY Brooklyn offers this complete lesson plan for introducing students to research papers. It includes an accompanying set of PowerPoint slides.

"Lesson Plan: How to Begin Writing a Research Paper" (San Jose State Univ.)

This lesson plan is designed for students in the health sciences, so teachers will have to modify it for their own needs. It includes a breakdown of the brainstorming, topic selection, and research question process. 

"Quantitative Techniques for Social Science Research" (Univ. of Pittsburgh)

This is a set of PowerPoint slides that can be used to introduce students to a variety of quantitative methods used in the social sciences.

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How to Write a Research Paper: 11-Step Guide

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• Don't let yourself get overwhelmed when writing a research paper — start with a plan.
• Research your topic using credible sources, like peer-reviewed articles.
• Know what's expected of you and what you'll need to earn a high grade.

You've been assigned a research paper for a college class — but where do you begin? How do you start writing a research paper? What kind of research do you need to do? And how should you set up and format your essay?

Below, we introduce 11 steps to teach you how to write a research paper that's bound to impress your professor.

Step 1: Read the Rubric

Before you start your research paper, make sure to read the syllabus or rubric first. Know what to expect from this assignment. You should be able to answer the following questions:

• When is the research paper due? Is there a specific time it needs to be turned in by?
• How long does your paper need to be?
• Is there a minimum number of sources you need to cite?
• What type of citation style do you need to use (e.g., MLA, APA, Chicago)?
• Does your research paper need to address a specific question or topic?

If you often feel your paper needs to be perfect before turning it in, it's time for a mindset shift. Nobody — not even your professor — expects you to write a perfect research paper. Having said that, don't wait until the last minute to get started.

Step 2: Organize Your Schedule

Once you've read the rubric, note in your planner or on your calendar when your research paper is due. Then, make a schedule so that you can accomplish this task in small steps rather than over the course of one (likely stressful) night. Having a plan in place can help you feel better and write a stronger research paper.

It's best to schedule two days for each step of the process. Getting your research paper done in a timely, efficient manner usually takes about two weeks, depending on the length of the essay.

Step 3: Choose a Research Paper Topic

Your professor may give you specific research paper topics to write about. Or, your research paper may need to answer a certain question.

Before you begin, make sure you know what's expected of you regarding the topic. Are you clear on the question? Is it divided into parts? Do you understand each part? Go back to the rubric or syllabus to make sure you understand the parameters of the assignment.

If you're free to choose your own research paper topic, try to write about what you already know or something that genuinely interests you from the class or homework.

Step 4: Create a Research Paper Outline

Outlining is a key part of crafting an effective essay. Your research paper outline should include a rough introduction to the topic , a thesis statement , supporting details for each main idea, and a brief conclusion .

You can outline in whatever way feels most comfortable for you. Some students choose to use bullet points and sub-bullets for related ideas, while others may prefer flowcharts or visual representations of their topic.

Step 5: Research Your Topic

Start by collecting a variety of resources that discuss your topic. Look for credible sources such as textbooks, videos, newspaper articles, primary documents, and peer-reviewed journals.

The campus library is one of the best sources for writing research papers. Make an appointment with a librarian to learn how to utilize your school's online databases. You can sort and filter content using search tools like EBSCO host to find peer-reviewed articles, data, and journals.

As you read the sources you've collected, be sure to highlight and add notes as needed. You might also keep a running document of potential quotations and data points to use in your paper.

Step 6: Start Writing

To start writing, simply incorporate content from your outline into your research paper. Don't forget to include citations, or where you got your information from. You can use tools like Mendeley , Citation Machine , and Cite This for Me to help with this.

As you write, don't worry about editing yet — just focus on getting your ideas down. If you're a better talker than you are a typist, you might consider using tools like dictation to type out the text as you speak.

Step 7: Do Your First Round of Edits

Once you've completed the first draft of your research paper, it's time to start editing it. Besides using the spell checker function, it's important that you take time to read through your paper.

One trick is to read it aloud to yourself. When you read your paper aloud, you can hear the words as they were written. Doing this can help you find typos and identify areas that may be confusing or sound awkward.

Next, create your bibliography. Make sure you've cited all your sources properly, both within the text and in the works cited or bibliography section at the end.

Step 8: Get Feedback

It's critical that you get outside help when writing a research paper. For example, a peer can read over your paper and offer feedback. You could also set up an appointment at your campus's writing or tutoring center.

Another option is to talk to your professor . A professor or teaching assistant can offer you feedback on a paper before you turn it in for a grade.

That said, don't ask for feedback the night before the essay is due. Always give professors at least a week to give you notes on your draft.

Step 9: Complete a Second Round of Edits

After you get feedback on your research paper, you'll need to revise it accordingly. Review the rubric one more time and make sure you understand the requirements. You should also check that you've met each requirement.

Finally, be sure your in-text citations, bibliography, and research paper format comply with the assignment instructions.

Step 10: Submit Your Research Paper

By now you've finalized your paper and are ready to turn it in. Before you do that, though, check to see how you're supposed to submit it.

Does it have to be submitted through an online portal or emailed directly to your professor ? Did you upload the file and click submit before the deadline? Do you need to print or bind the document in a certain way? Is it necessary to print and place it in a folder outside the professor's office?

Confirm that you know the specifics of how, when, and where to turn in your paper.

Step 11: Reflect on the Process

When you eventually receive feedback and a grade on your research paper, don't just stash it away in your backpack and forget about it. Go through your professor's comments and try to learn from them.

Feel free to ask your professor any questions you have about the feedback they gave you. You can also use this information in the future when writing other research papers.

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How to Write a Research Paper

If you already have a headache trying to understand what research paper is all about, we have created an ultimate guide for you on how to write a research paper. You will find all the answers to your questions regarding structure, planning, doing investigation, finding the topic that appeals to you. Plus, you will find out the secret to an excellent paper. Are you at the edge of your seat? Let us start with the basics then.

• What is a Research Paper
• Reasons for Writing a Research Paper
• Report Papers and Thesis Papers
• How to Start a Research Paper
• How to Choose a Topic for a Research Paper
• How to Write a Proposal for a Research Paper
• How to Write a Research Plan
• How to Do Research
• How to Write an Outline for a Research Paper
• How to Write a Thesis Statement for a Research Paper
• How to Write a Research Paper Rough Draft
• How to Write an Introduction for a Research Paper
• How to Write a Body of a Research Paper
• How to Write a Conclusion for a Research Paper
• How to Write an Abstract for a Research Paper
• How to Revise and Edit a Research Paper
• How to Write a Bibliography for a Research Paper
• What Makes a Good Research Paper

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What is a research paper.

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You probably know the saying ‘the devil is not as black as he is painted’. This particular saying is absolutely true when it comes to writing a research paper. Your feet are cold even with the thought of this assignment. You have heard terrifying stories from older students. You have never done this before, so certainly you are scared. What is a research paper? How should I start? What are all these requirements about?

Luckily, you have a friend in need. That is our writing service. First and foremost, let us clarify the definition. A research paper is a piece of academic writing that provides information about a particular topic that you’ve researched . In other words, you choose a topic: about historical events, the work of some artist, some social issues etc. Then you collect data on the given topic and analyze it. Finally, you put your analysis on paper. See, it is not as scary as it seems. If you are still having doubts, whether you can handle it yourself, we are here to help you. Our team of writers can help you choose the topic, or give you advice on how to plan your work, or how to start, or craft a paper for you. Just contact us 24/7 and see everything yourself.

5 Reasons for Writing a Research Paper

Why should I spend my time writing some academic paper? What is the use of it? Is not some practical knowledge more important? The list of questions is endless when it comes to a research paper. That is why we have outlined 5 main reasons why writing a research paper is a good thing.

• You will learn how to organize your time

If you want to write a research paper, you will have to learn how to manage your time. This type of assignment cannot be done overnight. It requires careful planning and you will need to learn how to do it. Later, you will be able to use these time-managing skills in your personal life, so why not developing them?

• You will discover your writing skills

You cannot know something before you try it. This rule relates to writing as well. You cannot claim that you cannot write until you try it yourself. It will be really difficult at the beginning, but then the words will come to your head themselves.

• You will improve your analytical skills

Writing a research paper is all about investigation and analysis. You will need to collect data, examine and classify it. These skills are needed in modern life more than anything else is.

• You will gain confidence

Once you do your own research, it gives you the feeling of confidence in yourself. The reason is simple human brain likes solving puzzles and your assignment is just another puzzle to be solved.

• You will learn how to persuade the reader

When you write your paper, you should always remember that you are writing it for someone to read. Moreover, you want this someone to believe in your ideas. For this reason, you will have to learn different convincing methods and techniques. You will learn how to make your writing persuasive. In turns, you will be able to use these methods in real life.

What is the Difference between Report and Thesis Papers?

A common question is ‘what is the difference between a report paper and a thesis paper?’ The difference lies in the aim of these two assignments. While the former aims at presenting the information, the latter aims at providing your opinion on the matter. In other words, in a report paper you have to summarize your findings. In a thesis paper, you choose some issue and defend your point of view by persuading the reader. It is that simple.

A thesis paper is a more common assignment than a report paper. This task will help a professor to evaluate your analytical skills and skills to present your ideas logically. These skills are more important than just the ability to collect and summarize data.

How to Write a Research Paper Step by Step

Research comes from the French word  rechercher , meaning “to seek out.” Writing a research paper requires you to seek out information about a subject, take a stand on it, and back it up with the opinions, ideas, and views of others. What results is a printed paper variously known as a term paper or library paper, usually between five and fifteen pages long—most instructors specify a minimum length—in which you present your views and findings on the chosen subject.

It is not a secret that the majority of students hate writing a research paper. The reason is simple it steals your time and energy. Not to mention, constant anxiety that you will not be able to meet the deadline or that you will forget about some academic requirement.

We will not lie to you; a research paper is a difficult assignment. You will have to spend a lot of time. You will need to read, to analyze, and to search for the material. You will probably be stuck sometimes. However, if you organize your work smart, you will gain something that is worth all the effort – knowledge, experience, and high grades.

The reason why many students fail writing a research paper is that nobody explained them how to start and how to plan their work. Luckily, you have found our writing service and we are ready to shed the light on this dark matter.

We have created a step by step guide for you on how to write a research paper. We will dwell upon the structure, the writing tips, the writing strategies as well as academic requirements. Read this whole article and you will see that you can handle writing this assignment and our team of writers is here to assist you.

How to Start a Research Paper?

It all starts with the assignment. Your professor gives you the task. It may be either some general issue or specific topic to write about. Your assignment is your first guide to success. If you understand what you need to do according to the assignment, you are on the road to high results. Do not be scared to clarify your task if you need to. There is nothing wrong in asking a question if you want to do something right. You can ask your professor or you can ask our writers who know a thing or two in academic writing.

It is essential to understand the assignment. A good beginning makes a good ending, so start smart.

Learn how to start a research paper .

Choosing a Topic for a Research Paper

We have already mentioned that it is not enough to do great research. You need to persuade the reader that you have made some great research. What convinces better that an eye-catching topic? That is why it is important to understand how to choose a topic for a research paper.

First, you need to delimit the general idea to a more specific one. Secondly, you need to find what makes this topic interesting for you and for the academia. Finally, you need to refine you topic. Remember, it is not something you will do in one day. You can be reshaping your topic throughout your whole writing process. Still, reshaping not changing it completely. That is why keep in your head one main idea: your topic should be precise and compelling .

Learn how to choose a topic for a research paper .

How to Write a Proposal for a Research Paper?

If you do not know what a proposal is, let us explain it to you. A proposal should answer three main questions:

• What is the main aim of your investigation?
• Why is your investigation important?
• How are you going to achieve the results?

In other words, proposal should show why your topic is interesting and how you are going to prove it. As to writing requirements, they may differ. That is why make sure you find out all the details at your department. You can ask your departmental administrator or find information online at department’s site. It is crucial to follow all the administrative requirements, as it will influence your grade.

Learn how to write a proposal for a research paper .

How to Write a Research Plan?

The next step is writing a plan. You have already decided on the main issues, you have chosen the bibliography, and you have clarified the methods. Here comes the planning. If you want to avoid writer’s block, you have to structure you work. Discuss your strategies and ideas with your instructor. Think thoroughly why you need to present some data and ideas first and others second. Remember that there are basic structure elements that your research paper should include:

• Thesis Statement
• Introduction
• Bibliography

You should keep in mind this skeleton when planning your work. This will keep your mind sharp and your ideas will flow logically.

Learn how to write a research plan .

How to Do Research?

Your research will include three stages: collecting data, reading and analyzing it, and writing itself.

First, you need to collect all the material that you will need for you investigation: films, documents, surveys, interviews, and others. Secondly, you will have to read and analyze. This step is tricky, as you need to do this part smart. It is not enough just to read, as you cannot keep in mind all the information. It is essential that you make notes and write down your ideas while analyzing some data. When you get down to the stage number three, writing itself, you will already have the main ideas written on your notes. Plus, remember to jot down the reference details. You will then appreciate this trick when you will have to write the bibliography.

If you do your research this way, it will be much easier for you to write the paper. You will already have blocks of your ideas written down and you will just need to add some material and refine your paper.

Learn how to do research .

How to Write an Outline for a Research Paper?

To make your paper well organized you need to write an outline. Your outline will serve as your guiding star through the writing process. With a great outline you will not get sidetracked, because you will have a structured plan to follow. Both you and the reader will benefit from your outline. You present your ideas logically and you make your writing coherent according to your plan. As a result, this outline guides the reader through your paper and the reader enjoys the way you demonstrate your ideas.

Learn how to write an outline for a research paper . See research paper outline examples .

How to Write a Thesis Statement for a Research Paper?

Briefly, the thesis is the main argument of your research paper. It should be precise, convincing and logical. Your thesis statement should include your point of view supported by evidence or logic. Still, remember it should be precise. You should not beat around the bush, or provide all the possible evidence you have found. It is usually a single sentence that shows your argument. In on sentence you should make a claim, explain why it significant and convince the reader that your point of view is important.

Learn how to write a thesis statement for a research paper . See research paper thesis statement examples .

Should I Write a Rough Draft for a Research Paper?

Do you know any writer who put their ideas on paper, then never edited them and just published? Probably, no writer did so. Writing a research paper is no exception. It is impossible to cope with this assignment without writing a rough draft.

Your draft will help you understand what you need to polish to make your paper perfect. All the requirements, academic standards make it difficult to do everything flawlessly at the first attempt. Make sure you know all the formatting requirements: margins, words quantity, reference requirements, formatting styles etc.

Learn how to write a rough draft for a research paper .

How to Write an Introduction for a Research Paper?

Let us make it more vivid for you. We have narrowed down the tips on writing an introduction to the three main ones:

• Include your thesis in your introduction

Remember to include the thesis statement in your introduction. Usually, it goes at the end of the first paragraph.

• Present the main ideas of the body

You should tell the main topics you are going to discuss in the main body. For this reason, before writing this part of introduction, make sure you know what is your main body is going to be about. It should include your main ideas.

• Polish your thesis and introduction

When you finish the main body of your paper, come back to the thesis statement and introduction. Restate something if needed. Just make it perfect; because introduction is like the trailer to your paper, it should make the reader want to read the whole piece.

Learn how to write an introduction for a research paper . See research paper introduction examples .

How to Write a Body of a Research Paper?

A body is the main part of your research paper. In this part, you will include all the needed evidence; you will provide the examples and support your argument.

It is important to structure your paragraphs thoroughly. That is to say, topic sentence and the evidence supporting the topic. Stay focused and do not be sidetracked. You have your outline, so follow it.

Here are the main tips to keep in head when writing a body of a research paper:

• Let the ideas flow logically
• Include only relevant information
• Provide the evidence
• Structure the paragraphs
• Make the coherent transition from one paragraph to another

See? When it is all structured, it is not as scary as it seemed at the beginning. Still, if you have doubts, you can always ask our writers for help.

Learn how to write a body of a research paper . See research paper transition examples .

How to Write a Conclusion for a Research Paper?

Writing a good conclusion is important as writing any other part of the paper. Remember that conclusion is not a summary of what you have mentioned before. A good conclusion should include your last strong statement.

If you have written everything according to the plan, the reader already knows why your investigation is important. The reader has already seen the evidence. The only thing left is a strong concluding thought that will organize all your findings.

Never include any new information in conclusion. You need to conclude, not to start a new discussion.

Learn how to write a conclusion for a research paper .

How to Write an Abstract for a Research Paper?

An abstract is a brief summary of your paper, usually 100-200 words. You should provide the main gist of your paper in this short summary. An abstract can be informative, descriptive or proposal. Depending on the type of abstract, you need to write, the requirements will differ.

To write an informative abstract you have to provide the summary of the whole paper. Informative summary. In other words, you need to tell about the main points of your work, the methods used, the results and the conclusion of your research.

To write a descriptive abstract you will not have to provide any summery. You should write a short teaser of your paper. That is to say, you need to write an overview of your paper. The aim of a descriptive abstract is to interest the reader.

Finally, to write a proposal abstract you will need to write the basic summary as for the informative abstract. However, the difference is the following: you aim at persuading someone to let you write on the topic. That is why, a proposal abstract should present your topic as the one worth investigating.

Learn how to write an abstract for a research paper .

Should I Revise and Edit a Research Paper?

Revising and editing your paper is essential if you want to get high grades. Let us help you revise your paper smart:

• Check your paper for spelling and grammar mistakes
• Sharpen the vocabulary
• Make sure there are no slang words in your paper
• Examine your paper in terms of structure
• Compare your topic, thesis statement to the whole piece
• Check your paper for plagiarism

If you need assistance with proofreading and editing your paper, you can turn to the professional editors at our service. They will help you polish your paper to perfection.

Learn how to revise and edit a research paper .

How to Write a Bibliography for a Research Paper?

First, let us make it clear that bibliography and works cited are two different things. Works cited are those that you cited in your paper. Bibliography should include all the materials you used to do your research. Still, remember that bibliography requirements differ depending on the formatting style of your paper. For this reason, make sure you ask you professor all the requirements you need to meet to avoid any misunderstanding.

Learn how to write a bibliography for a research paper .

The Key Secret to a Good Research Paper

Now when you know all the stages of writing a research paper, you are ready to find the key to a good research paper:

• Choose the topic that really interests you
• Make the topic interesting for you even if it is not at the beginning
• Follow the step by step guide and do not get sidetracked
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• Learn the convincing writing techniques and use them
• Follow the requirements of your assignment
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Writing a Research Paper

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The Research Paper

There will come a time in most students' careers when they are assigned a research paper. Such an assignment often creates a great deal of unneeded anxiety in the student, which may result in procrastination and a feeling of confusion and inadequacy. This anxiety frequently stems from the fact that many students are unfamiliar and inexperienced with this genre of writing. Never fear—inexperience and unfamiliarity are situations you can change through practice! Writing a research paper is an essential aspect of academics and should not be avoided on account of one's anxiety. In fact, the process of writing a research paper can be one of the more rewarding experiences one may encounter in academics. What is more, many students will continue to do research throughout their careers, which is one of the reasons this topic is so important.

Becoming an experienced researcher and writer in any field or discipline takes a great deal of practice. There are few individuals for whom this process comes naturally. Remember, even the most seasoned academic veterans have had to learn how to write a research paper at some point in their career. Therefore, with diligence, organization, practice, a willingness to learn (and to make mistakes!), and, perhaps most important of all, patience, students will find that they can achieve great things through their research and writing.

The pages in this section cover the following topic areas related to the process of writing a research paper:

• Genre - This section will provide an overview for understanding the difference between an analytical and argumentative research paper.
• Choosing a Topic - This section will guide the student through the process of choosing topics, whether the topic be one that is assigned or one that the student chooses themselves.
• Identifying an Audience - This section will help the student understand the often times confusing topic of audience by offering some basic guidelines for the process.
• Where Do I Begin - This section concludes the handout by offering several links to resources at Purdue, and also provides an overview of the final stages of writing a research paper.

How to write a research paper: A step-by-step guide

Published July 20, 2020. Updated May 19, 2022.

Research Paper Definition

A research paper is an essay that evaluates or argues a perception or a point.

Overview of research paper

Research papers are papers written as in-depth analyses of the academic literature on a selected topic. A research paper outline consists of planning out the main sections of the paper, including the points and evidence, so that the drafting and editing processes are much easier. The research paper should have an introduction paragraph, at least three body paragraphs, a conclusion paragraph, and a Works Cited page. Some important steps should be followed while writing a research paper. The steps include understanding the instructor’s expectations for how to write a research paper, brainstorming research paper ideas, conducting research, defining the thesis statement, making a research paper outline, writing, editing again if required, creating a title page, and writing an abstract.

Key takeaways

• A research paper is an essay that analyzes or argues a perspective or a point.
• A research paper outline involves planning out the main sections of your paper, including your points and evidence, so that the drafting and editing processes go a lot smoother.
• Before you write your research paper outline, consult your instructor, research potential topics, and define your thesis statement.
• Your research paper should include an introduction paragraph, at least three body paragraphs, a conclusion paragraph, and a Works Cited page.

What are the steps to writing a research paper?

Here are 7 steps on how to write a research paper, plus two optional steps on creating a title page and an abstract:

Step 1: Understand your instructor’s expectations for how to write a research paper

Step 2: brainstorm research paper ideas, step 3: conduct research, step 4: define your thesis statement, step 5: make a research paper outline, step 6: write, step 7: edit, edit, and edit again, step 8 (optional): create a title page, step 9 (optional): write an abstract.

• Additional tips

Worried about your writing? Submit your paper for a Chegg Writing essay check , or for an Expert Check proofreading . Both can help you find and fix potential writing issues.

First, read and reread the rubric for the assignment. Depending on your field of study, the guidelines will vary. For instance, psychology, education, and the sciences tend to use APA research paper format, while the humanities, language, and the fine arts tend to use MLA or Chicago style.

Once you know which research paper format to use, take heed of any specific expectations your instructor has for this assignment. For example:

• When is it due?
• What is the expected page count?
• Will your instructor expect to see a research paper outline before the draft?
• Is there a set topic list or can you choose your own?
• Is there someplace to look at sample research papers that got A’s?

If anything isn’t clear about how to write a research paper, don’t hesitate to ask your instructor.

Being aware of the assignment’s details is a good start! However, even after reading them, you may still be asking some of the following questions:

• How do you think of topics for research papers?
• How do you think of interesting research paper topics?
• How do I structure an outline?
• Where can you find examples of research papers?

We’ll answer all of these questions (and more) in the steps below.

Some instructors offer a set of research paper topics to choose from. That makes it easy for you—just pick the research paper idea that intrigues you the most! Since all the topics have been approved by your instructor, you shouldn’t have to worry about any of them being too “broad” or “narrow.” (But remember, there are no easy research paper topics!)

On the other hand, many instructors expect students to brainstorm their own topics for research papers. In this case, you will need to ensure your topic is relevant as well as not too broad or narrow.

An example of a research paper topic that is too broad is “The History of Modernist Literature.” An expert would be hard-pressed to write a book on this topic, much less a school essay.

An example of a research paper topic that is too narrow is “Why the First Line of Ulysses Exemplifies Modernist Literature.” It may take a page or two to outline the ways in which the first line of Ulysses exemplifies traits of modernist literature, but there’s only so much you can write about one line!

Good research paper topics fall somewhere in the middle . An example of this would be “Why Ulysses ’ Stephen Exemplifies Modernist Literature.” Analyzing a character in a novel is broader than analyzing a single line, but it is narrower than examining an entire literary movement.

Next, conduct research and use an adequate number of reputable sources to back up your argument or analysis. This means that you need to evaluate the credibility of all your sources and probably include a few peer-reviewed journal articles (tip: use a database).

A lot of good sources can be found online or at your school’s library (in-person and online). If you’re stuck finding sources or would like to see a sample research paper, ask your librarian for help. If you’re having trouble finding useful sources, it may be a warning sign that your idea is too broad or narrow. For a more comprehensive look at research, check this out .

Your thesis statement is the most important line of your research paper! It encompasses in one sentence what your paper is all about. Having a concrete thesis statement will help you organize your thoughts around a defined point, and it will help your readers understand what they’re reading about.

If you could boil your paper down into a single line, what would that line be?

Here is an example of a working thesis:

In George Orwell’s  1984 , the Party manipulates citizens into total submission to the Party’s ideals through Newspeak, propaganda, and altered history.

For more information, see this guide on thesis statements .

Even if you think you chose an easy research paper topic, a structured, outlined research paper format is still necessary to help you stay organized and on-track while you draft. The traditional research paper outline example looks something like this:

Introduction

• Main point #1
• Main point #2
• Main point #3

Works cited

Let’s examine each section in detail.

Wondering how to start a research paper that gets an A? One good step is to have a strong introduction. Your research paper introduction will include the following elements:

• state your thesis (the one or two-line gist of your paper)
• explain the question you will answer or argument you will make
• outline your research methodology

1. Open with a hook

Keep your readers reading—hook them! A handy tip for writing a hook is to think about what made you choose this topic. What about your topic captured your interest enough to research it and write a paper about it?

A hook might sound something like the following examples:

Did you know that babies have around a hundred more bones than adults?

A language dies every fourteen days.

Of course, by no means does your opening line have to be so shocking. It could be as simple as you’d like, as long as it pulls your readers in and gives them an idea of what your paper is going to be about.

2.  Introduce relevant background context

After you’ve hooked your readers, introduce them to the topic at hand. What is already known about it? What is still a mystery? Why should we care? Finally, what work have you done to advance knowledge on this topic?

You can include a relevant quotation or paraphrase here, but keep it short and sweet. Your introduction should not be bogged down with anything less than essential.

3.  End on your thesis statement

Finally, end your introduction paragraph with your thesis statement, which is a concise sentence (just one, two max) summarizing the crux of your research paper.

Research paper introduction example

As John Wilkes Booth fled the scene of his assassination of President Abraham Lincoln, he yelled, “ Sic semper tyrannis ! The South is avenged!” Booth was an ardent supporter of the Southern cause during the Civil War era, but what made him passionate enough to assassinate a sitting president? Although Booth’s ire can be traced mostly to his backing of the South, there is more to the story than just that. John Wilkes Booth had three primary motives for assassinating Abraham Lincoln.

The body of your paper is not limited to three points, as shown below, but three is typically considered the minimum. A good rule of thumb is to back up each main point with three arguments or pieces of evidence. To present a cogent argument or make your analysis more compelling , present your points and arguments in a “strong, stronger, strongest” research paper format.

• Main point #1 – A strong point 
• Strong supporting argument or evidence #1
• Stronger supporting argument or evidence #2
• Strongest supporting argument or evidence #3
• Main point #2 – A stronger point
• Main point #3 – Your strongest point

The conclusion is crucial for helping your readers reflect on your main arguments or analyses and understand why what they just read was worthwhile.

• restate your topic
• synthesize your most important points
• restate your thesis statement
• tie it all into the bigger picture

1.  Restate your topic

Before you wrap up your paper, it helps to remind your readers of the main idea at hand. This is different than restating your thesis. While your thesis states the specific argument or analysis at hand, the main idea of your research paper might be much broader. For instance, your thesis statement might be “John Wilkes Booth had three primary motives for assassinating Abraham Lincoln.” The main idea of the paper is Booth’s assassination of Lincoln. Even broader, the research paper is about American history.

2.  Synthesize your most important points

The key here is to synthesize , not summarize . Many students don’t see the point of conclusions because they look at them as mere repetition of points that already have been made. They’re right—that’s not what a conclusion paragraph should do! To summarize is to objectively restate what you’ve already said in your paper. What you want to do instead is offer a new viewpoint. Take the points you’ve made and develop a unique understanding or perspective.

For example, assume the main points you made in your paper are the following:

John Wilkes Booth was loyal to the South and the Confederate States of America.

John Wilkes Booth strongly opposed the abolition of slavery.

John Wilkes Booth was vocal about his hatred of Abraham Lincoln.

Instead of simply restating those three points in your conclusion, you could synthesize the points:

John Wilkes Booth’s outspoken loyalty to the South and opposition to abolition motivated him to assassinate Lincoln, who was one of the most prominent proponents of the abolition of slavery and the Union side of the Civil War. If Lincoln’s cause succeeded, the economy and culture of the antebellum South that Booth advocated for would not survive. All of those reasons combined were why Booth saw it as imperative that Lincoln be killed.

3.  Restate your thesis statement

After you’ve synthesized the main points of your research paper, restate your thesis statement. This helps bring your paper full circle back to where you began.

4.  Tie it all into the bigger picture

Answer the “so what?” question of your argument or analysis in order to end your research paper by tying it into a bigger picture. What implications does your argument or analysis have on the research of others? Why does your discovery matter? If you’re not sure, ask a friend to ask you (or ask yourself) “so what?” until you’ve figured it out. Here’s how it might look:

Friend: What is your paper about?

You: John Wilkes Booth assassinated Abraham Lincoln for three main reasons.

Friend: So what?

You: It’s important to know why he killed Lincoln.

Friend: Why is it important?

You: So we know what kind of things motivate assassins to kill presidents so we can avoid it happening in the future.

Just like that, you have tied your paper into the bigger picture. Your paper is more likely to have a strong impact on your readers (and receive a better grade) if you end it with a strong “take-home” message.

Tips for writing a great conclusion to your paper

• Link your conclusion to your introduction.
• Don’t give away all the answers. Remember, you don’t have to have all the answers. You can conclude your research paper with some questions for your readers to ponder.
• Propose a call to action. After conducting all this research and formulating some great arguments or analyses, you might believe something needs to be done. For example, if you wrote the aforementioned research paper about Abraham Lincoln’s assassination, you might suggest a call to action that we all keep an eye out for potential presidential assassins like John Wilkes Booth.

Mistakes to avoid when concluding your research paper

• Being too wordy. Keep the conclusion concise.
• Failure to relate it back to your intro.
• Failure to reflect on the bigger picture. Provide a compelling synthesis of what was just written.

Research paper conclusion example

Presidential assassinations are particularly sad and defining points in American history. They shake the country and make the people ask, “How could this happen to the most powerful figure in our nation?” In this paper, we explored some of the reasons why assassinations happen. John Wilkes Booth’s outspoken loyalty to the South and opposition to abolition motivated him to assassinate Lincoln, who was one of the most prominent proponents of the abolition of slavery and the Union side of the Civil War. If Lincoln’s cause succeeded, the economy and culture of the antebellum South that Booth advocated for would not survive. Those three motives combined were why Booth saw it as imperative that Lincoln be killed. As history scholars, we should remember why and how this happened so that we can avoid it happening in the future.

A works cited or bibliography page (or pages) should be the final section of your paper. This section includes a list of the resources you consulted, quoted, or cited within the body of your work, as well as those which influenced your ideas on the topic.

This is only a basic research paper outline template, which can be altered depending on the length and purpose of your paper. Argumentative papers aim to prove a point through well-researched, persuasive argument, while analytical papers posit a question and explore possible answers throughout the paper. Either way, your goal as a writer is to find and share the truth, whether you do so before you start writing a research paper or while you’re writing it.

Once you have an outline in the above research paper format, it’s a good idea to consult with your teacher or a writing tutor to find ways to strengthen it. They’ll also be able to give you good writing advice, from how to start a research paper to how to find research paper ideas conducive to strong arguments. As you write, you might find yourself tweaking (or overhauling) your outline. That’s okay!

You already have a rock-solid topic, credible sources, and intuitive outline. Now, you just have to flesh it out into pages of flowing, articulate prose. (Okay, it won’t exactly be easy.)

Before you begin writing, you might find it helpful to look at sample research papers in your school’s library or writing center (many research paper examples can also be found online). This will give you an idea of how to do a research paper outline, build a research paper outline template, as well as give you several research paper introduction examples. Here is one example research paper .

Examples of research papers you’ll see will look crazy long. But remember, those weren’t completed in one sitting! So, don’t wait until the last minute to get started. You’ll need to factor in time for breaks, writing tutor consultations, and the dreaded writer’s block.

You will probably write multiple drafts. Don’t expect your first draft to be perfect. You may even need to change your main argument halfway through your draft. That’s okay! Be ready to re-brainstorm, re-outline, and rewrite.

This might just be the most important step. Even if you brainstorm the perfect topic, create a brilliant research paper outline, and write a strong first draft. None of that brilliance will shine through if your paper is full of typos, grammar errors, and rambling tangents.

You’ll want to complete these kinds of editing, in this order:

• line editing
• spell-checking
• proofreading

Revision deals with broad issues, such as an argument that doesn’t make sense or a source that doesn’t support your thesis. Line editing, spell-checking, and proofreading are more to do with your writing itself—the flow of your sentences and the presence of any spelling or grammatical errors.

Paper formatting

The format of your paper will depend largely on what paper or citation style your instructor has told you to use (e.g., APA, MLA, Chicago, Harvard, etc.). In general though, here are some good paper formatting guidelines to follow:

• Use 1-inch margins around your paper.
• Use a standard font like Times New Roman, Arial, etc.
• Use a standard font size between 10-12 points.
• Make sure that the title of your paper, date you turn it in, course name, and your name appear somewhere on the first page. If this is for APA, you’ll create a title page. If for MLA, you’ll create a header.

After you finish, it also doesn’t hurt to check your paper for plagiarism .

Before you turn in that paper, don’t forget to cite your sources in APA format , MLA format , or a style of your choice.

A title page is not always needed but is sometimes requested by an instructor or required by a paper format (example: APA style). It is always the first page of a paper and is the cover that communicates what’s in store for a reader. Let’s discuss what a title page is, why it’s important, how to create one, and tips on writing a good title.

What is a title page?

A title page is the first page of the paper that displays the title, the author’s name, and other required information such as thhe course number, the instructor’s name, or the date .

Why have a title page?

The main purpose of title page is like the purpose of a book cover or a news article headline. Its purpose is to allow the reader to easily understand what the paper is about .

This makes it especially important for you to have an effective and well-written title for your essay. You want to capture the reader’s attention, so they feel that your work is worth reading.

A title page can also indicate that the paper is academic in nature. The structured nature of a title page is an indicator that a paper has been created using certain academic guidelines or standards.

What is included on the title page besides the title?

There are two title page formats that you may be asked to use for academic papers. One is called American Psychological Association, which is commonly known as APA, and the second is called Modern Language Association, generally referred to as MLA. APA is typically used for research involving technical and scientific topics while MLA is more likely to be used for humanities or literature topics. Even though they are similar, each has a different set of requirements for the title page.

APA requirements:

• Research Paper Title
• Author’s full name (first name, middle initial, last name)
• Department and university name/Affiliation
• Course number and name
• Instructor’s/Professor’s name
• Assignment due date
• Page number
• All information is to be double spaced and centered
• Use Times New Roman font with 12 point size

MLA requirements:

It is important to note that usually a cover page is not required when using the MLA format. Instead, all the same points are found at the top of the first page of the research paper. However, if a title page is requested, it must meet the following requirements:

• Name of the school or university
• Title of the paper
• Subtitle of the paper (if necessary)
• Author’s/Student’s name
• Appropriate course number and name
• Use Times New Roman font with 12 as the font size
• Except for small words such as a, the, or, etc.
• The first letter of the first word should always be capitalized
• For BOTH formats, the first line should be spaced down three or four lines from the top margin.

Now, look at examples of both APA and MLA college research paper title page formats.

College research paper title page examples

Effects of Depression Symptoms on Quality of Sleep  

Jane A. Doe and John Z. Smith

Michigan State University

Jack Peterson, Instructor

March 11, 2021

Effects of Depression Symptoms on Quality of Sleep

Jane A. Doe and Joe Z. Smith

Professor Jack Peterson

Tips on writing a great title

There are few things to consider when creating the title of your research paper:

• Succinctly communicate what the topic of the paper is.
• Be concise.
• Give your reader a preview of your approach to the subject.
• Gain the reader’s interest in learning about your subject.

Below are two examples of titles. Think about which title is more effective and why.

• Student Loan Debt
• The Vanishing American Middle Class: How Student Loan Debt is Destroying the Next Generation and What Can Be Done About It

Hopefully, you noticed that while Title 1 is concise, it is not informative. It does not  give information on the writer’s approach to research on the topic. Title 2 is more interesting and precise than Title 1, and it communicates what problem the writer has researched. It is, however, very long.  An ideal title would be something in the middle like this:

Student Loan Debt and Its Impact on the Vanishing American Middle Class

Here are a few examples of bad titles:

• Television is Influential

(the title is very vague and doesn’t make the reader want to learn more)

• The Most Poisonous Snakes

(This title is too broad.)

• Outsourcing in the 21st Century

While this title is not terrible, it should include more detail. For example, what is being outsourced exactly?

A good paper title should convey your specific topic or argument and can hint at the conclusions. Here are some general guidelines to follow:

• Your title should be grammatically correct and in Title Case
• It should be formatted correctly
• It should not be a quote by someone else
• The title is not your thesis statement
• The title is not just rephrasing the topic or assignment
• Always follow your professor’s preferences
• Do not put your title in All CAPS or Italics

An abstract is a concise overview or summary of your research paper. The abstract is a paragraph that states the central question behind the research, describes the research methods, and summarizes the findings. After reading your abstract, readers should understand exactly what your paper is all about.

Abstracts are used in papers meant for publication in journals and are not typically required for student papers.

What’s the difference between an abstract and an introduction?

Many students have trouble understanding the difference between an abstract and an introduction. While it’s true that both may seem quite similar at first glance, an abstract is distinct from an introduction in several ways.

An abstract is a concise summary, whereas an introduction is much more detailed. When writing an introduction, you will provide an overview of the “why, what, when and how” of your study. On the other hand, an abstract provides readers with a quick overview of your paper without them having to read the entire paper. It will also provide a preview so they can better understand the paper when reading it or deciding whether or not they want to read it.

Why are abstracts necessary for research papers?

Abstracts help researchers to quickly identify studies relevant to subjects they need information on. If abstracts didn’t exist, people would have to sift through pages and pages of each study just to find this important information. In the modern era, abstracts are even more important because they contain keywords that make papers easier to find on the web. In addition, abstracts allow researchers to absorb key information without paying any money if the paper is not an open-source document.

Planning your abstract

Write the abstract after you have finished writing your paper.  You can’t summarize until you have written the paper.  The organization of an abstract is determined by the type of research paper.

Scientific abstracts include a concise summary of the following:

• OBJECTIVE: Clearly define the purpose of your research and the central question you aimed to answer.
• METHODS: Briefly explain research methods you used to answer your central question.
• RESULTS: Summarize the most important and relevant results of your study. Don’t include all of your results if there are too many to realistically fit.
• FINDINGS: Explain how your research answered your central problem or question. What the significance of your research? What kind of argument are you making in light of your results?  

Abstracts for research in humanities and the social sciences contain the following:

• The background and overview of your general topic
• A concise summary of your central argument and claims
• The rationale and purpose for your research in this specific area
• Your method and strategy for researching this topic and primary sources used to support your claims

There are different types of abstracts you may be asked to write, depending on the assignment. Common types of abstracts for the social sciences include the following:

• Critical Abstract: This type of abstract provides a judgment or comment on how reliable the study is. These types of abstracts are quite rare.
• Descriptive Abstract: A descriptive abstract simply summarizes the information found in a paper. There is no judgment involved, and these abstracts can be as short as 100 words.
• Informative Abstract: This is the most common type of abstract. It includes the main arguments,  the evidence presented and the most important findings. In most cases, this is the type of abstract you will be writing.
• Highlight Abstract: The purpose of a highlight abstract is to grab the reader’s attention. These are often incomplete, biased, and full of leading remarks intended only to attract readers. These are not used in academic writing.

Writing your abstract

Abstracts are usually between 150 and 300 words. An abstract for a research paper in the humanities or social sciences should be formatted as a single paragraph. For the sciences, you will need to clearly outline each section (Objective, Methods, Results, Conclusion). The abstract follows the title page.

When it comes to actually writing your abstract, you can simply copy and paste key sentences from your paper and place them in a sequence. This is a good way to organize and outline your ideas before writing the abstract. You may prefer to write it another way – just be sure to include your main objective, method, and overall conclusion.  Regardless, be sure to make your abstract a clear and concise explanation of your rationale for the essay and primary findings.

Below is a sample APA abstract that a freshman college student taking psychology and studying addictive disorders might provide for her research.

Sample Psychology Abstract

The purpose of this essay is to analyze the overall efficacy of Medicated Assisted Treatment (MAT) in individuals with opioid use disorder compared with those individuals who only receive treatment in the form of 12-step recovery style meetings and counseling. From 2017-present, most people who seek assistance for opiate addiction in the United States receive treatment in the form of MAT or 12-step (and related) forms of treatment. Some are provided with both. Using recent data from recognized and credible scientific and medical literature and peer-reviewed journals, I provide an analysis of current trends in how opioid-dependent individuals are likely to be treated and make an argument that MAT combined with counseling/therapy of any recovery model (not only 12-step type, e. g., Narcotics Anonymous or NA) is much more effective than recovery programs using 12-step meetings and fellowship as the primary method of treatment. Furthermore, I demonstrate that individuals with private insurance and access to private treatment (inpatient rehabilitation with medical detoxification and post-acute support) are more likely to receive MAT combined with therapy and, therefore, achieve long term success/ sobriety. Success is measured in the percentage of subjects who show long-term abstinence from opioids after 5 years compared to those who do not survive — or return to their opioid use disorder. The rationale for this research project is to find out how most Americans are treated for this debilitating health issue during the current “opioid epidemic” that resulted in 50,000 overdose-related deaths in 2019 alone. My hope is that my argument might increase awareness of the higher success rates of MAT compared to that of predominately 12-step only recovery as well as prompt discussion of making MAT more accessible to those without private medical insurance and the financial means to pay for it.

Sample Scientific Abstract

“The relationship between habitat use by voles (Rodentia: Microtus) and the density of vegetative cover was studied to determine if voles select forage areas at the microhabitat level.  Using live traps, I trapped, powdered, and released voles at 10 sites.  At each trap site I analyzed the type and height of the vegetation in the immediate area. Using a black light, I followed the trails left by powdered voles through the vegetation.  I mapped the trails using a compass to ascertain the tortuosity, or amount the trail twisted and turned, and visually checked the trails to determine obstruction of the movement path by vegetation.  I also checked vegetative obstruction on 4 random paths near the actual trail, to compare the cover on the trail with other nearby alternative pathways.  There was not a statistically significant difference between the amount of cover on a vole trail and the cover off to the sides of the trail when completely covered; there was a significant difference between on and off the trail when the path was completely open.  These results indicate that voles are selectively avoiding bare areas, while not choosing among dense patches at a fine microhabitat scale.”

Source: http://www.umt.edu/ugresearch/umcur/sample_abstracts.php

Additional tips for writing a research paper abstract

• Imagine you are another researcher looking at your abstract for the first time. Does it adequately summarize your research, or is essential information missing?
• Avoid redundancy.
• Do not use acronyms or abbreviations.
• Do not reference other literature.
• Do not use confusing terminology that new readers will not understand.
• Do not use images, graphs, or tables.
• Only describe the paper – do not defend your research in the abstract.
• No need to cite sources.
• Write in past tense, as the research is already complete.
• Use active tense when possible.

Example research paper on student stress

Why it’s worth learning how to write a research paper.

Learning how to write a research paper will allow you to strengthen your time management, communication, and analytical skills. What is a research paper for, after all, if not to help you grow as a student and a writer? Believe it or not, with enough practice, you’ll become a pro at finding interesting research paper topics, creating an organized research paper outline, and writing a clean draft that flows from introduction to conclusion.

Research paper template and example

• Research paper template
• Research paper example
• How to write a research paper
• Research paper topics
• Research paper outline

By Jolee McManus. Jolee earned a BA in English from the University of Georgia. She has several years of experience as a writing tutor and freelance copywriter and editor

Common Writing Assignments, Apps & Tests

• Analytical Essay
• AP synthesis Essay
• Argumentative Essay
• Book Report
• Compare and Contrast Essay
• Cause and Effect Essay
• College Admissions Essay
• Critical Analysis Essay
• Definition Essay
• Descriptive Essay
• Dissertation
• Explanatory Essay
• Expository Essay
• Informative Essay
• Narrative Essay
• Opinion Essay
• Personal Essay
• Persuasive Essay
• Reflective Essay
• Research Paper
• Rhetorical Analysis
• Scholarship Essay
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The complete guide to writing a brilliant research paper

Jun 5, 2018

• Find a curated list of 51 resources to write your research paper
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Your one-stop resource  to writing a great research paper  

Writing a research paper is a challenging job for most of us — from conceptualizing the paper, to breaking it down to its constituent parts, and finally, to referring to numerous other papers and books to get your own paper going — it is daunting, to say the least. What it is not is, impossible! What follows is a step-by-step guide on how you can make your research paper a good read and improve the chances of your paper’s acceptance: 

1. How to dive into the process of writing a research paper

Many a time, we are advised to start with a clean slate, or go Tabula Rasa! However, it isn’t always easy to make a fresh start. What you can do instead is to start on a creative note! How does one do that, you ask? By adopting a creative frame of mind! A research paper does not have to be seen as an exercise in writing turgid prose. You can start with an incident or an episode that links to your research topic. You can also start with a news item from history, to connect to your area of research. The sky is the limit when it comes to exploring such angles. If you’re jittery about sending out your paper for publication, worry not! Just ensure that you grab some eyeballs, while you bring out your creative side at the very start of diving deep into your research paper.

What follows are the next steps that need to be taken in the process of writing your research paper:

Originality is often what separates great research from mediocrity. How does one write an original research article? Here is some insight:  A young researcher’s guide to writing an original research article Writing a research paper

Before embarking on the process of writing a paper, it is important to get all your doubts cleared. One query that we frequently receive was on the difference between a review and a research paper. Find out more here:  What is the difference between a research paper and a review paper ?

Another query some researchers have is this: What is the difference between a research proposal and a research paper?

Did you know that Stuart Hall, the media and cultural theorist extraordinaire had published his work called ‘Keywords’? Keywords are often like SEO builders–Keywords help readers discover papers that are relevant to them and that they supplement the title? Here are some tips on how to write keywords:  How to create keywords for a research paper? Why do journals ask for keywords?

How does one go about putting text onto paper or screen? Does this send shivers up your spine? Here are some practical tips on how to clock in some words per hour: Tackling the task of writing text

If this is the first time you’re working on a scientific paper, here’s what you could do to put together a good one: 5 Practical tips for writing your first scientific paper

Outline of a research paper

It is always a useful endeavor to create an outline or inventory of the things that would go into your research paper. We have a ready reckoner on how you can do that. Watch this video for some excellent ideas:

Keep sub-topics and references ready 

Before you begin writing your paper, it is a good idea to collect an initial set of references to match the various topics and sub-topics to be covered in the paper. This way, you will not waste time balancing writing ideas and references, once you start writing.

What should you be including as references in your paper? This is a query we received, and here’s our answer: What should be included as references in my paper?

One of our readers asked us to help identify what a comprehensive citation list should include. Here’s how we responded: What does a comprehensive citation list include?

Picture this: As part of preparing for your literature review, you have been reading a fascinating article that has some useful pointers for your work. The article cites some primary resources that you would like to use for your own work. How does one cite primary sources that one comes across in a secondary resource? Read on to find out: Should I cite the primary source if I have come across them in a secondary source

Similarly, the article also has references that you would like to draw on. How does one go about this? Here’s what we have to say: How should I cite a reference that I found in a paper?

Authorial responsibility in citing sources is an ethical aspect of publishing that all authors must understand well. Here’s a query that we received on this aspect of publishing: What is an author’s responsibility while citing sources?

Is there a minimum or a maximum number of references that papers should have? Find out what the standard numbers of references in a paper are: What is the standard number of references a paper should have?

2. Getting the title of your research paper right

A good title grabs attention like none other. Make sure that your title is catchy and informative, all at once. Allow your title to pique your readers’ curiosity or even make a statement. Here are some easy-to-follow tips to come up with a great title for your research paper. 

Is it fair to judge a book by its cover? Unfortunately, that’s how most people decide if they’d like to read your article. Fortunately, there’s something you can do about it! Read on to read some basic tips on writing a good title for your research paper: 3 Basic tips on writing a good research paper title

I hope you found the tips useful. Writing a good title for a research paper comprises a few basic steps as well. Here are a bunch of steps that you should follow to writing a good research paper title: 5 Simple steps to write a good research paper title

Let us round it off with some more quick tips with examples of getting the title of your research paper right: Quick tips to help you get the title of your research paper right

One of our readers sent in a query that is pertinent to all of us — how to write the title and introduction to a research paper. Often, readers (including journal editors) read the title and the first passage and then decide whether they want to read any further. So, make sure your work grabs attention: Can you help me write the title and introduction of my research paper?

A good title hits like a bullet, is descriptive, yet crisp. We also have a video to guide you through the process of creating a title for your research paper. Here goes:

3. Writing the abstract of your research paper

A good abstract is one that not only succinctly summarizes your paper but also eggs your readers to read on. It provides a broad overview of your paper in an easy-to-grasp manner. Here’s more on what your abstract should read like:

Writing an abstract is like giving a glimpse of your research paper in a short paragraph. What are the components that go into writing a good abstract? Here’s a 10-step guide to writing a good abstract: A 10-step guide to making your research paper abstract more effective

Gone are the days when tough prose was the only way to express research work. With the coming of easy-to-use technology and innovative ways of explaining science, graphical and video abstracts are becoming increasingly popular. Find out more about innovative ways of putting together your abstract: The coming of age of the abstract in scientific writing

Want to learn the secret to writing a great abstract for a research paper in 3 minutes? Here’s a video that unravels tips that you could make use of:

Often times, abstracts differ according to the broad field of study that you work in. One of our readers sent in a query about writing an abstract for a social sciences or humanities paper. Find out more on how you can tailor-make your abstract here: How to write the abstract for a social sciences or humanities paper?

Is it possible for a research paper to be written without an abstract added to it? Here’s what our publication expert has to say: Can a paper be published without an abstract?

Is there a fundamental difference between an abstract and a synopsis? How do they differ from each other? If you too are baffled like one of our readers was, read the response to this question: What is the difference between an abstract and a synopsis for a biological science research paper

What are the ethics of converting a conference abstract and paper in two different journals? Is this an acceptable norm? Join in to read our reflections on this: Is it acceptable to publish a conference abstract and an article based on it in two different journals?

Are you still unsure of the importance of writing an effective abstract? This case study will surely convince you: The need to write an effective abstract: A case study

4. How to structure an original research paper (IMRAD)

The IMRAD is a passkey to the structure and function of a good research paper. Introduction, Methods, Results, and Discussion — these are the key components of a good paper.

What is the IMRAD structure and its components?

This 2-minute video tells you more about what each section of your paper should include and how the sections should be organized:

Have you felt too cluttered in your head and found it hard to grasp what you should focus on while writing your paper? Delineating the most important ideas and knowing which ideas go where is crucial for a good research paper. Here’s an excellent article to guide you on the IMRAD structure: How to convey your most important ideas through your paper

The introductory abstract tells you the gist of the research paper, hooking you on to it but keeping the suspense alive: I want to write an introductory abstract before writing a manuscript. How do I go about it?

How you write your introduction sets the tone of your paper. And the section that follows introduction is the one where you become all descriptive. For some great tips on writing the introduction and methods section to your paper, read on: The secret to writing the introduction and methods section of a manuscript

Establishing the end result is extremely important once you’ve got the readers hooked on to your research paper. And what these results imply, what are the limitations of the study, etc. is what constitutes the discussion section. So the results and discussion section of your manuscript are as important as a good introduction and body: The secret to writing the results and discussion section of a manuscript

5. How is a research paper formatted

Formatting your research paper can help you present your research in an accessible, discernible manner. Formatting adds or takes away layers from your written work, and good formatting accentuates the key ideas of your paper.

Capturing research data is an art, be it in words or in an artwork. Tables and figures are often the more communicative of the mediums to establish facts, provide comparisons, or state data. Here are some tips on how to use tables and figures effectively: 

Tips on effective use of tables and figures in research papers

As we have already attuned ourselves to various kinds of data representations, how do you zero in on the best format? Find out more here:

Choose the best format for presenting your research data

Do you find it difficult to present your data effectively in the form of tables and figures? We have some handy guidelines for you:

6 Easy guidelines for preparing tables and figures for a research manuscript

6. How should you reference your research paper?

Usually, referencing styles are prescribed by the journal or your place of submission. As you may already know, there are numerous referencing styles that help present the works you have referred to, in a concise, stylized manner.  

Which style should you pick for referencing?

There are numerous stylistic formats in which your research papers and writing can be drafted. The American Psychological Association (APA) is one among the many bodies which prescribe referencing formats for academic works.

Here’s a link that allows you to understand what the APA style sheet is: How to cite a journal article using APA style?

Have you comes across research works that involve more than one author? If the number of authors is above three, you would have noticed that the phrase ‘et al.’ is used. You would have wondered what the rules are around using the phrase. Here’s an article that sheds light on when and how you can use et al. Using et al for in-text citations in research papers

You were just introduced to a style of referencing. You would have noticed that there are various editions of such referencing formats, prescribing the style sheet. How are the style manuals updated with every version? Find out more: How are style manuals updated

If your research work has legends and illustrations, graphs and pictorial representations, how would you go about referencing them? Here’s a look at how major style guides advice on multiple illustrations: 4 Major style guides on labeling composite or multi-part illustrations

We have some interesting comparison of the styles of scientific publishing in English and Chinese! Find out more here: The style of scientific manuscripts published in Chinese and English in addition to language is quite different

Avoid grammar and writing mistakes in your writing Grasping citation styles is usually a matter of practice. How do you format an article using a particular style? Similarly, how do you steer clear of plagiarism by citing right? Read on to find out: How to format an article using APA style What citation style should I use to avoid unintentional plagiarism?

7. Avoid grammar and writing mistakes in your writing

Can you understand this sentence: “He telephoned asking me to come next Sunday today”? Language is the medium to convey your ideas to your readers, so writing an error-free paper is essential. A badly written paper could potentially lead to journal rejection. So here are some quick and easy tips to avoid grammar and writing related mistakes.

Grammar eludes many authors. Should you or should you not add a comma after “etc.”? Read on to find out: Comma after etc. at the end of a sentence

Did you write the paper or is the paper written by you? Confused? Active and passive voices are both right but should be used appropriately. Here’s what you should be using in research writing: Using the active and passive voice in research writing

Is it alright to use ‘I’ when you write your research paper, or is it too informal and not scientific enough? Here is some guidance on that: Is it acceptable to use first-person pronouns in scientific writing

Are all abbreviations Greek and Latin to you? Worry not, for our publication experts will tell you how you could use some Latin abbreviations in your research writing: Difference between eg., i.e., and namely

A lot of times, journal guidelines prescribe word limits for papers, and we tend to overshoot. Is there a knack to reduce the length of your paper without altering the meaning too much? Read on: 10 Tips to reduce the length of your research paper

What is the difference between the terms “gender” and “sex?” How should you use these terms when you write your research paper? Our experts weigh in: Should I use the word sex or gender in my scientific research paper?

Here’s a quick look at how you can use commas, brackets, and dashes when you write your research paper: Quick tips on using commas, brackets, and dashes in a research paper

Writing clearly and crisply is half the battle won. But research writing process is fraught with difficulties since many researchers feel compelled to use jargon. Here are some tips on writing in simple and clear language: 5 Steps to simplifying the language in research communication

Let us round those tips off with an article for you on improving academic writing: Language tips to improve academic writing  

8. How to keep your paper away from unethical practices

Ethics are an integral aspect of research, so it is extremely important that your research and writing are rooted in good ethical practices. Read on to find out more about how we address ethics in research:

If you are unaware of publication ethics, without  intending to plagiarize, you may accidentally stumble into the trap of plagiarism. This is called accidental plagiarism. Authors who struggle with writing in English too fall prey to this. Plagiarism is often career-wrecking and can bring disrepute and shame. It is best to avoid any remote possibilities of accidental plagiarism. Here’s how you can do that in 5 easy steps:

Find out an experienced journal editor’s views on what constitutes plagiarism, and how you can be wary of this unethical practice:

So you decided to write a research paper drawing on your previous work. Are there any pitfalls here? There may be if you decide to copy parts of your previous paper. To avoid self-plagiarism, follow the guidelines below: What’s the big deal about self-plagiarism

Is there a way of avoiding plagiarism? Well, yes! Paraphrase what you read and reference it clearly. Here is a great video on how you could paraphrase English text effectively:

Is paraphrasing necessary at all? What if you quote the original text, and then cite it? Would that amount to plagiarism? If you have these questions, then you should read what our experts have to say: Is it plagiarism if I use the same words as the original text but cite the source?

We hope our effort in putting together a curation on the norms and ways of academic and research writing helps you in tackling your everyday tryst with the world of academia and research and helps you in your journey to getting published in an international journal. Do drop us a message on what else you’d like covered extensively like this, and we’ll make sure it happens. Onwards, to write!

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• Research paper

How to Create a Structured Research Paper Outline | Example

Published on August 7, 2022 by Courtney Gahan . Revised on August 15, 2023.

A research paper outline is a useful tool to aid in the writing process , providing a structure to follow with all information to be included in the paper clearly organized.

A quality outline can make writing your research paper more efficient by helping to:

• Organize your thoughts
• Understand the flow of information and how ideas are related
• Ensure nothing is forgotten

A research paper outline can also give your teacher an early idea of the final product.

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Table of contents

Research paper outline example, how to write a research paper outline, formatting your research paper outline, language in research paper outlines.

• Definition of measles
• Rise in cases in recent years in places the disease was previously eliminated or had very low rates of infection
• Figures: Number of cases per year on average, number in recent years. Relate to immunization
• Symptoms and timeframes of disease
• Risk of fatality, including statistics
• How measles is spread
• Immunization procedures in different regions
• Different regions, focusing on the arguments from those against immunization
• Immunization figures in affected regions
• High number of cases in non-immunizing regions
• Illnesses that can result from measles virus
• Fatal cases of other illnesses after patient contracted measles
• Summary of arguments of different groups
• Summary of figures and relationship with recent immunization debate
• Which side of the argument appears to be correct?

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Professional editors proofread and edit your paper by focusing on:

• Academic style
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Follow these steps to start your research paper outline:

• Decide on the subject of the paper
• Write down all the ideas you want to include or discuss
• Organize related ideas into sub-groups
• Arrange your ideas into a hierarchy: What should the reader learn first? What is most important? Which idea will help end your paper most effectively?
• Create headings and subheadings that are effective
• Format the outline in either alphanumeric, full-sentence or decimal format

There are three different kinds of research paper outline: alphanumeric, full-sentence and decimal outlines. The differences relate to formatting and style of writing.

• Alphanumeric
• Full-sentence

An alphanumeric outline is most commonly used. It uses Roman numerals, capitalized letters, arabic numerals, lowercase letters to organize the flow of information. Text is written with short notes rather than full sentences.

• Sub-point of sub-point 1

Essentially the same as the alphanumeric outline, but with the text written in full sentences rather than short points.

• Additional sub-point to conclude discussion of point of evidence introduced in point A

A decimal outline is similar in format to the alphanumeric outline, but with a different numbering system: 1, 1.1, 1.2, etc. Text is written as short notes rather than full sentences.

• 1.1.1 Sub-point of first point
• 1.1.2 Sub-point of first point
• 1.2 Second point

To write an effective research paper outline, it is important to pay attention to language. This is especially important if it is one you will show to your teacher or be assessed on.

There are four main considerations: parallelism, coordination, subordination and division.

Parallelism: Be consistent with grammatical form

Parallel structure or parallelism is the repetition of a particular grammatical form within a sentence, or in this case, between points and sub-points. This simply means that if the first point is a verb , the sub-point should also be a verb.

Example of parallelism:

• Include different regions, focusing on the different arguments from those against immunization

Coordination: Be aware of each point’s weight

Your chosen subheadings should hold the same significance as each other, as should all first sub-points, secondary sub-points, and so on.

Example of coordination:

• Include immunization figures in affected regions
• Illnesses that can result from the measles virus

Subordination: Work from general to specific

Subordination refers to the separation of general points from specific. Your main headings should be quite general, and each level of sub-point should become more specific.

Example of subordination:

Division: break information into sub-points.

Your headings should be divided into two or more subsections. There is no limit to how many subsections you can include under each heading, but keep in mind that the information will be structured into a paragraph during the writing stage, so you should not go overboard with the number of sub-points.

Ready to start writing or looking for guidance on a different step in the process? Read our step-by-step guide on how to write a research paper .

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Gahan, C. (2023, August 15). How to Create a Structured Research Paper Outline | Example. Scribbr. Retrieved August 5, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/research-paper/outline/

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How to Write and Publish a Research Paper for a Peer-Reviewed Journal

• Open access
• Published: 30 April 2020
• Volume 36 , pages 909–913, ( 2021 )

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• Clara Busse   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-0178-1000 1 &
• Ella August   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-5151-1036 1 , 2  

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Communicating research findings is an essential step in the research process. Often, peer-reviewed journals are the forum for such communication, yet many researchers are never taught how to write a publishable scientific paper. In this article, we explain the basic structure of a scientific paper and describe the information that should be included in each section. We also identify common pitfalls for each section and recommend strategies to avoid them. Further, we give advice about target journal selection and authorship. In the online resource 1 , we provide an example of a high-quality scientific paper, with annotations identifying the elements we describe in this article.

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How to Choose the Right Journal

The Point Is…to Publish?

Writing and publishing a scientific paper

Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript.

Introduction

Writing a scientific paper is an important component of the research process, yet researchers often receive little formal training in scientific writing. This is especially true in low-resource settings. In this article, we explain why choosing a target journal is important, give advice about authorship, provide a basic structure for writing each section of a scientific paper, and describe common pitfalls and recommendations for each section. In the online resource 1 , we also include an annotated journal article that identifies the key elements and writing approaches that we detail here. Before you begin your research, make sure you have ethical clearance from all relevant ethical review boards.

Select a Target Journal Early in the Writing Process

We recommend that you select a “target journal” early in the writing process; a “target journal” is the journal to which you plan to submit your paper. Each journal has a set of core readers and you should tailor your writing to this readership. For example, if you plan to submit a manuscript about vaping during pregnancy to a pregnancy-focused journal, you will need to explain what vaping is because readers of this journal may not have a background in this topic. However, if you were to submit that same article to a tobacco journal, you would not need to provide as much background information about vaping.

Information about a journal’s core readership can be found on its website, usually in a section called “About this journal” or something similar. For example, the Journal of Cancer Education presents such information on the “Aims and Scope” page of its website, which can be found here: https://www.springer.com/journal/13187/aims-and-scope .

Peer reviewer guidelines from your target journal are an additional resource that can help you tailor your writing to the journal and provide additional advice about crafting an effective article [ 1 ]. These are not always available, but it is worth a quick web search to find out.

Identify Author Roles Early in the Process

Early in the writing process, identify authors, determine the order of authors, and discuss the responsibilities of each author. Standard author responsibilities have been identified by The International Committee of Medical Journal Editors (ICMJE) [ 2 ]. To set clear expectations about each team member’s responsibilities and prevent errors in communication, we also suggest outlining more detailed roles, such as who will draft each section of the manuscript, write the abstract, submit the paper electronically, serve as corresponding author, and write the cover letter. It is best to formalize this agreement in writing after discussing it, circulating the document to the author team for approval. We suggest creating a title page on which all authors are listed in the agreed-upon order. It may be necessary to adjust authorship roles and order during the development of the paper. If a new author order is agreed upon, be sure to update the title page in the manuscript draft.

In the case where multiple papers will result from a single study, authors should discuss who will author each paper. Additionally, authors should agree on a deadline for each paper and the lead author should take responsibility for producing an initial draft by this deadline.

Structure of the Introduction Section

The introduction section should be approximately three to five paragraphs in length. Look at examples from your target journal to decide the appropriate length. This section should include the elements shown in Fig.  1 . Begin with a general context, narrowing to the specific focus of the paper. Include five main elements: why your research is important, what is already known about the topic, the “gap” or what is not yet known about the topic, why it is important to learn the new information that your research adds, and the specific research aim(s) that your paper addresses. Your research aim should address the gap you identified. Be sure to add enough background information to enable readers to understand your study. Table 1 provides common introduction section pitfalls and recommendations for addressing them.

The main elements of the introduction section of an original research article. Often, the elements overlap

Methods Section

The purpose of the methods section is twofold: to explain how the study was done in enough detail to enable its replication and to provide enough contextual detail to enable readers to understand and interpret the results. In general, the essential elements of a methods section are the following: a description of the setting and participants, the study design and timing, the recruitment and sampling, the data collection process, the dataset, the dependent and independent variables, the covariates, the analytic approach for each research objective, and the ethical approval. The hallmark of an exemplary methods section is the justification of why each method was used. Table 2 provides common methods section pitfalls and recommendations for addressing them.

Results Section

The focus of the results section should be associations, or lack thereof, rather than statistical tests. Two considerations should guide your writing here. First, the results should present answers to each part of the research aim. Second, return to the methods section to ensure that the analysis and variables for each result have been explained.

Begin the results section by describing the number of participants in the final sample and details such as the number who were approached to participate, the proportion who were eligible and who enrolled, and the number of participants who dropped out. The next part of the results should describe the participant characteristics. After that, you may organize your results by the aim or by putting the most exciting results first. Do not forget to report your non-significant associations. These are still findings.

Tables and figures capture the reader’s attention and efficiently communicate your main findings [ 3 ]. Each table and figure should have a clear message and should complement, rather than repeat, the text. Tables and figures should communicate all salient details necessary for a reader to understand the findings without consulting the text. Include information on comparisons and tests, as well as information about the sample and timing of the study in the title, legend, or in a footnote. Note that figures are often more visually interesting than tables, so if it is feasible to make a figure, make a figure. To avoid confusing the reader, either avoid abbreviations in tables and figures, or define them in a footnote. Note that there should not be citations in the results section and you should not interpret results here. Table 3 provides common results section pitfalls and recommendations for addressing them.

Discussion Section

Opposite the introduction section, the discussion should take the form of a right-side-up triangle beginning with interpretation of your results and moving to general implications (Fig.  2 ). This section typically begins with a restatement of the main findings, which can usually be accomplished with a few carefully-crafted sentences.

Major elements of the discussion section of an original research article. Often, the elements overlap

Next, interpret the meaning or explain the significance of your results, lifting the reader’s gaze from the study’s specific findings to more general applications. Then, compare these study findings with other research. Are these findings in agreement or disagreement with those from other studies? Does this study impart additional nuance to well-accepted theories? Situate your findings within the broader context of scientific literature, then explain the pathways or mechanisms that might give rise to, or explain, the results.

Journals vary in their approach to strengths and limitations sections: some are embedded paragraphs within the discussion section, while some mandate separate section headings. Keep in mind that every study has strengths and limitations. Candidly reporting yours helps readers to correctly interpret your research findings.

The next element of the discussion is a summary of the potential impacts and applications of the research. Should these results be used to optimally design an intervention? Does the work have implications for clinical protocols or public policy? These considerations will help the reader to further grasp the possible impacts of the presented work.

Finally, the discussion should conclude with specific suggestions for future work. Here, you have an opportunity to illuminate specific gaps in the literature that compel further study. Avoid the phrase “future research is necessary” because the recommendation is too general to be helpful to readers. Instead, provide substantive and specific recommendations for future studies. Table 4 provides common discussion section pitfalls and recommendations for addressing them.

Follow the Journal’s Author Guidelines

After you select a target journal, identify the journal’s author guidelines to guide the formatting of your manuscript and references. Author guidelines will often (but not always) include instructions for titles, cover letters, and other components of a manuscript submission. Read the guidelines carefully. If you do not follow the guidelines, your article will be sent back to you.

Finally, do not submit your paper to more than one journal at a time. Even if this is not explicitly stated in the author guidelines of your target journal, it is considered inappropriate and unprofessional.

Your title should invite readers to continue reading beyond the first page [ 4 , 5 ]. It should be informative and interesting. Consider describing the independent and dependent variables, the population and setting, the study design, the timing, and even the main result in your title. Because the focus of the paper can change as you write and revise, we recommend you wait until you have finished writing your paper before composing the title.

Be sure that the title is useful for potential readers searching for your topic. The keywords you select should complement those in your title to maximize the likelihood that a researcher will find your paper through a database search. Avoid using abbreviations in your title unless they are very well known, such as SNP, because it is more likely that someone will use a complete word rather than an abbreviation as a search term to help readers find your paper.

After you have written a complete draft, use the checklist (Fig. 3 ) below to guide your revisions and editing. Additional resources are available on writing the abstract and citing references [ 5 ]. When you feel that your work is ready, ask a trusted colleague or two to read the work and provide informal feedback. The box below provides a checklist that summarizes the key points offered in this article.

Checklist for manuscript quality

Data Availability

Michalek AM (2014) Down the rabbit hole…advice to reviewers. J Cancer Educ 29:4–5

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International Committee of Medical Journal Editors. Defining the role of authors and contributors: who is an author? http://www.icmje.org/recommendations/browse/roles-and-responsibilities/defining-the-role-of-authosrs-and-contributors.html . Accessed 15 January, 2020

Vetto JT (2014) Short and sweet: a short course on concise medical writing. J Cancer Educ 29(1):194–195

Brett M, Kording K (2017) Ten simple rules for structuring papers. PLoS ComputBiol. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pcbi.1005619

Lang TA (2017) Writing a better research article. J Public Health Emerg. https://doi.org/10.21037/jphe.2017.11.06

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Ella August is grateful to the Sustainable Sciences Institute for mentoring her in training researchers on writing and publishing their research.

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Busse, C., August, E. How to Write and Publish a Research Paper for a Peer-Reviewed Journal. J Canc Educ 36 , 909–913 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13187-020-01751-z

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What is a Research Paper?

• Steps in Writing a Research Paper
• Critical Reading and Writing
• Punctuation
• Writing Exercises
• ELL/ESL Resources

"Research paper." What image comes into mind as you hear those words: working with stacks of articles and books, hunting the "treasure" of others' thoughts? Whatever image you create, it's a sure bet that you're envisioning sources of information--articles, books, people, artworks. Yet a research paper is more than the sum of your sources, more than a collection of different pieces of information about a topic, and more than a review of the literature in a field. A research paper analyzes a perspective argues a point . Regardless of the type of research paper you are writing, your finished research paper should present your own thinking backed up by others' ideas and information.

To draw a parallel, a lawyer researches and reads about many cases and uses them to support his or her own case. A scientist reads many case studies to support an idea about a scientific principle. In the same way, a history student writing about the Vietnam War might read newspaper articles and books and interview veterans to develop and/or confirm a viewpoint and support it with evidence.

A research paper is an expanded essay that presents your own interpretation or evaluation or argument. When you write an essay, you use everything that you personally know and have thought about a subject. When you write a research paper you build upon what you know about the subject and make a deliberate attempt to find out what experts know. A research paper involves surveying a field of knowledge in order to find the best possible information in that field. And that survey can be orderly and focused, if you know how to approach it. Don't worry--you won't get lost in a sea of sources.

In fact, this guide is designed to help you navigate the research voyage, through developing a research question and thesis, doing the research, writing the paper, and correctly documenting your sources.

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What is a research paper?

A research paper is a paper that makes an argument about a topic based on research and analysis.

Any paper requiring the writer to research a particular topic is a research paper. Unlike essays, which are often based largely on opinion and are written from the author's point of view, research papers are based in fact.

A research paper requires you to form an opinion on a topic, research and gain expert knowledge on that topic, and then back up your own opinions and assertions with facts found through your thorough research.

➡️ Read more about  different types of research papers .

What is the difference between a research paper and a thesis?

A thesis is a large paper, or multi-chapter work, based on a topic relating to your field of study.

A thesis is a document students of higher education write to obtain an academic degree or qualification. Usually, it is longer than a research paper and takes multiple years to complete.

Generally associated with graduate/postgraduate studies, it is carried out under the supervision of a professor or other academic of the university.

A major difference between a research paper and a thesis is that:

• a research paper presents certain facts that have already been researched and explained by others
• a thesis starts with a certain scholarly question or statement, which then leads to further research and new findings

This means that a thesis requires the author to input original work and their own findings in a certain field, whereas the research paper can be completed with extensive research only.

➡️ Getting ready to start a research paper or thesis? Take a look at our guides on how to start a research paper or how to come up with a topic for your thesis .

Frequently Asked Questions about research papers

Take a look at this list of the top 21 Free Online Journal and Research Databases , such as ScienceOpen , Directory of Open Access Journals , ERIC , and many more.

Mason Porter, Professor at UCLA, explains in this forum post the main reasons to write a research paper:

• To create new knowledge and disseminate it.
• To teach science and how to write about it in an academic style.
• Some practical benefits: prestige, establishing credentials, requirements for grants or to help one get a future grant proposal, and so on.

Generally, people involved in the academia. Research papers are mostly written by higher education students and professional researchers.

Yes, a research paper is the same as a scientific paper. Both papers have the same purpose and format.

A major difference between a research paper and a thesis is that the former presents certain facts that have already been researched and explained by others, whereas the latter starts with a certain scholarly question or statement, which then leads to further research and new findings.

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How to Write a Research Paper

Last Updated: February 18, 2024 Fact Checked

This article was co-authored by Chris Hadley, PhD . Chris Hadley, PhD is part of the wikiHow team and works on content strategy and data and analytics. Chris Hadley earned his PhD in Cognitive Psychology from UCLA in 2006. Chris' academic research has been published in numerous scientific journals. There are 14 references cited in this article, which can be found at the bottom of the page. This article has been fact-checked, ensuring the accuracy of any cited facts and confirming the authority of its sources. This article has been viewed 4,195,689 times.

Whether you’re in a history, literature, or science class, you’ll probably have to write a research paper at some point. It may seem daunting when you’re just starting out, but staying organized and budgeting your time can make the process a breeze. Research your topic, find reliable sources, and come up with a working thesis. Then create an outline and start drafting your paper. Be sure to leave plenty of time to make revisions, as editing is essential if you want to hand in your best work!

Sample Research Papers and Outlines

Researching Your Topic

• For instance, you might start with a general subject, like British decorative arts. Then, as you read, you home in on transferware and pottery. Ultimately, you focus on 1 potter in the 1780s who invented a way to mass-produce patterned tableware.

Tip: If you need to analyze a piece of literature, your task is to pull the work apart into literary elements and explain how the author uses those parts to make their point.

• Authoritative, credible sources include scholarly articles (especially those other authors reference), government websites, scientific studies, and reputable news bureaus. Additionally, check your sources' dates, and make sure the information you gather is up to date.
• Evaluate how other scholars have approached your topic. Identify authoritative sources or works that are accepted as the most important accounts of the subject matter. Additionally, look for debates among scholars, and ask yourself who presents the strongest evidence for their case. [3] X Trustworthy Source Purdue Online Writing Lab Trusted resource for writing and citation guidelines Go to source
• You’ll most likely need to include a bibliography or works cited page, so keep your sources organized. List your sources, format them according to your assigned style guide (such as MLA or Chicago ), and write 2 or 3 summary sentences below each one. [4] X Research source

• Imagine you’re a lawyer in a trial and are presenting a case to a jury. Think of your readers as the jurors; your opening statement is your thesis and you’ll present evidence to the jury to make your case.
• A thesis should be specific rather than vague, such as: “Josiah Spode’s improved formula for bone china enabled the mass production of transfer-printed wares, which expanded the global market for British pottery.”

Drafting Your Essay

• Your outline is your paper’s skeleton. After making the outline, all you’ll need to do is fill in the details.
• For easy reference, include your sources where they fit into your outline, like this: III. Spode vs. Wedgewood on Mass Production A. Spode: Perfected chemical formula with aims for fast production and distribution (Travis, 2002, 43) B. Wedgewood: Courted high-priced luxury market; lower emphasis on mass production (Himmelweit, 2001, 71) C. Therefore: Wedgewood, unlike Spode, delayed the expansion of the pottery market.

• For instance, your opening line could be, “Overlooked in the present, manufacturers of British pottery in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries played crucial roles in England’s Industrial Revolution.”
• After presenting your thesis, lay out your evidence, like this: “An examination of Spode’s innovative production and distribution techniques will demonstrate the importance of his contributions to the industry and Industrial Revolution at large.”

Tip: Some people prefer to write the introduction first and use it to structure the rest of the paper. However, others like to write the body, then fill in the introduction. Do whichever seems natural to you. If you write the intro first, keep in mind you can tweak it later to reflect your finished paper’s layout.

• After setting the context, you'd include a section on Josiah Spode’s company and what he did to make pottery easier to manufacture and distribute.
• Next, discuss how targeting middle class consumers increased demand and expanded the pottery industry globally.
• Then, you could explain how Spode differed from competitors like Wedgewood, who continued to court aristocratic consumers instead of expanding the market to the middle class.
• The right number of sections or paragraphs depends on your assignment. In general, shoot for 3 to 5, but check your prompt for your assigned length.

• If you bring up a counterargument, make sure it’s a strong claim that’s worth entertaining instead of ones that's weak and easily dismissed.
• Suppose, for instance, you’re arguing for the benefits of adding fluoride to toothpaste and city water. You could bring up a study that suggested fluoride produced harmful health effects, then explain how its testing methods were flawed.

• Sum up your argument, but don’t simply rewrite your introduction using slightly different wording. To make your conclusion more memorable, you could also connect your thesis to a broader topic or theme to make it more relatable to your reader.
• For example, if you’ve discussed the role of nationalism in World War I, you could conclude by mentioning nationalism’s reemergence in contemporary foreign affairs.

Revising Your Paper

• This is also a great opportunity to make sure your paper fulfills the parameters of the assignment and answers the prompt!
• It’s a good idea to put your essay aside for a few hours (or overnight, if you have time). That way, you can start editing it with fresh eyes.

Tip: Try to give yourself at least 2 or 3 days to revise your paper. It may be tempting to simply give your paper a quick read and use the spell-checker to make edits. However, revising your paper properly is more in-depth.

• The passive voice, such as “The door was opened by me,” feels hesitant and wordy. On the other hand, the active voice, or “I opened the door,” feels strong and concise.
• Each word in your paper should do a specific job. Try to avoid including extra words just to fill up blank space on a page or sound fancy.
• For instance, “The author uses pathos to appeal to readers’ emotions” is better than “The author utilizes pathos to make an appeal to the emotional core of those who read the passage.”

• Read your essay out loud to help ensure you catch every error. As you read, check for flow as well and, if necessary, tweak any spots that sound awkward. [13] X Trustworthy Source University of North Carolina Writing Center UNC's on-campus and online instructional service that provides assistance to students, faculty, and others during the writing process Go to source

• It’s wise to get feedback from one person who’s familiar with your topic and another who’s not. The person who knows about the topic can help ensure you’ve nailed all the details. The person who’s unfamiliar with the topic can help make sure your writing is clear and easy to understand.

Community Q&A

• Remember that your topic and thesis should be as specific as possible. Thanks Helpful 5 Not Helpful 0
• Researching, outlining, drafting, and revising are all important steps, so do your best to budget your time wisely. Try to avoid waiting until the last minute to write your paper. Thanks Helpful 6 Not Helpful 2

You Might Also Like

• ↑ https://writing.wisc.edu/handbook/assignments/planresearchpaper/
• ↑ https://writingcenter.unc.edu/tips-and-tools/evaluating-print-sources/
• ↑ https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/research_and_citation/conducting_research/research_overview/index.html
• ↑ https://poorvucenter.yale.edu/writing/graduate-writing-lab/writing-through-graduate-school/working-sources
• ↑ https://opentextbc.ca/writingforsuccess/chapter/chapter-5-putting-the-pieces-together-with-a-thesis-statement/
• ↑ https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/general_writing/the_writing_process/developing_an_outline/index.html
• ↑ https://writingcenter.unc.edu/tips-and-tools/introductions/
• ↑ https://academicguides.waldenu.edu/writingcenter/writingprocess/counterarguments
• ↑ https://writingcenter.fas.harvard.edu/pages/ending-essay-conclusions
• ↑ https://writingcenter.unc.edu/tips-and-tools/revising-drafts/
• ↑ https://academicguides.waldenu.edu/formandstyle/writing/scholarlyvoice/activepassive
• ↑ https://writingcenter.unc.edu/tips-and-tools/editing-and-proofreading/
• ↑ https://writingcenter.unc.edu/tips-and-tools/reading-aloud/
• ↑ https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/general_writing/the_writing_process/proofreading/index.html

About This Article

To write a research paper, start by researching your topic at the library, online, or using an academic database. As you conduct your research and take notes, zero in on a specific topic that you want to write about and create a 1-2 sentence thesis to state the focus of your paper. Then, create an outline that includes an introduction, 3 to 5 body paragraphs to present your arguments, and a conclusion to sum up your main points. Once you have your paper's structure organized, draft your paragraphs, focusing on 1 argument per paragraph. Use the information you found through your research to back up your claims and prove your thesis statement. Finally, proofread and revise your content until it's polished and ready to submit. For more information on researching and citing sources, read on! Did this summary help you? Yes No

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What Is a Research Paper?

• An Introduction to Punctuation

Olivia Valdes was the Associate Editorial Director for ThoughtCo. She worked with Dotdash Meredith from 2017 to 2021.

• B.A., American Studies, Yale University

A research paper is a common form of academic writing . Research papers require students and academics to locate information about a topic (that is, to conduct research ), take a stand on that topic, and provide support (or evidence) for that position in an organized report.

The term research paper may also refer to a scholarly article that contains the results of original research or an evaluation of research conducted by others. Most scholarly articles must undergo a process of peer review before they can be accepted for publication in an academic journal.

Define Your Research Question

The first step in writing a research paper is defining your research question . Has your instructor assigned a specific topic? If so, great—you've got this step covered. If not, review the guidelines of the assignment. Your instructor has likely provided several general subjects for your consideration. Your research paper should focus on a specific angle on one of these subjects. Spend some time mulling over your options before deciding which one you'd like to explore more deeply.

Try to choose a research question that interests you. The research process is time-consuming, and you'll be significantly more motivated if you have a genuine desire to learn more about the topic. You should also consider whether you have access to all of the resources necessary to conduct thorough research on your topic, such as primary and secondary sources .

Create a Research Strategy 

Approach the research process systematically by creating a research strategy. First, review your library's website. What resources are available? Where will you find them? Do any resources require a special process to gain access? Start gathering those resources—especially those that may be difficult to access—as soon as possible.

Second, make an appointment with a reference librarian . A reference librarian is nothing short of a research superhero. He or she will listen to your research question, offer suggestions for how to focus your research, and direct you toward valuable sources that directly relate to your topic.

Evaluate Sources

Now that you've gathered a wide array of sources, it's time to evaluate them. First, consider the reliability of the information. Where is the information coming from? What is the origin of the source? Second, assess the  relevance  of the information. How does this information relate to your research question? Does it support, refute, or add context to your position? How does it relate to the other sources you'll be using in your paper? Once you have determined that your sources are both reliable and relevant, you can proceed confidently to the writing phase. 

Why Write Research Papers? 

The research process is one of the most taxing academic tasks you'll be asked to complete. Luckily, the value of writing a research paper goes beyond that A+ you hope to receive. Here are just some of the benefits of research papers. 

• Learning Scholarly Conventions:  Writing a research paper is a crash course in the stylistic conventions of scholarly writing. During the research and writing process, you'll learn how to document your research, cite sources appropriately, format an academic paper, maintain an academic tone, and more.
• Organizing Information: In a way, research is nothing more than a massive organizational project. The information available to you is near-infinite, and it's your job to review that information, narrow it down, categorize it, and present it in a clear, relevant format. This process requires attention to detail and major brainpower.
• Managing Time: Research papers put your time management  skills to the test. Every step of the research and writing process takes time, and it's up to you to set aside the time you'll need to complete each step of the task. Maximize your efficiency by creating a research schedule and inserting blocks of "research time" into your calendar as soon as you receive the assignment. 
• Exploring Your Chosen Subject:  We couldn't forget the best part of research papers—learning about something that truly excites you. No matter what topic you choose, you're bound to come away from the research process with new ideas and countless nuggets of fascinating information. 

The best research papers are the result of genuine interest and a thorough research process. With these ideas in mind, go forth and research. Welcome to the scholarly conversation!

• Documentation in Reports and Research Papers
• Thesis: Definition and Examples in Composition
• An Introduction to Academic Writing
• How to Use Footnotes in Research Papers
• How to Write an Abstract
• Definition and Examples of Analysis in Composition
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• How to Take Better Notes During Lectures, Discussions, and Interviews
• What Is a Literature Review?
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• Topic In Composition and Speech
• Focusing in Composition
• What Is a Citation?
• What Are Endnotes, Why Are They Needed, and How Are They Used?
• What Is Plagiarism?
• Definition of Appendix in a Book or Written Work

How to Write a Research Paper: Parts of the Paper

• Choosing Your Topic
• Citation & Style Guides This link opens in a new window
• Critical Thinking
• Evaluating Information
• Parts of the Paper
• Writing Tips from UNC-Chapel Hill
• Librarian Contact

Parts of the Research Paper Papers should have a beginning, a middle, and an end. Your introductory paragraph should grab the reader's attention, state your main idea, and indicate how you will support it. The body of the paper should expand on what you have stated in the introduction. Finally, the conclusion restates the paper's thesis and should explain what you have learned, giving a wrap up of your main ideas.

1. The Title The title should be specific and indicate the theme of the research and what ideas it addresses. Use keywords that help explain your paper's topic to the reader. Try to avoid abbreviations and jargon. Think about keywords that people would use to search for your paper and include them in your title.

2. The Abstract The abstract is used by readers to get a quick overview of your paper. Typically, they are about 200 words in length (120 words minimum to  250 words maximum). The abstract should introduce the topic and thesis, and should provide a general statement about what you have found in your research. The abstract allows you to mention each major aspect of your topic and helps readers decide whether they want to read the rest of the paper. Because it is a summary of the entire research paper, it is often written last. 

3. The Introduction The introduction should be designed to attract the reader's attention and explain the focus of the research. You will introduce your overview of the topic,  your main points of information, and why this subject is important. You can introduce the current understanding and background information about the topic. Toward the end of the introduction, you add your thesis statement, and explain how you will provide information to support your research questions. This provides the purpose and focus for the rest of the paper.

4. Thesis Statement Most papers will have a thesis statement or main idea and supporting facts/ideas/arguments. State your main idea (something of interest or something to be proven or argued for or against) as your thesis statement, and then provide your supporting facts and arguments. A thesis statement is a declarative sentence that asserts the position a paper will be taking. It also points toward the paper's development. This statement should be both specific and arguable. Generally, the thesis statement will be placed at the end of the first paragraph of your paper. The remainder of your paper will support this thesis.

Students often learn to write a thesis as a first step in the writing process, but often, after research, a writer's viewpoint may change. Therefore a thesis statement may be one of the final steps in writing. 

Examples of Thesis Statements from Purdue OWL

5. The Literature Review The purpose of the literature review is to describe past important research and how it specifically relates to the research thesis. It should be a synthesis of the previous literature and the new idea being researched. The review should examine the major theories related to the topic to date and their contributors. It should include all relevant findings from credible sources, such as academic books and peer-reviewed journal articles. You will want  to:

• Explain how the literature helps the researcher understand the topic.
• Try to show connections and any disparities between the literature.
• Identify new ways to interpret prior research.
• Reveal any gaps that exist in the literature.

More about writing a literature review. . .

6. The Discussion ​The purpose of the discussion is to interpret and describe what you have learned from your research. Make the reader understand why your topic is important. The discussion should always demonstrate what you have learned from your readings (and viewings) and how that learning has made the topic evolve, especially from the short description of main points in the introduction.Explain any new understanding or insights you have had after reading your articles and/or books. Paragraphs should use transitioning sentences to develop how one paragraph idea leads to the next. The discussion will always connect to the introduction, your thesis statement, and the literature you reviewed, but it does not simply repeat or rearrange the introduction. You want to: 

• Demonstrate critical thinking, not just reporting back facts that you gathered.
• If possible, tell how the topic has evolved over the past and give it's implications for the future.
• Fully explain your main ideas with supporting information.
• Explain why your thesis is correct giving arguments to counter points.

7. The Conclusion A concluding paragraph is a brief summary of your main ideas and restates the paper's main thesis, giving the reader the sense that the stated goal of the paper has been accomplished. What have you learned by doing this research that you didn't know before? What conclusions have you drawn? You may also want to suggest further areas of study, improvement of research possibilities, etc. to demonstrate your critical thinking regarding your research.

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Research Paper

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A research paper is a product of seeking information, analysis, human thinking, and time. Basically, when scholars want to get answers to questions, they start to search for information to expand, use, approve, or deny findings. In simple words, research papers are results of processes by considering writing works and following specific requirements. Besides, scientists study and expand many theories, developing social or technological aspects of human science. However, in order to provide a quality product, they need to know the definition of such a work, its characteristics, type, structure, format, and how to write it in 7 steps.

What Is a Research Paper and Its Purpose

According to its definition, a research paper is a detailed and structured academic document that presents an individual’s analysis, interpretation, or argument based on existing knowledge and literature. The main purpose of writing a research paper is to contribute to existing literature, develop critical thinking and scientific skills, support academic and professional growth, share findings, demonstrate knowledge and competence, and encourage lifelong learning (Wankhade, 2018). Moreover, such a work is one of the types of papers where scholars analyze questions or topics, look for secondary sources, and write papers on defined themes. For example, if an assignment is to write about some causes of global warming or any other topic, a person must write a research proposal on it, analyzing important points and credible sources (Goodson, 2024). Although essays focus on personal knowledge, writing a scholarly document means analyzing sources by following academic standards. In turn, scientists must meet the strict structure of research papers (Busse & August, 2020). As such, writers need to analyze their topics, start to search for sources, cover key aspects, process credible articles, and organize final studies properly. However, a research paper’s length can vary significantly depending on its academic level and purpose.

• Length: Typically 2-10 pages.
• Word Count: Approximately 500-2,500 words.
• Length: Usually 10-30 pages.
• Word Count: Around 2,500-7,500 words.
• Length: Master’s theses are generally 40-80 pages, while doctoral dissertations can be 100-300 pages or more.
• Word Count: Master’s theses are typically 10,000-20,000 words, and doctoral dissertations can range from 20,000-100,000 words, depending on the discipline and complexity.
• Length: Generally 8-12 pages for short articles, but review articles and comprehensive studies can be longer.
• Word Count: Approximately 3,000-8,000 words.
• Length: Usually 5-10 pages.
• Word Count: Around 2,000-4,000 words.
• Length: Typically 6-12 pages.
• Word Count: Approximately 2,500-6,000 words.
• Length: Varies widely, often 20-100 pages.
• Word Count: Around 5,000-30,000 words.
• Length: Generally 5-15 pages.
• Word Count: Approximately 2,000-5,000 words.
• Length: Varies, usually 20-40 pages per chapter.
• Word Count: Around 5,000-10,000 words.
• Length: Typically 100-300 pages.
• Word Count: Approximately 30,000-100,000 words.

Research Characteristics

Any type of work must meet some standards. By considering a research paper, this work must be written accordingly. In this case, their main characteristics are the length, style, format, and sources (Graham & McCoy, 2014). Firstly, the study’s length defines the number of needed sources to be analyzed. Then, the style must be formal and cover impersonal and inclusive language (Graham & McCoy, 2014). Moreover, the format means academic standards of how to organize final works, including its structure and norms. Finally, sources and their number define works as research papers because of the volume of analyzed information (Graham & McCoy, 2014). Hence, these characteristics must be considered while writing scholarly documents. In turn, general formatting guidelines are:

• Use a standard font (e.g., Times New Roman, 12-point).
• Double-space the text.
• Include 1-inch margins on all sides.
• Indent the first line of each paragraph.
• Number all pages consecutively, usually in the upper right corner.

Types of Research Papers

In general, the length of assignments can be different because of instructions. For example, there are two main types of research papers, such as typical and serious works. Firstly, a typical research paper may include definitive, argumentative, interpretive, and other works (Goodson, 2024). In this case, typical papers are from 2 to 10 pages, where students analyze study questions or specific topics. Then, a serious research composition is the expanded version of typical works. In turn, the length of such a paper is more than 10 pages (Wankhade, 2018). Basically, such works cover a serious analysis with many sources. Therefore, typical and serious works are two types that scholars should consider when writing their documents.

Typical Research Works

Basically, typical research works depend on assignments, the number of sources, and the paper’s length. So, this composition is usually a long essay with the analyzed evidence. For example, students in high school and college get such assignments to learn how to research and analyze topics (Goodson, 2024). In this case, they do not need to conduct serious experiments with the analysis and calculation of data. Moreover, students must use the Internet or libraries in searching for credible secondary sources to find potential answers to specific questions. As a result, students gather information on topics and learn how to take defined sides, present unique positions, or explain new directions (Goodson, 2024). Hence, they require an analysis of primary and secondary sources without serious experiments or data.

Serious Research Studies

Although long papers require a lot of time for finding and analyzing credible sources, real experiments are an integral part of research work. Firstly, scholars at universities need to analyze the information from past studies to expand or disapprove of topics (Wankhade, 2018). Then, if scholars want to prove specific positions or ideas, they must get real evidence. In this case, experiments can be surveys, calculations, or other types of data that scholars do personally. Moreover, a dissertation is a serious research paper that young scientists write based on the analysis of topics, data from conducted experiments, and conclusions at the end of work (Wankhade, 2018). Thus, they are studies that take a lot of time, analysis of sources with gained data, and interpretation of results.

The structure and format of research papers depend on assignment requirements. In fact, when students get their assignments and instructions, they need to analyze specific research questions or topics, find reliable sources, and write final works. Basically, their structure and format consist of the abstract, outline, introduction, literature review, methodology, results, discussion, recommendations, limitations, conclusion, acknowledgments, and references (Graham & McCoy, 2014). However, students may not include some of these sections because of assigned instructions that they have and specific types they must follow. For instance, if instructions are not supposed to conduct real experiments, the methodology section can be skipped because of the data’s absence. In turn, the structure of the final work consists of:

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🔸 The First Part of a Research Study

Abstract or Executive Summary means the first section of a research paper that provides the study’s purpose, its questions or suggestions, and main findings with conclusions. Moreover, this paragraph of about 150 words should be written when the whole work is finished already (Graham & McCoy, 2014). Hence, abstract sections should describe key aspects of studies, including discussions about the relevance of findings.

Outline or Table of Contents serves as a clear map of the structure of a study.

Introduction provides the main information on problem statements, the indication of methodology, important findings, and principal conclusion. Basically, this section covers rationales behind the work or background research, explanation of the importance, defending its relevance, a brief description of experimental designs, defined study questions, hypotheses, or key aspects (Busse & August, 2020). Hence, scholars should provide a short overview of their studies.

🔸 Literature Review and Research or Experiment

Literature Review is needed for the analysis of past studies or scholarly articles to be familiar with research questions or topics. For example, this section summarizes and synthesizes arguments and ideas from scholarly sources without adding new contributions (Scholz, 2022). In turn, this part is organized around arguments or ideas, not sources.

Methodology or Materials and Methods covers explanations of research designs. Basically, techniques for gathering information and other aspects related to experiments must be described in a research paper. For instance, students and scholars document all specialized materials and general procedures (Turbek et al., 2016). In this case, individuals may use some or all of the methods in further studies or judge the scientific merit of the work. Moreover, scientists should explain how they are going to conduct their experiments.

Results mean the gained information or data after the study or experiment. Basically, scholars should present and illustrate their findings (Turbek et al., 2016). Moreover, this section may include tables or figures.

🔸 Analysis of Findings

Discussion is a section where scientists review the information in the introduction part, evaluate gained results, or compare it with past studies. In particular, students and scholars interpret gained data or findings in appropriate depth. For example, if results differ from expectations at the beginning, scientists should explain why that may have happened (Turbek et al., 2016). However, if results agree with rationales, scientists should describe theories that the evidence is supported.

Recommendations take their roots from a discussion section where scholars propose potential solutions or new ideas based on obtained results. In this case, if scientists have any recommendations on how to improve this research so that other scholars can use evidence in further studies, they must write what they think in this section (Graham & McCoy, 2014). Besides, authors can provide their suggestions for further investigation after their evaluations.

Limitations mean a consideration of research weaknesses and results to get new directions. For instance, if scholars find any limitations in their studies that may affect experiments, scholars must not use such knowledge because of the same mistakes (Busse & August, 2020). Moreover, scientists should avoid contradicting results, and, even more, they must write them in this section.

🔸 The Final Part of a Conducted Research

Conclusion includes final claims of a research paper based on findings. Basically, this section covers final thoughts and the summary of the whole work. Moreover, this section may be used instead of limitations and recommendations that would be too small by themselves (Wankhade, 2018). In this case, scientists do not need to use headings as recommendations and limitations.

Acknowledgments or Appendix may take different forms, from paragraphs to charts. In this section, scholars include additional information about what they did.

References mean a section where students, scholars, or scientists provide all used sources by following the format and academic rules.

How to Write a Research Paper in 7 Steps

Writing any research paper requires following a systematic process. Firstly, writers need to select a focused topic they want to analyze. To achieve this objective, comprehensive preliminary research must be conducted to gather credible and relevant sources (Scholz, 2022). After reviewing the existing literature, writers must develop a clear and concise thesis statement sentence to guide the direction of their studies. Then, organizing the main arguments and evidence into a detailed outline ensures a coherent structure. In turn, the initial draft should be started with a compelling introduction, proceeded with body paragraphs that substantiate the thesis through analysis, and ended with a conclusion that underscores the study’s importance (Turbek et al., 2016). Basically, concluding the work by summarizing the findings and emphasizing the significance of the study is crucial. Moreover, revising and editing for content, coherence, and clarity ensures quality (Busse & August, 2020). Finally, proofreading for grammatical accuracy and ensuring adherence to the required formatting guidelines is necessary before submitting the final paper. Hence, when starting a research paper, writers should do the next:

Step 1: Choose a Topic

• Select a Broad Subject: Begin by identifying a specific subject or theme of interest.
• Narrow Down Your Topic: Focus on a specific aspect of the subject or theme to make your examination more focused.
• Establish the Background: Do a preliminary analysis of sources to ensure there is enough information available and refine your topic further.
• Formulate a Research Question : Create a first draft of a clear, concise research question or thesis statement to guide your study.

Step 2: Conduct Preliminary Analysis

• Gather Credible Sources: Use books, academic journals, scholarly articles, reputable websites, and other primary and secondary sources.
• Choose Only Relevant Sources: Review chosen sources for their content and pick only relevant ones.
• Take Notes: Organize your notes, highlighting key points and evidence and how they relate to your initial thesis.
• Create an Annotated Bibliography: Summarize each source in one paragraph and note how it will contribute to your paper.

Step 3: Develop a Working Thesis Statement

• Be Specific: Revise your initial thesis, making it a working one, outlining the main argument or position of your paper.
• Make It Debatable: Ensure that your working thesis presents a viewpoint that others might challenge or debate.
• Be Concise: Write your working thesis statement in one or two sentences.
• Stay Focused: Your working thesis must be focused and specific.

Step 4: Create an Outline

• Beginning: Outline your opening paragraph, including your working thesis statement.
• Middle Sections : Separate your body into sections with headings for each main point or argument and include sub-points and supporting evidence.
• Ending: Plan your concluding section to summarize your findings and restate your thesis in the light of the evidence presented.
• The List of Sources: Finish your outline by providing citation entries of your sources.

Step 5: Write the First Draft

• Introduction: Start with an engaging opening, provide background information, and state your thesis.
• Body Section: Each body paragraph should focus on a single idea and start with a specific topic sentence, followed by evidence and analysis that supports your thesis.
• Conclusion: Summarize your arguments, restate the importance of your topic, and suggest further investigation, analysis, examination, or possible implications.
• Reference Page: Include the list of references used in your first draft.

Step 6: Revise and Edit

• Content Review: Check for clarity, coherence, and whether each part supports your thesis.
• Structure and Flow: Ensure logical flow of ideas between sections and paragraphs.
• Grammar and Style: Correct grammatical errors, improve sentence structure, and refine your writing style.
• Citations: Ensure all sources are correctly cited in your chosen citation style (APA, MLA, Chicago/Turabian, Harvard, etc.).

Step 7: Finalize Your Paper

• Proofread: Carefully proofread for any remaining errors or typos.
• Format: Ensure your paper adheres to the required format, including title page, headers, font, and margins.
• Reference List: Double-check your bibliography, reference, or works cited page for accuracy.
• Submit: Make sure to submit your paper by the deadline.

In conclusion, a research paper is a formal academic document designed to provide a detailed analysis, interpretation, or argument based on in-depth study. Its structured format includes providing opening components, such as the abstract, outline, and introduction; study aspects, such as literature review, methodology, and results; analysis of findings, such as discussion, recommendations, and limitations; and final parts, such as conclusion, acknowledgments, appendices, and references. Understanding the essential elements and adhering to academic standards ensures the creation of a well-organized and meaningful research paper.

Busse, C., & August, E. (2020). How to write and publish a research paper for a peer-reviewed journal. Journal of Cancer Education , 36 (5), 909–913. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13187-020-01751-z

Goodson, P. (2024). Becoming an academic writer: 50 exercises for paced, productive, and powerful writing . Sage.

Graham, L., & McCoy, I. (2014). How to write a great research paper: A step-by-step handbook. Incentive Publications by World Book.

Scholz, F. (2022). Writing and publishing a scientific paper. ChemTexts , 8 (1), 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40828-022-00160-7

Turbek, S. P., Chock, T. M., Donahue, K., Havrilla, C. A., Oliverio, A. M., Polutchko, S. K., Shoemaker, L. G., & Vimercati, L. (2016). Scientific writing made easy: A step‐by‐step guide to undergraduate writing in the Biological Sciences. The Bulletin of the Ecological Society of America , 97 (4), 417–426. https://doi.org/10.1002/bes2.1258

Wankhade, L. (2018). How to write and publish a research paper: A complete guide to writing and publishing a research paper . Independent Published.

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Common Paper Types

• Literature Review
• Scoping Review
• Systematic Review
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Understanding Literature Reviews 

I.  Getting Started with a Workshop Video  (Highly recommended!)

• Searching for Literature Reviews: Before You Write, You Have to Find   https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9la5ytz9MmM

          A lecture by the Writing Center, TAMU.

II.  What is a Literature Review?

• Generally, the purpose of a review is to analyze critically a segment of a published body of knowledge through summary, classification, and comparison of prior research studies, reviews of literature, and theoretical articles. <http://writing.wisc.edu/Handbook/ReviewofLiterature.html>  
•  A literature review can be just a simple summary of the sources, but it usually has an organizational pattern and combines both summary and synthesis. A summary is a recap of the important information of the source, but a synthesis is a re-organization, or a reshuffling, of that information. It might give a new interpretation of old material or combine new with old interpretations. Or it might trace the intellectual progression of the field, including major debates. And depending on the situation, the literature review may evaluate the sources and advise the reader on the most pertinent or relevant.  < http://writingcenter.unc.edu/resources/handouts-demos/specific-writing-assignments/literature-reviews >  
•  A literature review is a body of text that aims to review the critical points of current knowledge including substantive findings as well as theoretical and methodological contributions to a particular topic...Its ultimate goal is to bring the reader up to date with current literature on a topic and forms the basis for another goal, such as future research that may be needed in the area. <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literature_review>

III.  What Major Steps Literature Reviews Require?

• 1. Develop a review protocol. Protocols define the scope of studies that will be reviewed, the process through which studies will be identified, and the outcomes that will be examined. Protocols also specify the time period during which relevant studies will have been conducted, the outcomes to be examined in the review, and keyword strategies for the literature search. 2. Identify relevant studies, often through a systematic search of the literature. 3. Screen studies for relevance and the adequacy of study design, implementation, and reporting. 4. Retrieve and summarize information on the intervention studied, the study characteristics, and the study findings. 5. Combine findings within studies and across studies when relevant. < http://ies.ed.gov/ncee/wwc/pdf/reference_resources/wwc_procedures_v2_1_standards_handbook.pdf>  
• The basic stages in a typical research project are: i) identify your topic of interest, ii) perform a literature review, iii) generate related questions, iv) state your unsolved problem or hypothesis, v) find or develop a solution, and vi) document your results.  
• The four stages required: Problem formulation—which topic or field is being examined and what are its component issues? Literature search—finding materials relevant to the subject being explored Data evaluation—determining which literature makes a significant contribution to the understanding of the topic Analysis and interpretation—discussing the findings and conclusions of pertinent literature < http://library.ucsc.edu/help/howto/write-a-literature-review#components >

IV.    What Basic Elements Comprise a Literature Review?   

• An overview of the subject, issue or theory under consideration, along with the objectives of the literature review
• Division of works under review into categories (e.g. those in support of a particular position, those against, and those offering alternative theses entirely)
• Explanation of how each work is similar to and how it varies from the others
• Conclusions as to which pieces are best considered in their argument, are most convincing of their opinions, and make the greatest contribution to the understanding and development of their area of research    

          < http://library.ucsc.edu/help/howto/write-a-literature-review#components > V.    Which Citation Tool Are You Going to Use to Manage the Search Results?

•   Choose your citation tool before conducing your literature reviews. If you decide to use  RefWorks , the information can be found at  http://tamu.libguides.com/refworks .          

VII. Other Useful Guides

• Literature Reviews (University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill)
• The Literature Review: A Few Tips On Conducting It
• How to Write a Literature Review  (UCSC)
• Learn how to write a review of literature  (WISC)
• Reviewing the Literature
• Next: Scoping Review >>
• Last Updated: Aug 5, 2024 7:43 AM
• URL: https://tamu.libguides.com/c.php?g=1415100

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Finding and Reading Journal Articles

• Journal Articles: Why You Use Them

Why are articles so important to research?

• Subject Databases: Organizing Research Conversations
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• Sources in the Disciplines
• Reading in the Disciplines

Journal articles are the academic's stock in trade, t he basic means of communicating research findings to an audience of one’s peers. That holds true across the disciplinary spectrum, so no matter where you land as a concentrator, you can expect to rely on them heavily. 

Regardless of the discipline, moreover,  journal articles perform an important knowledge-updating function .

Textbooks and handbooks and manuals will have a secondary function for chemists and physicists and biologists, of course. But in the sciences, articles are the standard and  preferred publication form. 

In the social sciences and humanities , where knowledge develops a little less rapidly or is driven less by issues of time-sensitivity , journal articles and books are more often used together.

Not all important and influential ideas warrant book-length studies, and some inquiry is just better suited to the size and scope and concentrated discussion that the article format offers.

Journal articles sometimes just present the most  appropriate  solution for communicating findings or making a convincing argument.  A 20-page article may perfectly fit a researcher's needs.  Sustaining that argument for 200 pages might be unnecessary -- or impossible.

The quality of a research article and the legitimacy of its findings are verified by other scholars, prior to publication, through a rigorous evaluation method called peer-review . This seal of approval by other scholars doesn't mean that an article is the best, or truest, or last word on a topic. If that were the case, research on lots of things would cease. Peer review simply means other experts believe the methods, the evidence, the conclusions of an article have met important standards of legitimacy, reliability, and intellectual honesty.

Searching the journal literature is part of being a responsible researcher at any level: professor, grad student, concentrator, first-year. Knowing why academic articles matter will help you make good decisions about what you find -- and what you choose to rely on in your work.

Think of journal articles as the way you tap into the ongoing scholarly conversation , as a way of testing the currency of  a finding, analysis, or argumentative position, and a way of bolstering the authority (or plausibility) of explanations you'll offer in the papers and projects you'll complete at Harvard. 

• Next: Subject Databases: Organizing Research Conversations >>

Except where otherwise noted, this work is subject to a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License , which allows anyone to share and adapt our material as long as proper attribution is given. For details and exceptions, see the Harvard Library Copyright Policy ©2021 Presidents and Fellows of Harvard College.

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How to Read Research Papers Like a PhD Student

Article 28 Jul 2024 124 0

Reading research papers is an essential skill for any academic or student, especially those pursuing advanced degrees. However, it can be a daunting task for many. This post will explore effective methods for reading academic papers, strategies for understanding scientific research papers, techniques for analyzing research papers, and how to critically evaluate academic articles. By the end of this guide, you will be equipped with PhD-level techniques for reading research papers effectively.

Common Mistakes Students Make While Reading Papers

Differences in Reading Approaches Between Undergraduate Students and PhD Students

Undergraduate students often approach reading research papers differently than PhD students. Understanding these differences can help in adopting more effective reading strategies.

Undergraduate Students

• Surface Reading : Often focus on getting through the material rather than understanding it deeply.
• Limited Context : May not have enough background knowledge to fully grasp complex concepts.
• Passive Approach : Tend to read passively without questioning or critically analyzing the content.

PhD Students

• Deep Reading : Focus on understanding the content deeply and critically.
• Extensive Context : Have a broader background knowledge, enabling them to understand complex concepts better.
• Active Approach : Actively question and analyze the content, looking for gaps, assumptions, and implications.

Step-by-Step Guide on How to Read a Research Paper Efficiently

Reading a research paper efficiently requires a structured approach. Here’s a step-by-step guide:

Step 1: Skim the Paper First

Before diving deep into the content, skim the paper to get an overview of its structure and main points. Focus on:

• Title and Abstract : Provides a summary of the research question, methods, results, and conclusions.
• Introduction : Sets the context and states the research question or hypothesis.
• Headings and Subheadings : Gives an idea of the paper’s structure and main sections.
• Figures and Tables : Visuals often highlight key data and findings.

Step 2: Read the Introduction and Conclusion

The introduction provides background information and states the research question or hypothesis. The conclusion summarizes the findings and their implications. Reading these sections first gives you a context for understanding the rest of the paper.

Step 3: Understand the Methodology

The methodology section explains how the research was conducted. Understanding this section is crucial for evaluating the validity and reliability of the findings. Look for details on:

• Study Design : Type of study (e.g., experimental, observational).
• Participants : Who was involved in the study.
• Procedures : Steps taken to conduct the research.
• Data Analysis : Methods used to analyze the data.

Step 4: Analyze the Results

The results section presents the findings of the research. Focus on:

• Key Findings : What the study found.
• Figures and Tables : Visual representations of the data.
• Statistical Analysis : Significance of the results.

Step 5: Critically Evaluate the Discussion

The discussion section interprets the results and places them in context. Look for:

• Interpretation of Results : How the authors interpret their findings.
• Limitations : Acknowledged weaknesses or limitations of the study.
• Future Research : Suggestions for future research directions.

Step 6: Review the References

The references section can provide valuable additional sources of information and context. Reviewing the references can help you understand the broader research landscape.

Tips on Identifying the Main Argument and Key Points

Strategies for Note-Taking and Summarizing

Effective note-taking and summarizing are essential for retaining information and understanding research papers. Here are some strategies:

Note-Taking Techniques

• Annotation : Annotate the paper by highlighting important points and writing notes in the margins.
• Mind Mapping : Create a mind map to visualize the structure and main points of the paper.
• Digital Tools : Use digital tools like Evernote or OneNote to organize your notes.

Summarizing Techniques

• Paraphrasing : Rewrite the main points in your own words.
• Bullet Points : Use bullet points to list key points and findings.
• Abstract Summary : Write a brief summary that includes the main argument, methods, results, and conclusions.

Importance of Understanding the Paper’s Structure

Understanding the structure of a research paper is crucial for efficient reading and comprehension. Research papers typically follow a standard structure:

A brief summary of the research question, methods, results, and conclusions.

Introduction

Sets the context, states the research question or hypothesis, and outlines the paper's structure.

Methodology

Describes how the research was conducted, including the study design, participants, procedures, and data analysis methods.

Presents the findings of the research, often using figures and tables.

Interprets the results, discusses their implications, and suggests future research directions.

Lists the sources cited in the paper, providing additional context and information.

Examples of Effective Reading Techniques

Here are some examples of effective reading techniques that can help you read research papers like a PhD student:

Skimming for Main Ideas

Before diving into the details, skim the paper to get an overview of its structure and main points. Focus on the title, abstract, introduction, headings, and conclusion.

Highlighting Key Points

Use a highlighter to mark important points, key arguments, and significant findings. This makes it easier to review the paper later.

Making Margin Notes

Write notes in the margins to summarize key points, ask questions, or highlight important concepts. This helps in retaining information and making connections between different parts of the paper.

Creating Summaries

After reading each section, write a brief summary in your own words. This ensures you understand the content and helps in retaining information.

Using Digital Tools

Utilize digital tools like Mendeley, EndNote, or Zotero to organize and annotate research papers. These tools can help you manage your reading list, take notes, and cite sources.

Resources and Tools to Assist in Reading and Understanding Research Papers

Reading research papers like a PhD student requires a strategic and structured approach. By avoiding common mistakes, understanding the differences in reading approaches, and following a step-by-step guide, you can improve your ability to read, understand, and analyze academic papers effectively. Utilizing effective note-taking and summarizing strategies, understanding the paper’s structure, and using various resources and tools can further enhance your research comprehension and academic literacy. Implement these techniques to elevate your reading skills and achieve academic success.

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Romeo And Juliet Research Paper

"Is love a tender thing? It is too rough, too rude, too boisterous, and it pricks like thorn." In the play "Romeo and Juliet", by William Shakespeare, the only child of two feuding families fall madly in love with each other. However, because of their parent's feud, Romeo Montague and Juliet Capulet are forced to keep their relationship a secret because they know their families would never approve of their love. The parent's valued their petty feud over their own child's happiness, giving Romeo and Juliet no choice but to kill themselves in order to be together. While Romeo and Juliet did make many quick and irrational decisions, in the end, it was their parent's fault for their tragic death. At the beginning of the play, Romeo's father …show more content…

An she agreed within her scope of choice, lies my consent and fair according voice", (Act 1, Scene 2). However later during the play, her parents arrange a marriage and tell her "...early next Thursday morn, the gallant, young, and noble gentleman, the County Paris, at Saint Peter's Church, shall happily make thee there a joyful bride", (Act 3, Scene 5). In response, Juliet tells them "Not proud you have, but thankful that you have. Proud can I never be of what I hate, but thankful even for hate that is meant love", (Act 3, Scene 5). Juliet tries to explain to her parents that while she's thankful for her parent's efforts, she doesn't want to marry Paris, whom her parent's like just because of his credentials. Angered with Juliet, her father yells "That God had lent us but this only child, but now I see this one is one too much and that we have a curse in having her. Out on her, hilding!" (Act 3, Scene 5). Before, he was all sweet and gentle when he told Paris that the person Juliet wants to marry is her decision and that his approval is only a part of it. However, when they tell Juliet that they're forcing her to marry Paris against her will, not knowing she's already married to Romeo, she respectfully declines which makes her father furious and he practically disowns her by saying she's a mistake and a …show more content…

Romeo's parents were concerned with how sad he was about Rosaline, but then he found Juliet and it was love at first sight. However, he knew his parents would disapprove of him dating her because Juliet's a Capulet. Juliet knows her parents would also disapprove of them because Romeo's a Montague. Her father later says directly to her that he wishes he never has her as a daughter which shows his short temper. Romeo and Juliet may have made irrational decisions, but nonetheless it was their parent's fault for not giving them the attention they deserved, for not loving them like their child, for valuing their petty, personal feud over their child's happiness, and making their child feel like suicide is the only option to achieving happiness, which makes them the one at fault for Romeo and Juliet's

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Academic backlash as publisher lets Microsoft train AI on papers

Researchers claim that taylor & francis kept details of deal quiet, but company insists that citation and limits on verbatim quoting will be sacrosanct.

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Taylor & Francis’ decision to sell access to its academic publications to allow Microsoft to train its artificial intelligence system has raised concerns over plagiarism and accusations that researchers have been misled.

The publisher’s parent company, Informa, struck a partnership deal earlier this year that will allow the technology giant to access content from its Taylor & Francis (T&F) division, which also includes Routledge journals.

Ruth Clemens, a lecturer in modern English literature at Leiden University , said she was shocked that the news had not been publicised more widely.

“Authors around the world are rightfully concerned not only about this deal but about the fact that their publishers seem to have deliberately kept quiet about it,” said Dr Clemens, who said it was clear from social media posts that the agreement had “struck a nerve” with the academic community.

Campus resource collection: AI transformers like ChatGPT are here, so what next?

“Authors are not getting a good deal from this, as current IP models, as well as academic publishing models, do not account for this novel and ongoing use of research data in a way that creates an equitable publishing environment for researchers.”

Worth more than $10 million (£7.8 million) in its first year, Informa’s agreement with Microsoft will run until 2027. The publisher said its content could be used by Microsoft to “improve the relevance and performance of AI systems”, which could include the Copilot chatbot.

Other academic publishers have raised concerns that technology companies are using their copyrighted material to train generative AI tools without permission or payment , with some going to court to seek redress . Researchers, meanwhile, fear that mining of their academic papers could increase plagiarism and lead to their work being used without proper citation.

“We are at a crossroads in the production and dissemination of research knowledge,” said Dr Clemens. “In my view the biggest problem with this deal is the reduction of academic research into raw content from which data can be extracted and repackaged as knowledge.”

Thomas Lancaster, a senior teaching fellow in computing at Imperial College London , said many researchers and authors did not realise the full extent of the permissions they give to publishers when they assign copyright to them.

“Publishers should make this clearer, but in many cases, it’s to be applauded that Microsoft are looking to officially license content rather than simply source free content from wherever it’s available,” he said.

The only way for companies such as Microsoft to keep improving their generative AI systems, which need an ever-increasing amount of content, is by making deals to access training data, according to Dr Lancaster.

“The concern, of course, is if the AI systems start to replicate writing to the extent that it appears to be plagiarism,” he said. “I hope that companies like Microsoft who are developing the latest generative AI models have appropriate safeguards and ethical controls in place to prevent this.”

T&F said the importance of detailed citation was fundamental to the agreement, which includes collaboration to further develop automated citation referencing.

“This agreement reflects those we already deploy with many other partners and intermediaries in that it protects intellectual property rights, including protecting the integrity of our authors’ work and limits on verbatim text reproduction, as well as authors’ rights to receive royalty payments in accordance with their author contracts,” added a spokesperson.

Microsoft said its AI models were trained in a manner consistent with global copyright law.

“We are sensitive to the concerns of authors and have built guardrails into our products to help respect authors’ copyrights,” said a spokesperson.

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Meta-analysis pinpoints what vaccination intervention strategies different countries should adopt

Vaccines are safe and effective, and help reduce death and illness. But global vaccination rates are suboptimal and have trended downward, leaving humanity more vulnerable to vaccine-preventable diseases such as Covid-19, influenza, measles, polio, and HPV or human papillomavirus.

Identifying interventions that could increase vaccine coverage could help save lives. A new paper from a team led by researchers at the University of Pennsylvania offers the first comprehensive meta-analysis examining what types of vaccination intervention strategies have the greatest effect, and whether different intervention strategies work better in different countries.

"A systematic review and meta-analysis of strategies to promote vaccination uptake," published today in Nature Human Behaviour , analyzes the results of 88 eligible randomized-controlled trials testing interventions with 1,628,768 participants from 17 countries. Previous meta-analyses have been more limited to specific vaccines, specific intervention strategies, or specific populations, and therefore have been unable to compare strategies or consider their relative effectiveness across regions.

"Figuring out which approaches help increase immunization, and under what circumstances, could help global public health leaders allocate resources more efficiently and ultimately improve health outcomes," said co-author Dolores Albarracín, the Amy Gutmann Penn Integrates Knowledge University Professor at the University of Pennsylvania and director of the Communication Science division at the university's Annenberg Public Policy Center (APPC).

The researchers considered seven types of vaccine intervention strategies: increasing access to vaccination, sending vaccination reminders, providing incentives (e.g., money), supplying information, correcting misinformation, promoting active and passive motivation, and teaching behavioral skills.

Vaccination intervention strategies that work

The researchers found that interventions were associated with an estimated 50 percent higher chance of vaccination than "control" conditions with no intervention. They also found that two interventions were most promising in improving vaccination uptake. There was a moderate effect of interventions to increase access to vaccines, particularly in countries with low access to vaccines and quality of health care. The research found a small effect from incentives, and non-significant effects from the other interventions examined. For example, informational and misinformation-correction interventions had no detectable effects on vaccination rates.

Interventions to increase access to vaccines included offering transportation assistance or bringing vaccines to recipients at sites like nursing homes, family homes, and workplaces. These strategies actually tripled the odds of vaccination and had even larger effects in lower-income countries with fewer resources and limited access to health care.

The financial incentive interventions included, for example, a U.S. study that achieved an 85% influenza vaccination rate when physicians were reimbursed $1.60 per dose, compared with a 70% vaccination rate when they were reimbursed $0.80 per dose. However, both in this U.S. study and the estimates from the meta-analysis, the effects of incentives were quite small.

"Public health officials often say that ensuring vaccine access is the first step to promoting immunization," Albarracín said. "Our meta-analysis provides hard evidence in support of this recommendation and indicates that this should be a special priority in under-resourced areas with limited access to health care. By contrast, even though misinformation undermines democracy and can be far-fetched, and thus highly salient, correcting it does not ensure health behaviors like vaccination."

The authors note that there are several important barriers to increasing access in underserved areas, but it is important to understand how crucial this form of intervention is.

"A systematic review and meta-analysis of strategies to promote vaccination uptake" was published Aug. 1, 2024, in Nature Human Behaviour . In addition to Albarracín, the authors are Sicong Liu, formerly a postdoctoral researcher in Albarracín's Social Action Lab at Penn and now a professor at the South China Normal University, Guangzhou, China; Marta Durantini, clinical research director of the Communication Science division at APPC; Christopher Calabrese, a former postdoctoral fellow at APPC and now an assistant professor at Clemson University; and Flor Sanchez, professor at the Universidad Autónoma de Madrid.

• Health Policy
• Medical Topics
• Workplace Health
• Public Health
• Political Science
• Funding Policy
• Environmental Policies
• MMR vaccine
• Evidence-based medicine
• Vaccination
• Flu vaccine
• Placebo effect
• HPV vaccine

Story Source:

Materials provided by Annenberg Public Policy Center of the University of Pennsylvania . Note: Content may be edited for style and length.

Journal Reference :

• Sicong Liu, Marta R. Durantini, Christopher Calabrese, Flor Sanchez, Dolores Albarracin. A systematic review and meta-analysis of strategies to promote vaccination uptake . Nature Human Behaviour , 2024; DOI: 10.1038/s41562-024-01940-6

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