problem solving research institute

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Clue: Problem-solving research institute

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• Brainy group
• Where some ideas originate
• Research institute
• Shirt worn while brainstorming?
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• Group set up to consider various problems
• Modern source of knowledge
• Group of specialists considering problem(s)
• Brookings Institution or Center for American Progress, e.g.
• Brainstorming site

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• New York Times - Nov. 9, 2009

Stanford Research Institute Problem Solver

From wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.

The Stanford Research Institute Problem Solver , known by its acronym STRIPS , is an automated planner developed by Richard Fikes and Nils Nilsson in 1971 at SRI International . [1] The same name was later used to refer to the formal language of the inputs to this planner. This language is the base for most of the languages for expressing automated planning problem instances in use today; such languages are commonly known as action languages . This article only describes the language, not the planner.

• The Research »

Here at Think:Kids, we are dedicated to studying everything we do in order to guide refinements to the Collaborative Problem Solving ® (CPS) approach and training methods. Our program partners with the Laboratory for Youth Behavior in the Department of Psychiatry at Massachusetts General Hospital on all research and evaluation activities. We put these resources to work every day to help us study and refine CPS.

Massachusetts General Hospital is consistently ranked by U.S. News and World Reports as one of the top hospitals in the nation. MGH also has the largest hospital-based research program in the country.

Our Research Philosophy

At Think:Kids, we believe that there are many ways we can better understand and improve Collaborative Problem Solving ® (CPS), including the use of rapid-cycle quality improvement studies, outcome evaluations, observational studies, randomized clinical trials, and implementation science. Each of these tells us something different, and together they provide a complete picture that informs our work.

Whether you are here to learn about studies that have already been completed or because you are hoping to start a research study of your own on CPS, we think you will find the information on this page useful.

reduction in school office referrals.

Significant improvements in children’s executive functioning skills.

71% fewer self-inflicted injuries.

6 out of 10 teachers report reduced stress.

Significant reductions in parents’ stress.

74% average reduction in use of seclusion.

73% reduction in oppositional behaviors during school.

Parents report improvements in parent-child interactions.

86% average reduction in physical restraint.

How can i conduct research or evaluation on collaborative problem solving (cps) at my organization.

If you are looking to evaluate the impact of CPS at your organization:

As part of organization-wide implementation of CPS, Think:Kids will fully support your organization in evaluating the impact of the approach. We will help you identify key areas of impact, select measures, plan data collection, and analyze results, providing you with annual reports to guide decision-making. For more information on organization-wide implementation, contact us .

If you are looking to conduct academic research:

We regularly collaborate with academics and service providers to answer important, generalizable questions about Collaborative Problem Solving®. If you are a student, faculty, or service provider with a research idea, or with a desire to collaborate, email the research team .

If your organization is learning CPS but is not currently engaged with us in an organization-wide implementation plan, we recommend this resource for planning your evaluation of impact.

Is Collaborative Problem Solving (CPS) an evidence-based practice (EBP)?

CPS is listed on the Blue Menu of Evidence-Based Psychosocial Interventions for Youth  from the PracticeWise Evidence-Based Services Database, and on the California Evidence-Based Clearinghouse for Child Welfare.

Has there been a Randomized Controlled Trial (RCT) on Collaborative Problem Solving (CPS)?

Yes, this RCT was the first RCT on CPS. This study compared Collaborative Problem Solving to a common parenting approach called Parent Management Training (PMT). Children who learned CPS had significant improvements in many areas of functioning at the end of treatment and four months later. These improvements were equal to, or better than, the improvements for children who received PMT.

What types of benefits can we expect if we use Collaborative Problem Solving (CPS)?

Research tells us that CPS benefits depend on who is being studied and in what context. Some benefits in school settings have included improved  child behavior ,  reductions in teacher stress , and decreases in restrictive disciplinary practices . In clinical settings, some benefits have included reductions in  restraint/seclusion  and  self-inflicted injuries , as well as improvements in  children’s emotional distress . With families, some benefits have included improved  parent-child relationships ,  reductions in parent stress , and improvements in children’s executive functioning skills . You can find more information on these and other published findings below.

What research has been done on Collaborative Problem Solving (CPS) in schools?

Multiple studies on Collaborative Problem Solving have been done in schools. One study found an association between CPS and lower rates of restrictive discipline and teachers’ stress. Another found associations between CPS and improved student behavior, as well as improvements in thinking skills. A third study examined how teachers’ beliefs regarding students’ thinking skills may affect how they respond to classroom misbehavior.

What research has been done on Collaborative Problem Solving (CPS) in clinical/mental health settings?

Many studies on CPS have been conducted in clinical/mental health settings. This includes studies on the impact of CPS in outpatient therapy for  Oppositional Defiant Disorder ,   ADHD , and a  range of other related conditions ; on restraints and seclusions in  inpatient psychiatry  and  residential and day treatment programs ; how CPS was used to eliminate points-and-levels in residential treatment ; and studies on the implementation and evaluation of CPS in  inpatient  and  residential programs .

Can Collaborative Problem Solving (CPS) reduce use of restraint and/or seclusion?

There have been multiple studies on the reduction of restraint and/or seclusion in organizations that are using CPS. These studies have been conducted in inpatient units in the U.S. and New Zealand and  residential and day treatment programs .

Is the Thinking Skills Inventory empirically validated?

Yes. We have a  paper on our Thinking Skills Inventory (TSI) , a tool that evaluates strengths and struggles in five areas of thinking skills. The TSI is a valid and reliable way to identify variation in skill domains relevant to a range of psychological difficulties, which may be useful for treatment planning and making referrals for further evaluation.

Is the CPS Adherence and Impact Measure (CPS-AIM) empirically validated?

There are three versions of the CPS-AIM: one for Parents, one for Educators, and one for Clinical Staff. Each CPS-AIM measures factors believed to be directly impacted by receiving CPS training, including adherence to the philosophy that ‘skill not will’ is the root of challenging behavior. Our research team has made this report available; it describes the psychometric properties of these measures, including reliability and validity.

Is there an empirically validated way to assess whether providers are doing CPS with integrity?

Yes, for conducting research, we recommend this validated and published audio coding system, called the Collaborative Problem Solving Manualized Expert-Rated Integrity Coding System (CPS-MEtRICS). In service settings, we recommend using the shorter CPS-Practice Integrity Tool (CPS-PIF), which you can read about here .

How does Think:Kids use what is known by Implementation Science to inform implementation of Collaborative Problem Solving (CPS)?

Think:Kids follow the latest research in implementation science to help inform and direct our work implementing CPS in schools and a variety of other agencies. We recently published an article that describes how we use the Active Implementation Frameworks to help guide the implementation of CPS throughout an entire system.

Are there special materials/measures/survey tools designed for research on Collaborative Problem Solving (CPS)?

Yes, you can find these in the “Research Tools” section at the bottom of this page. Once you have received training and coaching in CPS, you will receive additional materials and measures relevant to your setting.

Do you have a list of all the published studies on Collaborative Problem Solving (CPS)?

Ashworth, K., Tapsak, S., & Li, S. T. (2012). Collaborative Problem Solving: Is empathy the active ingredient?   Graduate Student Journal of Psychology ,  14 , 83-92.

Basso, R. V. J. & Graham, J. W. (2016). A longitudinal intervention study to reduce aggression by children ages 4-11 .  Journal of Behavior Therapy and Mental Health, 1(2) :12-23.

Becker, K. D., Chorpita, B. F., & Daleiden, E. L. (2011). Improvement in symptoms versus functioning: How do our best treatments measure up?   Administration and Policy in Mental Health and Mental Health Services Research ,  38 (6), 440-458.

Black, V., Bobier, C., Thomas, B., Prest, F., Ansley, C., Loomes, B., Eggleston, G., & Mountford, H. (2020). Reducing seclusion and restraint in a child and adolescent inpatient area: implementation of a collaborative problem-solving approach .  Australasian Psychiatry , 1-7.

Bonnell, W., Alatishe, Y. A., & Hofner, A. (2014). The effects of a changing culture on a child and adolescent psychiatric inpatient unit .  Journal of the Canadian Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry ,  23 (1), 65.

Epstein, T., & Saltzman-Benaiah, J. (2010). Parenting children with disruptive behaviors: Evaluation of a Collaborative Problem Solving pilot program .  Journal of Clinical Psychology Practice ,  1 (1), 27-40.

Ercole‐Fricke, E., Fritz, P., Hill, L. E., & Snelders, J. (2016). Effects of a Collaborative Problem‐Solving approach on an inpatient adolescent psychiatric unit .  Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Nursing ,  29 (3), 127-134.

Gathright, M. M., Holmes, K. J., Morris, E. M., & Gatlin, D. A. (2016). An innovative, interdisciplinary model of care for inpatient child psychiatry: An overview .  The journal of behavioral health services & research ,  43 (4), 648-660.

Greene, R. W., Ablon, J. S., & Goring, J. C. (2003). A transactional model of oppositional behavior: Underpinnings of the Collaborative Problem Solving approach .  Journal of Psychosomatic Research ,  55 (1), 67-75.

Greene, R. W., Ablon, J. S., Goring, J. C., Raezer-Blakely, L., Markey, J., Monuteaux, M. C., … & Rabbitt, S. (2004). Effectiveness of Collaborative Problem Solving in affectively dysregulated children with oppositional-defiant disorder: Initial findings .  Journal of consulting and clinical psychology ,  72 (6), 1157.

Greene, R. W., Ablon, J. S., & Martin, A. (2006). Use of Collaborative Problem Solving to reduce seclusion and restraint in child and adolescent inpatient unit s.  Psychiatric Services ,  57 (5), 610-612.

Hart, S. C., & DiPerna, J. C. (2017). Teacher beliefs and responses toward student misbehavior: Influence of cognitive skill deficit s.  Journal of applied school psychology ,  33 (1), 1-15.

Heath, G. H., Fife‐Schaw, C., Wang, L., Eddy, C. J., Hone, M. J., & Pollastri, A. R. (2020). Collaborative Problem Solving reduces children’s emotional and behavioral difficulties and parenting stress: Two key mechanisms . Journal of Clinical Psychology.

Holmes, K. J., Stokes, L. D., & Gathright, M. M. (2014). The use of Collaborative Problem Solving to address challenging behavior among hospitalized children with complex trauma: A case series .  Residential Treatment for Children & Youth ,  31 (1), 41-62.

Johnson, M., Östlund, S., Fransson, G., Landgren, M., Nasic, S., Kadesjö, B., … & Fernell, E. (2012). Attention‐deficit/hyperactivity disorder with oppositional defiant disorder in Swedish children–an open study of Collaborative Problem Solving .  Acta Paediatrica ,  101 (6), 624-630.

Kulkarni, G., Deshmukh, P., & Barzman, D. (2010). Collaborative Problem Solving (CPS) as a primary method of addressing acute pediatric pathological aggression along with other modalities .  Psychiatric quarterly ,  81 (2), 167-175.

Martin, A., Krieg, H., Esposito, F., Stubbe, D., & Cardona, L. (2008). Reduction of restraint and seclusion through Collaborative Problem Solving: A five-year prospective inpatient study .  Psychiatric Services ,  59 (12), 1406-1412.

Mohr, W. K., Martin, A., Olson, J. N., Pumariega, A. J., & Branca, N. (2009). Beyond point and level systems: Moving toward child‐centered programming .  American Journal of Orthopsychiatry ,  79 (1), 8-18.

Open Arms Program of the Cambridge Hospital Child Assessment Unit, Cambridge, Massachusetts. (2003). 2003 APA Gold Award: A more compassionate model for treating children with severe mental disturbances .  Psychiatric Services ,  54 (11), 1529-1531.

Pollastri, A. R., Epstein, L. D., Heath, G. H., & Ablon, J. S. (2013). The Collaborative Problem Solving approach: Outcomes across settings .  Harvard Review of Psychiatry ,  21 (4), 188-199.

Pollastri, A. R., Lieberman, R. E., Boldt, S. L., & Ablon, J. S. (2016). Minimizing seclusion and restraint in youth residential and day treatment through site-wide implementation of Collaborative Problem Solving .  Residential Treatment for Children & Youth ,  33 (3-4), 186-205.

Pollastri, A. R., Rosenbaum, C., & Ablon, J. S. (2019). Disruptive Behavior Disorders . In  The Massachusetts General Hospital Guide to Learning Disabilities  (pp. 207-220). Humana Press, Cham.

Pollastri, A.R., Wang, L., Eddy C.J., Ablon, J. S. An open trial of Collaborative Problem Solving in a naturalistic outpatient setting . Clinical Child Psychology and Psychiatry 2022; 28(2): 512-524.

Pollastri, A. R., Wang, L., Raftery-Helmer, J. N., Hurley, S., Eddy, C. J., Sisson, J., Thompson, N., & Ablon, J. S. (2022). Development and evaluation of an audio coding system for assessing providers’ integrity to Collaborative Problem Solving in youth-service settings .  Professional Psychology: Research and Practice , online first.

Pollastri, A. R., Wang, L., Youn, S. J., Ablon, J. S., & Marques, L. (2020). The value of implementation frameworks: Using the active implementation frameworks to guide system‐wide implementation of Collaborative Problem Solving . Journal of Community Psychology .

Regan, K. M., Curtin, C., & Vorderer, L. (2006). Paradigm shifts in inpatient psychiatric care of children: approaching child‐and family‐centered care .  Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Nursing ,  19 (1), 29-40.

Schaubman, A., Stetson, E., & Plog, A. (2011). Reducing teacher stress by implementing Collaborative Problem Solving in a school setting .  School Social Work Journal ,  35 (2), 72-93.

Stetson, E. A., & Plog, A. E. (2016).  Collaborative Problem Solving in schools: Results of a year-long consultation project .  School Social Work Journal ,  40 (2), 17-36.

Stewart, S. L., Rick, J., Currie, M., & Rielly, N. (2009).  Collaborative Problem Solving approach in clinically referred children: A residential program evaluation .  Unpublished manuscript, Department of Applied Research and Education Child and Parent Resource Institute, London, Ontario, Canada .

Stoll, S. J., Hartman, J. D., Paxton, D., Wang, L., Ablon, J. S., Perry, B. D., & Pollastri, A. R. (2023). De-Implementing a Point and Level System in Youth Residential Care without Increased Safety Risk: A Case Study . Residential Treatment for Children & Youth. Online first.

Valenkamp, M., Delaney, K., & Verheij, F. (2014). Reducing seclusion and restraint during child and adolescent inpatient treatment: Still an underdeveloped area of research .  Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Nursing ,  27 (4), 169-174.

Wang, L., & Pollastri, A. R. (2019).   User’s Guide to the Collaborative Problem Solving Adherence & Impact Measures (CPS-AIMs) . Think:Kids, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School.

Wang, L., Pollastri, A. R., Vuijk, P. J., Hill, E. N., Lee, B. A., Samkavitz, A., … & Doyle, A. E. (2019). Reliability and Validity of the Thinking Skills Inventory, a Screening Tool for Cross-Diagnostic Skill Deficits Underlying Youth Behavioral Challenges .  Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment ,  41 (1), 144-159.

Wang, L., Stoll, S. J., Eddy, C. J., Hurley, S., Sisson, J., Thompson, N., Raftery-Helmer, J. N., Ablon, J. S., Pollastri, A. R. (2023). Pragmatic fidelity measurement in youth service settings .  Implementation Research and Practice ,  4,  1-13.

Wang, L., Stoll, S., Hone, M., Ablon, J. S., & Pollastri, A. R. (2022). Effects of a Collaborative Problem Solving parent group on parent and child outcomes . Child & Family Behavior Therapy, 44(4), 241-258.

Research Tools

A likert-scale version of the skills assessment used in clinical practice.

Three versions of this tool (for parents, educators, or clinical staff) assess adherence to the CPS philosophy, as well as burnout and relationship quality.

Tool used by supervisors to informally evaluate CPS integrity and to guide improvement over time.

Looking for Additional Research?

If you have a question about past, current, or future research projects and you don’t find the answer here, don’t hesitate to contact the research team .

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Problem solving through values: A challenge for thinking and capability development

• • This paper introduces the 4W framework of consistent problem solving through values.
• • The 4W suggests when, how and why the explication of values helps to solve a problem.
• • The 4W is significant to teach students to cope with problems having crucial consequences.
• • The paper considers challenges using such framework of thinking in different fields of education.

The paper aims to introduce the conceptual framework of problem solving through values. The framework consists of problem analysis, selection of value(s) as a background for the solution, the search for alternative ways of the solution, and the rationale for the solution. This framework reveals when, how, and why is important to think about values when solving problems. A consistent process fosters cohesive and creative value-based thinking during problem solving rather than teaching specific values. Therefore, the framework discloses the possibility for enabling the development of value-grounded problem solving capability.The application of this framework highlights the importance of responsibility for the chosen values that are the basis for the alternatives which determine actions. The 4W framework is meaningful for the people’s lives and their professional work. It is particularly important in the process of future professionals’ education. Critical issues concerning the development of problem solving through values are discussed when considering and examining options for the implementation of the 4W framework in educational institutions.

1. Introduction

The core competencies necessary for future professionals include problem solving based on complexity and collaborative approaches ( OECD, 2018 ). Currently, the emphasis is put on the development of technical, technological skills as well as system thinking and other cognitive abilities (e.g., Barber, 2018 ; Blanco, Schirmbeck, & Costa, 2018 ). Hence, education prepares learners with high qualifications yet lacking in moral values ( Nadda, 2017 ). Educational researchers (e.g., Barnett, 2007 ; Harland & Pickering, 2010 ) stress that such skills and abilities ( the how? ), as well as knowledge ( the what? ), are insufficient to educate a person for society and the world. The philosophy of education underlines both the epistemological and ontological dimensions of learning. Barnett (2007) points out that the ontological dimension has to be above the epistemological one. The ontological dimension encompasses the issues related to values that education should foster ( Harland & Pickering, 2010 ). In addition, values are closely related to the enablement of learners in educational environments ( Jucevičienė et al., 2010 ). For these reasons, ‘ the why ?’ based on values is required in the learning process. The question arises as to what values and how it makes sense to educate them. Value-based education seeks to address these issues and concentrates on values transfer due to their integration into the curriculum. Yazdani and Akbarilakeh (2017) discussed that value-based education could only convey factual knowledge of values and ethics. However, such education does not guarantee the internalization of values. Nevertheless, value-based education indicates problem solving as one of the possibilities to develop values.

Values guide and affect personal behavior encompassing the ethical aspects of solutions ( Roccas, Sagiv, & Navon, 2017 ; Schwartz, 1992 , 2012 ; Verplanken & Holland, 2002 ). Therefore, they represent the essential foundation for solving a problem. Growing evidence indicates the creative potential of values ( Dollinger, Burke, & Gump, 2007 ; Kasof, Chen, Himsel, & Greenberger, 2007 ; Lebedeva et al., 2019) and emphasizes their significance for problem solving. Meanwhile, research in problem solving pays little attention to values. Most of the problem solving models (e.g., Newell & Simon, 1972 ; Jonassen, 1997 ) utilize a rational economic approach. Principally, the research on the mechanisms of problem solving have been conducted under laboratory conditions performing simple tasks ( Csapó & Funke, 2017 ). Moreover, some of the decision-making models share the same steps as problem solving (c.f., Donovan, Guss, & Naslund, 2015 ). This explains why these terms are sometimes used interchangeably ( Huitt, 1992 ). Indeed, decision-making is a part of problem solving, which emerges while choosing between alternatives. Yet, values, moral, and ethical issues are more common in decision-making research (e.g., Keeney, 1994 ; Verplanken & Holland, 2002 ; Hall & Davis, 2007 ; Sheehan & Schmidt, 2015 ). Though, research by Shepherd, Patzelt, and Baron (2013) , Baron, Zhao, and Miao (2015) has affirmed that contemporary business decision makers rather often leave aside ethical issues and moral values. Thus, ‘ethical disengagement fallacy’ ( Sternberg, 2017, p.7 ) occurs as people think that ethics is more relevant to others. In the face of such disengagement, ethical issues lose their prominence.

The analysis of the literature revealed a wide field of problem solving research presenting a range of more theoretical insights rather empirical evidence. Despite this, to date, a comprehensive model that reveals how to solve problems emphasizing thinking about values is lacking. This underlines the relevance of the chosen topic, i.e. a challenge for thinking and for the development of capabilities addressing problems through values. To address this gap, the following issues need to be investigated: When, how, and why a problem solver should take into account values during problem solving? What challenges may occur for using such framework of thinking in different fields of education? Aiming this, the authors of the paper substantiated the conceptual framework of problem solving grounded in consistent thinking about values. The substantiation consists of several parts. First, different approaches to solving problems were examined. Second, searching to reveal the possibilities of values integration into problem solving, value-based approaches significant for problem solving were critically analyzed. Third, drawing on the effect of values when solving a problem and their creative potential, the authors of this paper claim that the identification of values and their choice for a solution need to be specified in the process of problem solving. As a synthesis of conclusions coming from the literature review and conceptual extensions regarding values, the authors of the paper created the coherent framework of problem solving through values (so called 4W).

The novelty of the 4W framework is exposed by several contributions. First, the clear design of overall problem solving process with attention on integrated thinking about values is used. Unlike in most models of problem solving, the first stage encompass the identification of a problem, an analysis of a context and the perspectives that influence the whole process, i.e. ‘What?’. The stage ‘What is the basis for a solution?’ focus on values identification and their choice. The stage ‘Ways how?’ encourages to create alternatives considering values. The stage ‘Why?’ represent justification of a chosen alternative according particular issues. Above-mentioned stages including specific steps are not found in any other model of problem solving. Second, even two key stages nurture thinking about values. The specificity of the 4W framework allows expecting its successful practical application. It may help to solve a problem more informed revealing when and how the explication of values helps to reach the desired value-based solution. The particular significance is that the 4W framework can be used to develop capabilities to solve problems through values. The challenges to use the 4W framework in education are discussed.

2. Methodology

To create the 4W framework, the integrative literature review was chosen. According to Snyder (2019) , this review is ‘useful when the purpose of the review is not to cover all articles ever published on the topic but rather to combine perspectives to create new theoretical models’ (p.334). The scope of this review focused on research disclosing problem solving process that paid attention on values. The following databases were used for relevant information search: EBSCO/Hostdatabases (ERIC, Education Source), Emerald, Google Scholar. The first step of this search was conducted using integrated keywords problem solving model , problem solving process, problem solving steps . These keywords were combined with the Boolean operator AND with the second keywords values approach, value-based . The inclusion criteria were used to identify research that: presents theoretical backgrounds and/or empirical evidences; performed within the last 5 years; within an educational context; availability of full text. The sources appropriate for this review was very limited in scope (N = 2).

We implemented the second search only with the same set of the integrated keywords. The inclusion criteria were the same except the date; this criterion was extended up to 10 years. This search presented 85 different sources. After reading the summaries, introductions and conclusions of the sources found, the sources that do not explicitly provide the process/models/steps of problem solving for teaching/learning purposes and eliminates values were excluded. Aiming to see a more accurate picture of the chosen topic, we selected secondary sources from these initial sources.

Several important issues were determined as well. First, most researchers ground their studies on existing problem solving models, however, not based on values. Second, some of them conducted empirical research in order to identify the process of studies participants’ problem solving. Therefore, we included sources without date restrictions trying to identify the principal sources that reveal the process/models/steps of problem solving. Third, decision-making is a part of problem solving process. Accordingly, we performed a search with the additional keywords decision-making AND values approach, value-based decision-making . We used such inclusion criteria: presents theoretical background and/or empirical evidence; no date restriction; within an educational context; availability of full text. These all searches resulted in a total of 16 (9 theoretical and 7 empirical) sources for inclusion. They were the main sources that contributed most fruitfully for the background. We used other sources for the justification the wholeness of the 4W framework. We present the principal results of the conducted literature review in the part ‘The background of the conceptual framework’.

3. The background of the conceptual framework

3.1. different approaches of how to solve a problem.

Researchers from different fields focus on problem solving. As a result, there still seems to be a lack of a conventional definition of problem solving. Regardless of some differences, there is an agreement that problem solving is a cognitive process and one of the meaningful and significant ways of learning ( Funke, 2014 ; Jonassen, 1997 ; Mayer & Wittrock, 2006 ). Differing in approaches to solving a problem, researchers ( Collins, Sibthorp, & Gookin, 2016 ; Jonassen, 1997 ; Litzinger et al., 2010 ; Mayer & Wittrock, 2006 ; O’Loughlin & McFadzean, 1999 ; ect.) present a variety of models that differ in the number of distinct steps. What is similar in these models is that they stress the procedural process of problem solving with the focus on the development of specific skills and competences.

For the sake of this paper, we have focused on those models of problem solving that clarify the process and draw attention to values, specifically, on Huitt (1992) , Basadur, Ellspermann, and Evans (1994) , and Morton (1997) . Integrating the creative approach to problem solving, Newell and Simon (1972) presents six phases: phase 1 - identifying the problem, phase 2 - understanding the problem, phase 3 - posing solutions, phase 4 - choosing solutions, phase 5 - implementing solutions, and phase 6 - final analysis. The weakness of this model is that these phases do not necessarily follow one another, and several can coincide. However, coping with simultaneously occurring phases could be a challenge, especially if these are, for instance, phases five and six. Certainly, it may be necessary to return to the previous phases for further analysis. According to Basadur et al. (1994) , problem solving consists of problem generation, problem formulation, problem solving, and solution implementation stages. Huitt (1992) distinguishes four stages in problem solving: input, processing, output, and review. Both Huitt (1992) and Basadur et al. (1994) four-stage models emphasize a sequential process of problem solving. Thus, problem solving includes four stages that are used in education. For example, problem-based learning employs such stages as introduction of the problem, problem analysis and learning issues, discovery and reporting, solution presentation and evaluation ( Chua, Tan, & Liu, 2016 ). Even PISA 2012 framework for problem solving composes four stages: exploring and understanding, representing and formulating, planning and executing, monitoring and reflecting ( OECD, 2013 ).

Drawing on various approaches to problem solving, it is possible to notice that although each stage is named differently, it is possible to reveal some general steps. These steps reflect the essential idea of problem solving: a search for the solution from the initial state to the desirable state. The identification of a problem and its contextual elements, the generation of alternatives to a problem solution, the evaluation of these alternatives according to specific criteria, the choice of an alternative for a solution, the implementation, and monitoring of the solution are the main proceeding steps in problem solving.

3.2. Value-based approaches relevant for problem solving

Huitt (1992) suggests that important values are among the criteria for the evaluation of alternatives and the effectiveness of a chosen solution. Basadur et al. (1994) point out to visible values in the problem formulation. Morton (1997) underlines that interests, investigation, prevention, and values of all types, which may influence the process, inspire every phase of problem solving. However, the aforementioned authors do not go deeper and do not seek to disclose the significance of values for problem solving.

Decision-making research shows more possibilities for problem solving and values integration. Sheehan and Schmidt (2015) model of ethical decision-making includes moral sensitivity, moral judgment, moral motivation, and moral action where values are presented in the component of moral motivation. Another useful approach concerned with values comes from decision-making in management. It is the concept of Value-Focused Thinking (VFT) proposed by Keeney (1994) . The author argues that the goals often are merely means of achieving results in traditional models of problem solving. Such models frequently do not help to identify logical links between the problem solving goals, values, and alternatives. Thus, according to Keeney (1994) , the decision-making starts with values as they are stated in the goals and objectives of decision-makers. VFT emphasizes the core values of decision-makers that are in a specific context as well as how to find a way to achieve them by using means-ends analysis. The weakness of VFT is its restriction to this means-ends analysis. According to Shin, Jonassen, and McGee (2003) , in searching for a solution, such analysis is weak as the problem solver focuses simply on removing inadequacies between the current state and the goal state. The strengths of this approach underline that values are included in the decision before alternatives are created. Besides, values help to find creative and meaningful alternatives and to assess them. Further, they include the forthcoming consequences of the decision. As VFT emphasizes the significant function of values and clarifies the possibilities of their integration into problem solving, we adapt this approach in the current paper.

3.3. The effect of values when solving a problem

In a broader sense, values provide a direction to a person’s life. Whereas the importance of values is relatively stable over time and across situations, Roccas et al. (2017) argue that values differ in their importance to a person. Verplanken and Holland (2002) investigated the relationship between values and choices or behavior. The research revealed that the activation of a value and the centrality of a value to the self, are the essential elements for value-guided behavior. The activation of values could happen in such cases: when values are the primary focus of attention; if the situation or the information a person is confronted with implies values; when the self is activated. The centrality of a particular value is ‘the degree to which an individual has incorporated this value as part of the self’ ( Verplanken & Holland, 2002, p.436 ). Thus, the perceived importance of values and attention to them determine value-guided behavior.

According to Argandoña (2003) , values can change due to external (changing values in the people around, in society, changes in situations, etc.) and internal (internalization by learning) factors affecting the person. The research by Hall and Davis (2007) indicates that the decision-makers’ applied value profile temporarily changed as they analyzed the issue from multiple perspectives and revealed the existence of a broader set of values. The study by Kirkman (2017) reveal that participants noticed the relevance of moral values to situations they encountered in various contexts.

Values are tightly related to personal integrity and identity and guide an individual’s perception, judgment, and behavior ( Halstead, 1996 ; Schwartz, 1992 ). Sheehan and Schmidt (2015) found that values influenced ethical decision-making of accounting study programme students when they uncovered their own values and grounded in them their individual codes of conduct for future jobs. Hence, the effect of values discloses by observing the problem solver’s decision-making. The latter observations could explain the abundance of ethics-laden research in decision-making rather than in problem solving.

Contemporary researchers emphasize the creative potential of values. Dollinger et al. (2007) , Kasof et al. (2007) , Lebedeva, Schwartz, Plucker, & Van De Vijver, 2019 present to some extent similar findings as they all used Schwartz Value Survey (respectively: Schwartz, 1992 ; ( Schwartz, 1994 ), Schwartz, 2012 ). These studies disclosed that such values as self-direction, stimulation and universalism foster creativity. Kasof et al. (2007) focused their research on identified motivation. Stressing that identified motivation is the only fully autonomous type of external motivation, authors define it as ‘the desire to commence an activity as a means to some end that one greatly values’ (p.106). While identified motivation toward specific values (italic in original) fosters the search for outcomes that express those specific values, this research demonstrated that it could also inhibit creative behavior. Thus, inhibition is necessary, especially in the case where reckless creativity could have painful consequences, for example, when an architect creates a beautiful staircase without a handrail. Consequently, creativity needs to be balanced.

Ultimately, values affect human beings’ lives as they express the motivational goals ( Schwartz, 1992 ). These motivational goals are the comprehensive criteria for a person’s choices when solving problems. Whereas some problem solving models only mention values as possible evaluation criteria, but they do not give any significant suggestions when and how the problem solver could think about the values coming to the understanding that his/her values direct the decision how to solve the problem. The authors of this paper claim that the identification of personal values and their choice for a solution need to be specified in the process of problem solving. This position is clearly reflected in humanistic philosophy and psychology ( Maslow, 2011 ; Rogers, 1995 ) that emphasize personal responsibility for discovering personal values through critical questioning, honest self-esteem, self-discovery, and open-mindedness in the constant pursuit of the truth in the path of individual life. However, fundamental (of humankind) and societal values should be taken into account. McLaughlin (1997) argues that a clear boundary between societal and personal values is difficult to set as they are intertwined due to their existence in complex cultural, social, and political contexts at a particular time. A person is related to time and context when choosing values. As a result, a person assumes existing values as implicit knowledge without as much as a consideration. This is particularly evident in the current consumer society.

Moreover, McLaughlin (1997) stresses that if a particular action should be tolerated and legitimated by society, it does not mean that this action is ultimately morally acceptable in all respects. Education has possibilities to reveal this. One such possibility is to turn to the capability approach ( Sen, 1990 ), which emphasizes what people are effectively able to do and to be. Capability, according to Sen (1990) , reflects a person’s freedom to choose between various ways of living, i.e., the focus is on the development of a person’s capability to choose the life he/she has a reason to value. According to Webster (2017) , ‘in order for people to value certain aspects of life, they need to appreciate the reasons and purposes – the whys – for certain valuing’ (italic in original; p.75). As values reflect and foster these whys, education should supplement the development of capability with attention to values ( Saito, 2003 ). In order to attain this possibility, a person has to be aware of and be able to understand two facets of values. Argandoña (2003) defines them as rationality and virtuality . Rationality refers to values as the ideal of conduct and involves the development of a person’s understanding of what values and why he/she should choose them when solving a problem. Virtuality approaches values as virtues and includes learning to enable a person to live according to his/her values. However, according to McLaughlin (1997) , some people may have specific values that are deep or self-evidently essential. These values are based on fundamental beliefs about the nature and purpose of the human being. Other values can be more or less superficial as they are based on giving priority to one or the other. Thus, virtuality highlights the depth of life harmonized to fundamentally rather than superficially laden values. These approaches inform the rationale for the framework of problem solving through values.

4. The 4W framework of problem solving through values

Similar to the above-presented stages of the problem solving processes, the introduced framework by the authors of this paper revisits them (see Fig. 1 ). The framework is titled 4W as its four stages respond to such questions: Analyzing the Problem: W hat ? → Choice of the value(s): W hat is the background for the solution? → Search for the alternative w ays of the solution: How ? → The rationale for problem solution: W hy is this alternative significant ? The stages of this framework cover seven steps that reveal the logical sequence of problem solving through values.

The 4 W framework: problem solving through values.

Though systematic problem solving models are criticized for being linear and inflexible (e.g., Treffinger & Isaksen, 2005 ), the authors of this paper assume a structural view of the problem solving process due to several reasons. First, the framework enables problem solvers to understand the thorough process of problem solving through values. Second, this framework reveals the depth of each stage and step. Third, problem solving through values encourages tackling problems that have crucial consequences. Only by understanding and mastering the coherence of how problems those require a value-based approach need to be addressed, a problem solver will be able to cope with them in the future. Finally, this framework aims at helping to recognize, to underline personal values, to solve problems through thinking about values, and to take responsibility for choices, even value-based. The feedback supports a direct interrelation between stages. It shapes a dynamic process of problem solving through values.

The first stage of problem solving through values - ‘ The analysis of the problem: What? ’- consists of three steps (see Fig. 1 ). The first step is ‘ Recognizing the problematic situation and naming the problem ’. This step is performed in the following sequence. First, the problem solver should perceive the problematic situation he/she faces in order to understand it. Dostál (2015) argues that the problematic situation has the potential to become the problem necessary to be addressed. Although each problem is limited by its context, not every problematic situation turns into a problem. This is related to the problem solver’s capability and the perception of reality: a person may not ‘see’ the problem if his/her capability to perceive it is not developed ( Dorst, 2006 ; Dostál, 2015 ). Second, after the problem solver recognizes the existence of the problematic situation, the problem solver has to identify the presence or absence of the problem itself, i.e. to name the problem. This is especially important in the case of the ill-structured problems since they cannot be directly visible to the problem solver ( Jonassen, 1997 ). Consequently, this step allows to determine whether the problem solver developed or has acquired the capability to perceive the problematic situation and the problem (naming the problem).

The second step is ‘ Analysing the context of the problem as a reason for its rise ’. At this step, the problem solver aims to analyse the context of the problem. The latter is one of the external issues, and it determines the solution ( Jonassen, 2011 ). However, if more attention is paid to the solution of the problem, it diverts attention from the context ( Fields, 2006 ). The problem solver has to take into account both the conveyed and implied contextual elements in the problematic situation ( Dostál, 2015 ). In other words, the problem solver has to examine it through his/her ‘contextual lenses’ ( Hester & MacG, 2017 , p.208). Thus, during this step the problem solver needs to identify the elements that shape the problem - reasons and circumstances that cause the problem, the factors that can be changed, and stakeholders that are involved in the problematic situation. Whereas the elements of the context mentioned above are within the problematic situation, the problem solver can control many of them. Such control can provide unique ways for a solution.

Although the problem solver tries to predict the undesirable results, some criteria remain underestimated. For that reason, it is necessary to highlight values underlying the various possible goals during the analysis ( Fields, 2006 ). According to Hester and MacG (2017) , values express one of the main features of the context and direct the attention of the problem solver to a given problematic situation. Hence, the problem solver should explore the value-based positions that emerge in the context of the problem.

The analysis of these contextual elements focus not only on a specific problematic situation but also on the problem that has emerged. This requires setting boundaries of attention for an in-depth understanding ( Fields, 2006 ; Hester & MacG, 2017 ). Such understanding influences several actions: (a) the recognition of inappropriate aspects of the problematic situation; (b) the emergence of paths in which identified aspects are expected to change. These actions ensure consistency and safeguard against distractions. Thus, the problem solver can now recognize and identify the factors that influence the problem although they are outside of the problematic situation. However, the problem solver possesses no control over them. With the help of such context analysis, the problem solver constructs a thorough understanding of the problem. Moreover, the problem solver becomes ready to look at the problem from different perspectives.

The third step is ‘ Perspectives emerging in the problem ’. Ims and Zsolnai (2009) argue that problem solving usually contains a ‘problematic search’. Such a search is a pragmatic activity as the problem itself induces it. Thus, the problem solver searches for a superficial solution. As a result, the focus is on control over the problem rather than a deeper understanding of the problem itself. The analysis of the problem, especially including value-based approaches, reveals the necessity to consider the problem from a variety of perspectives. Mitroff (2000) builds on Linstone (1989) ideas and claims that a sound foundation of both naming and solving any problem lays in such perspectives: the technical/scientific, the interpersonal/social, the existential, and the systemic (see Table 1 ).

The main characteristics of four perspectives for problem solving

Whereas all problems have significant aspects of each perspective, disregarding one or another may lead to the wrong way of solving the problem. While analysing all four perspectives is essential, this does not mean that they all are equally important. Therefore, it is necessary to justify why one or another perspective is more relevant and significant in a particular case. Such analysis, according to Linstone (1989) , ‘forces us to distinguish how we are looking from what we are looking at’ (p.312; italic in original). Hence, the problem solver broadens the understanding of various perspectives and develops the capability to see the bigger picture ( Hall & Davis, 2007 ).

The problem solver aims to identify and describe four perspectives that have emerged in the problem during this step. In order to identify perspectives, the problem solver search answers to the following questions. First, regarding the technical/scientific perspective: What technical/scientific reasons are brought out in the problem? How and to what extent do they influence a problem and its context? Second, regarding the interpersonal/social perspective: What is the impact of the problem on stakeholders? How does it influence their attitudes, living conditions, interests, needs? Third, regarding the existential perspective: How does the problem affect human feelings, experiences, perception, and/or discovery of meaning? Fourth, regarding the systemic perspective: What is the effect of the problem on the person → community → society → the world? Based on the analysis of this step, the problem solver obtains a comprehensive picture of the problem. The next stage is to choose the value(s) that will address the problem.

The second stage - ‘ The choice of value(s): What is the background for the solution?’ - includes the fourth and the fifth steps. The fourth step is ‘ The identification of value(s) as a base for the solution ’. During this step, the problem solver should activate his/her value(s) making it (them) explicit. In order to do this, the problem solver proceeds several sub-steps. First, the problem solver reflects taking into account the analysis done in previous steps. He/she raises up questions revealing values that lay in the background of this analysis: What values does this analyzed context allow me to notice? What values do different perspectives of the problem ‘offer’? Such questioning is important as values are deeply hidden ( Verplanken & Holland, 2002 ) and they form a bias, which restricts the development of the capability to see from various points of view ( Hall & Paradice, 2007 ). In the 4W framework, this bias is relatively eliminated due to the analysis of the context and exploration of the perspectives of a problem. As a result, the problem solver discovers distinct value-based positions and gets an opportunity to identify the ‘value uncaptured’ ( Yang, Evans, Vladimirova, & Rana, 2017, p.1796 ) within the problem analyzed. The problem solver observes that some values exist in the context (the second step) and the disclosed perspectives (the third step). Some of the identified values do not affect the current situation as they are not required, or their potential is not exploited. Thus, looking through various value-based lenses, the problem solver can identify and discover a congruence between the opportunities offered by the values in the problem’s context, disclosed perspectives and his/her value(s). Consequently, the problem solver decides what values he/she chooses as a basis for the desired solution. Since problems usually call for a list of values, it is important to find out their order of priority. Thus, the last sub-step requires the problem solver to choose between fundamentally and superficially laden values.

In some cases, the problem solver identifies that a set of values (more than one value) can lead to the desired solution. If a person chooses this multiple value-based position, two options emerge. The first option is concerned with the analysis of each value-based position separately (from the fifth to the seventh step). In the second option, a person has to uncover which of his/her chosen values are fundamentally laden and which are superficially chosen, considering the desired outcome in the current situation. Such clarification could act as a strategy where the path for the desired solution is possible going from superficially chosen value(s) to fundamentally laden one. When a basis for the solution is established, the problem solver formulates the goal for the desired solution.

The fifth step is ‘ The formulation of the goal for the solution ’. Problem solving highlights essential points that reveal the structure of a person’s goals; thus, a goal is the core element of problem solving ( Funke, 2014 ). Meantime, values reflect the motivational content of the goals ( Schwartz, 1992 ). The attention on the chosen value not only activates it, but also motivates the problem solver. The motivation directs the formulation of the goal. In such a way, values explicitly become a basis of the goal for the solution. Thus, this step involves the problem solver in formulating the goal for the solution as the desired outcome.

The way how to take into account value(s) when formulating the goal is the integration of value(s) chosen by the problem solver in the formulation of the goal ( Keeney, 1994 ). For this purpose the conjunction of a context for a solution (it is analyzed during the second step) and a direction of preference (the chosen value reveals it) serves for the formulation of the goal (that represents the desired solution). In other words, a value should be directly included into the formulation of the goal. The goal could lose value, if value is not included into the goal formulation and remains only in the context of the goal. Let’s take the actual example concerning COVID-19 situation. Naturally, many countries governments’ preference represents such value as human life (‘it is important of every individual’s life’). Thus, most likely the particular country government’s goal of solving the COVID situation could be to save the lifes of the country people. The named problem is a complex where the goal of its solution is also complex, although it sounds simple. However, if the goal as desired outcome is formulated without the chosen value, this value remains in the context and its meaning becomes tacit. In the case of above presented example - the goal could be formulated ‘to provide hospitals with the necessary equipment and facilities’. Such goal has the value ‘human’s life’ in the context, but eliminates the complexity of the problem that leads to a partial solution of the problem. Thus, this step from the problem solver requires caution when formulating the goal as the desired outcome. For this reason, maintaining value is very important when formulating the goal’s text. To avoid the loss of values and maintain their proposed direction, is necessary to take into account values again when creating alternatives.

The third stage - ‘ Search for the alternative ways for a solution: How? ’ - encompasses the sixth step, which is called ‘ Creation of value-based alternatives ’. Frequently problem solver invokes a traditional view of problem identification, generation of alternatives, and selection of criteria for evaluating findings. Keeney (1994) ; Ims and Zsolnai (2009) criticize this rational approach as it supports a search for a partial solution where an active search for alternatives is neglected. Moreover, a problematic situation, according to Perkins (2009) , can create the illusion of a fully framed problem with some apparent weighting and some variations of choices. In this case, essential and distinct alternatives to the solution frequently become unnoticeable. Therefore, Perkins (2009) suggest to replace the focus on the attempts to comprehend the problem itself. Thinking through the ‘value lenses’ offers such opportunities. The deep understanding of the problem leads to the search for the alternative ways of a solution.

Thus, the aim of this step is for the problem solver to reveal the possible alternative ways for searching a desired solution. Most people think they know how to create alternatives, but often without delving into the situation. First of all, the problem solver based on the reflection of (but not limited to) the analysis of the context and the perspectives of the problem generates a range of alternatives. Some of these alternatives represent anchored thinking as he/she accepts the assumptions implicit in generated alternatives and with too little focus on values.

The chosen value with the formulated goal indicates direction and encourages a broader and more creative search for a solution. Hence, the problem solver should consider some of the initial alternatives that could best support the achievement of the desired solution. Values are the principles for evaluating the desirability of any alternative or outcome ( Keeney, 1994 ). Thus, planned actions should reveal the desirable mode of conduct. After such consideration, he/she should draw up a plan setting out the actions required to implement each of considered alternatives.

Lastly, after a thorough examination of each considered alternative and a plan of its implementation, the problem solver chooses one of them. If the problem solver does not see an appropriate alternative, he/she develops new alternatives. However, the problem solver may notice (and usually does) that more than one alternative can help him/her to achieve the desired solution. In this case, he/she indicates which alternative is the main one and has to be implemented in the first place, and what other alternatives and in what sequence will contribute in searching for the desired solution.

The fourth stage - ‘ The rationale for the solution: Why ’ - leads to the seventh step: ‘ The justification of the chosen alternative ’. Keeney (1994) emphasizes the compatibility of alternatives in question with the values that guide the action. This underlines the importance of justifying the choices a person makes where the focus is on taking responsibility. According to Zsolnai (2008) , responsibility means a choice, i.e., the perceived responsibility essentially determines its choice. Responsible justification allows for discovering optimal balance when choosing between distinct value-based alternatives. It also refers to the alternative solution that best reflects responsibility in a particular value context, choice, and implementation.

At this stage, the problem solver revisits the chosen solution and revises it. The problem solver justifies his/her choice based on the following questions: Why did you choose this? Why is this alternative significant looking from the technical/scientific, the interpersonal/social, the existential, and the systemic perspectives? Could you take full responsibility for the implementation of this alternative? Why? How clearly do envisaged actions reflect the goal of the desired solution? Whatever interests and for what reasons do this alternative satisfies in principle? What else do you see in the chosen alternative?

As mentioned above, each person gives priority to one aspect or another. The problem solver has to provide solid arguments for the justification of the chosen alternative. The quality of arguments, according to Jonassen (2011) , should be judged based on the quality of the evidence supporting the chosen alternative and opposing arguments that can reject solutions. Besides, the pursuit of value-based goals reflects the interests of the individual or collective interests. Therefore, it becomes critical for the problem solver to justify the level of responsibility he/she takes in assessing the chosen alternative. Such a complex evaluation of the chosen alternative ensures the acceptance of an integral rather than unilateral solution, as ‘recognizing that, in the end, people benefit most when they act for the common good’ ( Sternberg, 2012, p.46 ).

5. Discussion

The constant emphasis on thinking about values as explicit reasoning in the 4W framework (especially from the choice of the value(s) to the rationale for problem solution) reflects the pursuit of virtues. Virtues form the features of the character that are related to the choice ( Argandoña, 2003 ; McLaughlin, 2005 ). Hence, the problem solver develops value-grounded problem solving capability as the virtuality instead of employing rationality for problem solving.

Argandoña (2003) suggests that, in order to make a sound valuation process of any action, extrinsic, transcendent, and intrinsic types of motives need to be considered. They cover the respective types of values. The 4W framework meets these requirements. An extrinsic motive as ‘attaining the anticipated or expected satisfaction’ ( Argandoña, 2003, p.17 ) is reflected in the formulation of the goal of the solution, the creation of alternatives and especially in the justification of the chosen alternative way when the problem solver revisits the external effect of his/her possible action. Transcendent motive as ‘generating certain effects in others’ ( Argandoña, 2003, p.17 ) is revealed within the analysis of the context, perspectives, and creating alternatives. When the learner considers the creation of alternatives and revisits the chosen alternative, he/she pays more attention to these motives. Two types of motives mentioned so far are closely related to an intrinsic motive that emphasizes learning development within the problem solver. These motives confirm that problem solving is, in fact, lifelong learning. In light of these findings, the 4W framework is concerned with some features of value internalization as it is ‘a psychological outcome of conscious mind reasoning about values’ ( Yazdani & Akbarilakeh, 2017, p.1 ).

The 4W framework is complicated enough in terms of learning. One issue is concerned with the educational environments ( Jucevičienė, 2008 ) required to enable the 4W framework. First, the learning paradigm, rather than direct instruction, lies at the foundation of such environments. Second, such educational environments include the following dimensions: (1) educational goal; (2) learning capacity of the learners; (3) educational content relevant to the educational goal: ways and means of communicating educational content as information presented in advance (they may be real, people among them, as well as virtual); (5) methods and means of developing educational content in the process of learners’ performance; (6) physical environment relevant to the educational goal and conditions of its implementation as well as different items in the environment; (7) individuals involved in the implementation of the educational goal.

Another issue is related to exercising this framework in practice. Despite being aware of the 4W framework, a person may still not want to practice problem solving through values, since most of the solutions are going to be complicated, or may even be painful. One idea worth looking into is to reveal the extent to which problem solving through values can become a habit of mind. Profound focus on personal values, context analysis, and highlighting various perspectives can involve changes in the problem solver’s habit of mind. The constant practice of problem solving through values could first become ‘the epistemic habit of mind’ ( Mezirow, 2009, p.93 ), which means a personal way of knowing things and how to use that knowledge. This echoes Kirkman (2017) findings. The developed capability to notice moral values in situations that students encountered changed some students’ habit of mind as ‘for having “ruined” things by making it impossible not to attend to values in such situations!’ (the feedback from one student; Kirkman, 2017, p.12 ). However, this is not enough, as only those problems that require a value-based approach are addressed. Inevitably, the problem solver eventually encounters the challenges of nurturing ‘the moral-ethical habit of mind’ ( Mezirow, 2009, p.93 ). In pursuance to develop such habits of mind, the curriculum should include the necessity of the practising of the 4W framework.

Thinking based on values when solving problems enables the problem solver to engage in thoughtful reflection in contrast to pragmatic and superficial thinking supported by the consumer society. Reflection begins from the first stage of the 4W framework. As personal values are the basis for the desired solution, the problem solver is also involved in self-reflection. The conscious and continuous reflection on himself/herself and the problematic situation reinforce each step of the 4W framework. Moreover, the fourth stage (‘The rationale for the solution: Why’) involves the problem solver in critical reflection as it concerned with justification of ‘the why , the reasons for and the consequences of what we do’ (italic, bold in original; Mezirow, 1990, p.8 ). Exercising the 4W framework in practice could foster reflective practice. Empirical evidence shows that reflective practice directly impacts knowledge, skills and may lead to changes in personal belief systems and world views ( Slade, Burnham, Catalana, & Waters, 2019 ). Thus, with the help of reflective practice it is possible to identify in more detail how and to what extent the 4W framework has been mastered, what knowledge gained, capabilities developed, how point of views changed, and what influence the change process.

Critical issues related to the development of problem solving through values need to be distinguished when considering and examining options for the implementation of the 4W framework at educational institutions. First, the question to what extent can the 4W framework be incorporated into various subjects needs to be answered. Researchers could focus on applying the 4W framework to specific subjects in the humanities and social sciences. The case is with STEM subjects. Though value issues of sustainable development and ecology are of great importance, in reality STEM teaching is often restricted to the development of knowledge and skills, leaving aside the thinking about values. The special task of the researchers is to help practitioners to apply the 4W framework in STEM subjects. Considering this, researchers could employ the concept of ‘dialogic space’ ( Wegerif, 2011, p.3 ) which places particular importance of dialogue in the process of education emphasizing both the voices of teachers and students, and materials. In addition, the dimensions of educational environments could be useful aligning the 4W framework with STEM subjects. As STEM teaching is more based on solving various special tasks and/or integrating problem-based learning, the 4W framework could be a meaningful tool through which content is mastered, skills are developed, knowledge is acquired by solving pre-prepared specific tasks. In this case, the 4W framework could act as a mean addressing values in STEM teaching.

Second is the question of how to enable the process of problem solving through values. In the current paper, the concept of enabling is understood as an integral component of the empowerment. Juceviciene et al. (2010) specify that at least two perspectives can be employed to explain empowerment : a) through the power of legitimacy (according to Freire, 1996 ); and b) through the perspective of conditions for the acquisition of the required knowledge, capabilities, and competence, i.e., enabling. In this paper the 4W framework does not entail the issue of legitimacy. This issue may occur, for example, when a teacher in economics is expected to provide students with subject knowledge only, rather than adding tasks that involve problem solving through values. Yet, the issue of legitimacy is often implicit. A widespread phenomenon exists that teaching is limited to certain periods that do not have enough time for problem solving through values. The issue of legitimacy as an organizational task that supports/or not the implementation of the 4W framework in any curriculum is a question that calls for further discussion.

Third (if not the first), the issue of an educator’s competence to apply such a framework needs to be addressed. In order for a teacher to be a successful enabler, he/she should have the necessary competence. This is related to the specific pedagogical knowledge and skills, which are highly dependent on the peculiarities of the subject being taught. Nowadays actualities are encouraging to pay attention to STEM subjects and their teacher training. For researchers and teacher training institutions, who will be interested in implementing the 4W framework in STEM subjects, it would be useful to draw attention to ‘a material-dialogic approach to pedagogy’ ( Hetherington & Wegerif, 2018, p.27 ). This approach creates the conditions for a deep learning of STEM subjects revealing additional opportunities for problem solving through values in teaching. Highlighting these opportunities is a task for further research.

In contrast to traditional problem solving models, the 4W framework is more concerned with educational purposes. The prescriptive approach to teaching ( Thorne, 1994 ) is applied to the 4W framework. This approach focuses on providing guidelines that enable students to make sound decisions by making explicit value judgements. The limitation is that the 4W framework is focused on thinking but not executing. It does not include the fifth stage, which would focus on the execution of the decision how to solve the problem. This stage may contain some deviation from the predefined process of the solution of the problem.

6. Conclusions

The current paper focuses on revealing the essence of the 4W framework, which is based on enabling the problem solver to draw attention to when, how, and why it is essential to think about values during the problem solving process from the perspective of it’s design. Accordingly, the 4W framework advocates the coherent approach when solving a problem by using a creative potential of values.

The 4W framework allows the problem solver to look through the lens of his/her values twice. The first time, while formulating the problem solving goal as the desired outcome. The second time is when the problem solver looks deeper into his/her values while exploring alternative ways to solve problems. The problem solver is encouraged to reason about, find, accept, reject, compare values, and become responsible for the consequences of the choices grounded on his/her values. Thus, the problem solver could benefit from the 4W framework especially when dealing with issues having crucial consequences.

An educational approach reveals that the 4W framework could enable the development of value-grounded problem solving capability. As problem solving encourages the development of higher-order thinking skills, the consistent inclusion of values enriches them.

The 4W framework requires the educational environments for its enablement. The enablement process of problem solving through values could be based on the perspective of conditions for the acquisition of the required knowledge and capability. Continuous practice of this framework not only encourages reflection, but can also contribute to the creation of the epistemic habit of mind. Applying the 4W framework to specific subjects in the humanities and social sciences might face less challenge than STEM ones. The issue of an educator’s competence to apply such a framework is highly important. The discussed issues present significant challenges for researchers and educators. Caring that the curriculum of different courses should foresee problem solving through values, both practicing and empirical research are necessary.

Declaration of interests

This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.

Both authors have approved the final article.

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Even well-planned studies may need to solve problems. Examples of such problems or challenges include:

• Changing circumstances. New laws, changes to policies or procedures at the research organization, or changes in team member availability due to personal circumstances can add new challenges to a study.
• Failure or unintended outcomes. Even well-planned strategies to recruit participants or collect data do not always work as intended. Failure is an opportunity to learn and improve.
• External events. Events such as environmental or natural disasters can affect the study timeline and how the team works together.

Sometimes, problems suggest that the team is not working well together. Examples include:

• Personal conflict. Sometimes team members may have a personal conflict with one another instead of engaging in productive disagreement . Personal conflict is based on a negative judgment of someone’s personal characteristics or work style rather than the person’s ideas and perspectives. Team members can reduce personal conflict when they recognize and address biases and stereotypes and commit to team norms of respect and collaboration.
• Limited productivity. Team productivity—the ability to make decisions and complete tasks as a team—can be affected by a lack of a shared vision or unclear roles and responsibilities . Limited productivity can also result from discussions that are not well-managed.
• Fading interest and involvement. Long periods of time between team meetings, limited involvement, or a lack of clarity about team member contributions can reduce team members’ interest in the study. Reduced interest often results in inconsistent attendance or participation.

Solving Problems and Challenges Can Lead to Innovations in Multi-Stakeholder Team Research.

Multi-stakeholder team research is relatively new. Understanding or reflecting on the challenges to effective multi-stakeholder teamwork can provide lessons that advance the field. The solutions that you and your team develop will be valuable to other multi-stakeholder research teams in the future.

Resources on Problem Solving

The following provide information and resources on how teams can solve two common issues collaboratively: personal conflict between team members and sustaining team member involvement in a study:

• Collaborative problem solving. Both leaders and contributors play an important role in solving problems. The process for team problem solving is easy to learn and apply to most situations.
• Negotiating conflict. Although disagreement can be a positive force that leads to team synergy (where decisions made by the entire team are stronger than those made by any one member), unmanaged conflict between team members can slow down progress and make a team less effective. Understanding personal conflict and how to resolve it is an essential skill for the entire team.
• Sustaining engagement. Even the most enthusiastic team members can lose interest and commitment to the team. Practical ways exist to ensure that team members stay involved throughout the entire study.

Collaborative Problem Solving

Solving problems as a team is different than solving problems as an individual. Collective problem solving can benefit from multiple perspectives and opinions that lead to a broader range of solutions. To realize that benefit, two factors are critical in team problem solving: cognitive diversity across the team and a sense of psychological safety among all team members.

What is a Cognitively Diverse Team?

Cognitive diversity is not the same as demographic diversity. Research suggests that a demographically diverse team may not also be cognitively diverse. Both cognitive and demographic diversity are important aspects of effective multi-stakeholder teams.

The cognitive diversity of a team refers to how members of the team think differently from one another. A cognitively diverse team is made up of people who process information and draw conclusions in various ways.

How do people think differently from one another? Some people like to think about the big picture while others like to focus on the details. Some people view information using logic while others focus on their emotions. Some people need to read an idea to process it, while others need to talk about it and ask questions. Some people find clarity in numbers, while others prefer words.

No one person on a cognitively diverse team is right or wrong in how they think about any topic, and so far, research has not found that one way of thinking is better than any other. Together, a team of cognitively diverse people can view a problem from multiple angles, creating broader insights and better solutions. In the example below, team members are designing a study comparing treatments for depression. Each team member thinks differently about how to identify the research questions.

Example of a Cognitively Diverse Team

What is Psychological Safety?

Psychological safety is believing that you can share your thoughts or ideas without feeling criticized or dismissed. Although few people intend to make another person feel badly, they may do so without knowing it through certain verbal and non-verbal responses to other peoples’ ideas. For example, looking uninterested, rolling your eyes, or sighing may communicate disdain for someone’s ideas, or worse, disdain for the person themselves. In addition, making judgmental comments rather than acknowledging the idea and then explaining why you disagree can also make people feel psychologically unsafe.

How can teams create an environment where all team members feel psychologically safe?

• Pay attention to and control verbal and non-verbal responses to suggestions and ideas.
• Revisit team norms often, especially those that focus on establishing psychological safety such as showing all team members respect and trying to understand ideas before commenting on them.
• Share your opinion of the idea, not the person.
• Give positive feedback and reactions before expressing disagreement.
• Be specific when disagreeing with an idea.
• Check in with team members outside of team discussions to see if they feel psychologically safe. If they do not, ask them what would increase their sense of safety. Attempt to address their concerns or make changes to team norms as appropriate to help the team member feel psychologically safe.

Reducing the Impact of Hierarchy in Team Problem Solving

Hierarchy refers to people’s position in a team or organization. Most often, titles indicate an individual’s level of power or authority. For example, a chairperson or director has more authority and power than an administrative assistant. Credentials, such as a medical degree, can also indicate hierarchy.

Most people respond to hierarchy in one of two ways. One response is to accept the opinions of people with professional degrees (such as an MD) or titles (such as president). Another response is to question their opinions and distrust their motives. Teams that identify members by their degrees or titles may undermine the full participation of the entire team. Using titles and degrees or only acknowledging team members in positions of authority can alienate others. To limit the effects of hierarchy, many teams use only first names during discussions; they don’t use formal titles or degrees. This practice helps everyone to feel like they are on equal ground.

Establishing a Process for Collaborative Problem Solving

Using a formal process can help guide problem-solving discussions. At each step in the process, the team should raise several questions to help focus team members’ comments and responses and keep the discussion moving forward.

• What is happening?

• What is the cause of the problem?
• What is contributing to the problem?
• How can we brainstorm solutions that address the root cause?
• What criteria should we use to evaluate different options?
• Using the criteria, what are the benefits and drawbacks of each solution?
• What solution(s) should we choose?
• Who is responsible for implementing the plan?
• What progress are we making?
• What additional challenges have we encountered?
• Did the solution solve the problem?
• What, if any, unintended consequences emerged?
• What have we learned from this process that can inform future efforts?

Learning Resources

Provides a list of suggested questions that team members can discuss to solve problems together.

View Discussion Guide

Provides an opportunity to consider how to use a formal process for collaborative problem solving and how to encourage full participation from the team in problem-solving.

View Scenario

Provides links to publicly available resources on best practices to engage in collaborative problem solving.

View Further Reading List

Negotiating Conflict

The importance of a healthy team culture.

Regular and in-depth exchange of ideas, conveyance of respect even within difficulties, and ongoing investments in building personal relationships and trust are essential to navigating conflict, as are the ability to manage one’s emotional reactivity and to either resolve or put aside difficult disagreements. —Bennett and Gadlin, 2019

To help avoid personal conflicts between team members, team organizers and leaders can create a culture of mutual respect and understanding. To do this, they should follow the steps below.

• Help team members get to know one another. Have team members talk about their background and interests, what motivates them, how they think about things, and their communication style. Taking time to build positive relationships among team members is worth the investment.
• Establish valuing and respecting differences among team members as the norm. Leaders can regularly highlight the benefits of having a diverse team . They can make it clear that having different experiences, perspectives, and ways of expressing themselves is a good thing.
• Model productive disagreement. It is important for team members to see productive disagreement in action, where two people can disagree with each other’s opinions or ideas while showing mutual respect.
• Hold individuals accountable for disrespectful behavior. Not holding someone accountable for being disrespectful only enables and reinforces the behavior while undermining team norms. Team members can hold each other accountable by providing feedback. Team members can also make clear requests for behavior change and establish a clear set of consequences for unproductive behavior. It may also be helpful to offer support through training or coaching. If a team member’s behavior continues to violate team norms or codes of conduct after several attempts have been made to address the behavior, then you may need to think about asking the person to leave the team.

The information below describes what personal conflict is, causes of personal conflict, and strategies to address it.

What is Personal Conflict?

Personal conflict between team members involves negative feelings and judgments about another team member. Personal conflict is an emotional reaction that can range from discomfort to disdain and even to hostility. Often, personal conflict comes from a judgment one team member may have about the character, intelligence, personality, or worthiness of another team member. When expressed, personal conflict can lead to tension, arguing, and criticizing others in meetings, which can make team members feel uncomfortable and undermine the team’s cohesion and productivity. Personal conflict can also affect individual member commitment and involvement as members grow uncomfortable and feel psychologically unsafe interacting with other members of the team.

What Causes Personal Conflict?

• Biases and stereotypes. Individuals may have negative feelings about other people based on their biases . These biases may involve a person’s race, gender, education, profession, ethnicity, age, choice of clothing, or any number of personal characteristics. In other words, conflict can start simply because, on the surface, one team member does not view the other person in a kind way.
• Emotional hot buttons. A hot button is an area of sensitivity someone may have that makes them more likely to have a negative emotional reaction. For example, someone who is insecure about their technology skills may have a negative emotional reaction when someone laughs at them because they are having trouble accessing an electronic document. The hot button in this case is the insecurity in weak technical skills. Team members may or may not be aware of this insecurity or the need to avoid behavior that might “ push the button” . Sometimes, team members may push the button on purpose. We all have different hot buttons. It is important to remember that other team members may be completely unaware that someone has a hot button.
• Power differentials. The perceived imbalance of power or privilege can create personal conflict. For example, team members may compete against each other for attention, acknowledgment, or influence on the team. A team member may react to a lack of respect for their title or credentials, or to a team member exercising power based on their position of authority.
• Different work or communication styles. Team members may have different work or communication styles that result in conflict. For example, a team member may assign a motive or a character flaw when they see a team member who communicates more directly than they do, or who waits to start a task.

You can use several strategies when you feel a negative emotion about another team member.

Some degree of self-awareness and emotional intelligence contributes positively to successful participation in collaborative ventures. One needs to be aware of one’s impact on others as well as of one’s own areas of sensitivity and vulnerability.

-Stipleman, Rice, Vogel and Hall, 2019

• Try to understand the emotional reaction and its cause. Understanding what is making you feel the way you do can help you find solutions to change your emotions. Identify the specific behaviors that are causing the emotion. In some cases, you may adjust how you feel by gaining a new perspective about the person or your interactions. One way to do this is to identify one positive aspect of the person for every aspect that causes a negative reaction.
• Get to know the person better. Some negative reactions are caused by a lack of understanding about who someone is and why they think or act the way they do. Spending time with the person and getting to know more about their background, experiences, and culture can often create more accurate perceptions and soften negative emotions and reactions.
• Openly express your feelings with the intent to resolve them. Sharing how you feel gives you a chance to clarify the other person’s motives or intentions or identify a different way of interacting with each other. It is important to separate their behavior from your emotions. A common technique to do this is called “When you/Then I.” This technique lets you identify and describe a person’s behavior while owning your reaction to the behavior. They can change their behavior, or they can explain their intent or reasons for the behavior so you can react differently. For example, you may want to express how you feel disrespected when another team member checks their phone while you are talking during a meeting. Using the “When you/Then I” technique, you might say something like this: “ When you check your phone while I’m speaking in the meeting, I feel disrespected .” You can then follow up this statement with a request: “ I would appreciate it if you would put your phone away during meetings so you can make eye contact with me when I am speaking .” The other person can then explain why they checked their phone in the meeting and clarify that they did not mean to disrespect you. You may choose to state that you understand but ask that they check their phone less often. In this way, you can arrive at an agreement that works for both of you along with a new understanding of each other’s feelings and behaviors.
• Manage your reactions. Both verbal and nonverbal behaviors can increase personal conflict, so be aware of how you react around the person. Sometimes people avoid talking about the conflict directly, but passively, they still show their disapproval. This passive aggressive communication often looks and sounds friendly but can increase the conflict without resolving the problem.
• Negotiate boundaries. Sometimes you can’t avoid a negative emotional response. For example, the other person may be unable or unwilling to change their behavior. Negotiating your boundaries—deciding when and how you will interact with the other person—can limit your exposure to the person and the triggers to your emotions.
• Have no relationship or an equal relationship with both parties and not show favoritism.
• Guide the conversation rather than answer for either party.
• Not express preferences or opinions about the conflict or the people.
• Keep what is discussed confidential.

Presents insights from researchers and stakeholders from PCORI-funded teams – in their own words – about how they have successfully negotiated conflict within their teams.

View Quotes

Explains how personal conflict between team members is different than personal disagreements and provides ways to help minimize personal conflict.

View Tip Sheet

Provides an opportunity to consider how to identify and negotiate personal conflict with other team members.

Sustaining Engagement

Maintaining and growing stakeholder engagement.

Enthusiastic and lasting participation among stakeholders is often a sign of successful teamwork. Sometimes keeping stakeholders engaged in long-term projects can be a challenge. Understanding the reasons for decreased involvement can help reduce these challenges.

Reduced involvement due to changes in personal circumstances may be unavoidable. For example:

• Increases in workload or changes in employment status may make the stakeholder less available.
• Changes in health status may make it hard for stakeholders who are patients or caregivers to continue their involvement.
• Life events—such as births, deaths, or other life changes—can affect availability.

When personal circumstances affect availability, it may be helpful to adapt current responsibilities or assign them to others. Discuss what would work best for the person and the team.

Other reasons for reduced stakeholder engagement may be signs that the team is not functioning well. Common problems that may lead to low interest or participation—and that can be avoided—are:

• Limited communication for long periods of time between study activities, such as during data collection.
• Lack of meaningful involvement in study activities or team discussions.
• Limited acknowledgment of individual contributions.
• Lack of interpersonal or social connection with other team members.
• Unresolved negative experiences or personal conflict.
• Too much communication, too many meetings, or too many requests for input.

The information below provides strategies to maintain and grow stakeholder engagement.

Strategies to Maintain Engagement

Strategies to help sustain interest and engagement include the following:

• Communicate regularly and set expectations. During lulls in study activities, update stakeholders on progress or connect them to another aspect of the study. Being up-front about lapses of time between team interactions can help set expectations so that stakeholders don’t feel forgotten.
• Connect stakeholders with activities that match their interests and reasons for involvement .
• Lead and contribute to productive meetings and discussions.
• Acknowledge the impact of stakeholders’ contributions on the study. For example, a team may record and share the results of all stakeholder contributions between meetings. Other teams may include stakeholder contributions as an agenda item at every meeting.
• Foster interpersonal or social connections among team members. Team-building activities are one way to do this.
• Check in regularly with stakeholders . One-on-one meetings with stakeholders are a chance to strengthen relationships and identify and resolve potential negative experiences and conflicts with other members.

Don't Just Sustain Stakeholder Interest, Grow It.

• Give stakeholders opportunities to learn more about research by attending trainings, seminars, and workshops.
• Trust stakeholders to take on certain roles in the study—even leadership roles—such as recruitment, enrollment, or data collection.
• Involve stakeholders and other team members in conferences, presentations, and publications about the study, as well as efforts to share results with research partners and patient support groups.
• Find opportunities for experienced stakeholders to recruit and mentor new stakeholders.
• Make engagement as easy as possible for stakeholders by eliminating barriers and providing the necessary resources.

Provides tips to keep team members engaged throughout the study and ensure that the study benefits from contributions of all members.

Provides stakeholders with real-world illustrations and strategies of how to sustain stakeholder engagement across an entire project.

Provides links to publicly available resources on ways to motivate team members and build commitment within teams to sustain engagement.

Problem Posing and Problem Solving in Mathematics Education

International Research and Practice Trends

• © 2023
• Tin Lam Toh   ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9991-3162 0 ,
• Manuel Santos-Trigo   ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7144-2098 1 ,
• Puay Huat Chua   ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5148-328X 2 ,
• Nor Azura Abdullah   ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7259-5224 3 ,
• Dan Zhang   ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3960-6945 4

National Institute of Education, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore

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Mathematics Education Department, Centre for Research and Advanced Studies, CDMX, Mexico

Universiti brunei darussalam, brunei darussalam, brunei darussalam, beijing academy of educational sciences, beijing, china.

• Discusses contemporary issues on problem solving and problem posing from an international perspective
• Connects classical and modern approaches to study problem solving and problem posing
• Showcases an overview of problem solving with an emphasis on remote learning scenarios and digital tools

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Table of contents (14 chapters)

Front matter, problem posing and problem-solving in mathematics education: international research and practice trends.

• Tin Lam Toh, Manuel Santos-Trigo, Puay Huat Chua, Nor Azura Abdullah, Dan Zhang

Trends and Developments of Mathematical Problem-Solving Research to Update and Support the Use of Digital Technologies in Post-confinement Learning Spaces

Manuel Santos-Trigo

Problem Posing and Modeling: Confronting the Dilemma of Rigor or Relevance

• Corey Brady, Paola Ramírez, Richard Lesh

Types of Mathematical Reasoning Promoted in the Context of Problem-Solving Instruction in Geneva

• Maud Chanudet

Prospective Secondary School Mathematics Teachers’ Use of Digital Technologies to Represent, Explore and Solve Problems

• Alexánder Hernández, Josefa Perdomo-Díaz, Matías Camacho-Machín

Primary School Teachers’ Behaviors, Beliefs, and Their Interplay in Teaching for Problem-Solving

• Benjamin Rott

Movie Clips in the Enactment of Problem Solving in the Mathematics Classroom Within the Framework of Communication Model

• Tin Lam Toh, Eng Guan Tay

On Teaching of Word Problems in the Context of Early Algebra

• Nicolina A. Malara, Agnese I. Telloni

Problem Posing by Mathematics Teachers: The Problems They Pose and the Challenges They Face in the Classroom

• Alina Galvão Spinillo, Síntria Labres Lautert, Neila Tonin Agranionih, Rute Elizabete de Souza Rosa Borba, Ernani Martins dos Santos, Juliana Ferreira Gomes da Silva

Problem Posing Among Preservice and Inservice Mathematics Teachers

• Ma. Nympha Beltran Joaquin

An Approach to Developing the Problem-Posing Skills of Prospective Mathematics Teachers: Focus on the “What if not” Heuristics

• Zoltán Kovács

Regulation of Cognition During Problem Posing: A Case Study

• Puay Huat Chua

Problem Posing in Pósa Problem Threads

• Lajos Pósa, Péter Juhász, Ryota Matsuura, Réka Szász

Conclusion: Mathematics Problem Posing and Problem Solving: Some Reflections on Recent Advances and New Opportunities

• Edward A. Silver
• Problem Solving
• Problem Posing
• Lesson Enactment
• Teacher Education
• Theoretical Frameworks
• Mathematical Problem Solving
• Mathematical Problem Posing
• Digital Tools in Mathematics Education
• Remote Learning Scenarios
• Mathematical Reasonings
• Professional Development Model
• Characteristics of Mathematical problems
• How Teachers Pose Mathematical Problems
• Regulatory Phases
• Mathematical Guided Discovery

About this book

This book presents both theoretical and empirical contributions from a global perspective on problem solving and posing (PS/PP) and their application, in relation to the teaching and learning of mathematics in schools. The chapters are derived from selected presentations in the PS/PP Topical Study Group in ICME14. Although mathematical problem posing is a much younger field of inquiry in mathematics education, this topic has grown rapidly. The mathematics curriculum frameworks in many parts of the world have incorporated problem posing as an instructional focus, building on problem solving as its foundation. The juxtaposition of problem solving and problem posing in mathematics presented in this book addresses the needs of the mathematics education research and practice communities at the present day. In particular, this book aims to address the three key points: to present an overview of research and development regarding students’ mathematical problem solving and posing; to discuss new trends and developments in research and practice on these topics; and to provide insight into the future trends of mathematical problem solving and posing.

Editors and Affiliations

Tin Lam Toh, Puay Huat Chua

Nor Azura Abdullah

About the editors

Bibliographic information.

Book Title : Problem Posing and Problem Solving in Mathematics Education

Book Subtitle : International Research and Practice Trends

Editors : Tin Lam Toh, Manuel Santos-Trigo, Puay Huat Chua, Nor Azura Abdullah, Dan Zhang

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-7205-0

Publisher : Springer Singapore

eBook Packages : Education , Education (R0)

Copyright Information : The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023

Hardcover ISBN : 978-981-99-7204-3 Published: 02 January 2024

Softcover ISBN : 978-981-99-7207-4 Due: 13 January 2024

eBook ISBN : 978-981-99-7205-0 Published: 01 January 2024

Edition Number : 1

Number of Pages : X, 259

Number of Illustrations : 23 b/w illustrations, 39 illustrations in colour

Topics : Mathematics, general , Education, general , Study and Learning Skills

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3 Questions: Enhancing last-mile logistics with machine learning

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Across the country, hundreds of thousands of drivers deliver packages and parcels to customers and companies each day, with many click-to-door times averaging only a few days. Coordinating a supply chain feat of this magnitude in a predictable and timely way is a longstanding problem of operations research, where researchers have been working to optimize the last leg of delivery routes. This is because the last phase of the process is often the costliest due to inefficiencies like long distances between stops due to increased ecommerce demand, weather delays, traffic, lack of parking availability, customer delivery preferences, or partially full trucks — inefficiencies that became more exaggerated and evident during the pandemic.

With newer technology and more individualized and nuanced data, researchers are able to develop models with better routing options but at the same time need to balance the computational cost of running them. Matthias Winkenbach, MIT principal research scientist, director of research for the MIT Center for Transportation and Logistics (CTL) and a researcher with the MIT-IBM Watson AI Lab, discusses how artificial intelligence could provide better and more computationally efficient solutions to a combinatorial optimization problem like this one.

Q: What is the vehicle routing problem, and how do traditional operations research (OR) methods address it?

A: The vehicle routing problem is faced by pretty much every logistics and delivery company like USPS, Amazon, UPS, FedEx, DHL every single day. Simply speaking, it's finding an efficient route that connects a set of customers that need to be either delivered to, or something needs to be picked up from them. It’s deciding which customers each of those vehicles — that you see out there on the road — should visit on a given day and in which sequence. Usually, the objective there is to find routes that lead to the shortest, or the fastest, or the cheapest route. But very often they are also driven by constraints that are specific to a customer. For instance, if you have a customer who has a delivery time window specified, or a customer on the 15th floor in the high-rise building versus the ground floor. This makes these customers more difficult to integrate into an efficient delivery route.

To solve the vehicle routing problem, we obviously we can't do our modeling without proper demand information and, ideally, customer-related characteristics. For instance, we need to know the size or weight of the packages ordered by a given customer, or how many units of a certain product need to be shipped to a certain location. All of this determines the time that you would need to service that particular stop. For realistic problems, you also want to know where the driver can park the vehicle safely. Traditionally, a route planner had to come up with good estimates for these parameters, so very often you find models and planning tools that are making blanket assumptions because there weren’t stop-specific data available.

Machine learning can be very interesting for this because nowadays most of the drivers have smartphones or GPS trackers, so there is a ton of information as to how long it takes to deliver a package. You can now, at scale, in a somewhat automated way, extract that information and calibrate every single stop to be modeled in a realistic way.

Using a traditional OR approach means you write up an optimization model, where you start by defining the objective function. In most cases that's some sort of cost function. Then there are a bunch of other equations that define the inner workings of a routing problem. For instance, you must tell the model that, if the vehicle visits a customer, it also needs to leave the customer again. In academic terms, that's usually called flow conservation. Similarly, you need to make sure that every customer is visited exactly once on a given route. These and many other real-world constraints together define what constitutes a viable route. It may seem obvious to us, but this needs to be encoded explicitly.

Once an optimization problem is formulated, there are algorithms out there that help us find the best possible solution; we refer to them as solvers. Over time they find solutions that comply with all the constraints. Then, it tries to find routes that are better and better, so cheaper and cheaper ones until you either say, "OK, this is good enough for me," or until it can mathematically prove that it found the optimal solution. The average delivery vehicle in a U.S. city makes about 120 stops. It can take a while to solve that explicitly, so that's usually not what companies do, because it's just too computationally expensive. Therefore, they use so-called heuristics, which are algorithms that are very efficient in finding reasonably good solutions but typically cannot quantify how far away these solutions are from the theoretical optimum.

Q: You’re currently applying machine learning to the vehicle routing problem. How are you employing it to leverage and possibly outperform traditional OR methods?

A: That's what we're currently working on with folks from the MIT-IBM Watson AI Lab. Here, the general idea is that you train a model on a large set of existing routing solutions that you either observed in a company’s real-world operations or that you generated using one of these efficient heuristics. In most machine-learning models, you no longer have an explicit objective function. Instead, you need to make the model understand what kind of problem it's actually looking at and what a good solution to the problem looks like. For instance, similar to training a large language model on words in a given language, you need to train a route learning model on the concept of the various delivery stops and their demand characteristics. Like understanding the inherent grammar of natural language, your model needs to understand how to connect these delivery stops in a way that results in a good solution — in our case, a cheap or fast solution. If you then throw a completely new set of customer demands at it, it will still be able to connect the dots quite literally in a way that you would also do if you were trying to find a good route to connect these customers.

For this, we're using model architectures that most people know from the language processing space. It seems a little bit counterintuitive because what does language processing have to do with routing? But actually, the properties of these models, especially transformer models, are good at finding structure in language — connecting words in a way that they form sentences. For instance, in a language, you have a certain vocabulary, and that's fixed. It's a discrete set of possible words that you can use, and the challenge is to combine them in a meaningful way. In routing, it's similar. In Cambridge there are like 40,000 addresses that you can visit. Usually, it's a subset of these addresses that need to be visited, and the challenge is: How do we combine this subset — these "words" — in a sequence that makes sense?

That's kind of the novelty of our approach — leveraging that structure that has proven to be extremely effective in the language space and bringing it into combinatorial optimization. Routing is just a great test bed for us because it's the most fundamental problem in the logistics industry. 

Of course, there are already very good routing algorithms out there that emerged from decades of operations research. What we are trying to do in this project is show that with a completely different, purely machine learning-based methodological approach, we are able to predict routes that are pretty much as good as, or better than, the routes that you would get from running a state-of-the-art route optimization heuristic.

Q: What advantages does a method like yours have over other state-of-the-art OR techniques?

A: Right now, the best methods are still very hungry in terms of computational resources that are required to train these models, but you can front-load some of this effort. Then, the trained model is relatively efficient in producing a new solution as it becomes required. 

Another aspect to consider is that the operational environment of a route, especially in cities, is constantly changing. The available road infrastructure, or traffic rules and speed limits might be altered, the ideal parking lot may be occupied by something else, or a construction site might block a road. With a pure OR-based approach, you might actually be in trouble because you would have to basically resolve the entire problem instantly once new information about the problem becomes available. Since the operational environment is dynamically changing, you would have to do this over and over again. While if you have a well-trained model that has seen similar issues before, it could potentially suggest the next-best route to take, almost instantaneously. It's more of a tool that would help companies to adjust to increasingly unpredictable changes in the environment.

Moreover, optimization algorithms are often manually crafted to solve the specific problem of a given company. The quality of the solutions obtained from such explicit algorithms is bounded by the level of detail and sophistication that went into the design of the algorithm. A learning-based model, on the other hand, continuously learns a routing policy from data. Once you have defined the model structure, a well-designed route learning model will distill potential improvements to your routing policy from the vast amount of routes it is being trained on. Simply put, a learning-based routing tool will continue to find improvements to your routes without you having to invest into explicitly designing these improvements into the algorithm.

Lastly, optimization-based methods are typically limited to optimizing for a very clearly defined objective function, which often seeks to minimize cost or maximize profits. In reality, the objectives that companies and drivers face are much more complex than that, and often they are also somewhat contradictory. For instance, a company wants to find efficient routes, but it also wants to have a low emissions footprint. The driver also wants to be safe and have a convenient way of serving these customers. On top of all of that, companies also care about consistency. A well-designed route learning model can eventually capture these high-dimensional objectives by itself, and that is something that you would never be able to achieve in the same way with a traditional optimization approach.

So, this is the kind of machine learning application that can actually have a tangible real-world impact in industry, on society, and on the environment. The logistics industry has problems that are much more complex than this. For instance, if you want to optimize an entire supply chain — let's say, the flow of a product from the manufacturer in China through the network of different ports around the world, through the distribution network of a big retailer in North America to your store where you actually buy it — there are so many decisions involved in that, which obviously makes it a much harder task than optimizing a single vehicle route. Our hope is that with this initial work, we can lay the foundation for research and also private sector development efforts to build tools that will eventually enable better end-to-end supply chain optimization.

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Parent item expand the sub menu, thom browne stages performance in milan unveiling frette collaboration, a look at the uniforms berluti designed for french olympic teams, as q1 revenue falls, lvmh plays the waiting game, design problem-solving at the center of eames institute of infinite curiosity’s new galleries.

The Bay Area attraction uses Charles and Ray Eames' drawings, prototypes, correspondence and collectibles to inspire.

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Midcentury design trailblazers Charles and Ray Eames are inextricably linked to Los Angeles, where they lived and worked for 40 years at 901 Washington Boulevard in Venice, and where their Case Study home in the Pacific Palisades is an icon of modern architecture.

Yet it is in Northern California, in Richmond, that a new space dedicated to the designers’ process and problem-solving has opened, shedding light on the workings of the minds behind the lounge chair and ottoman, as well as the 1970s-era “Powers of Ten” film depicting the scale of the universe.

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Although much of the Eames’ materials, slides, images and prints went to the Library of Congress after they died, and the conference room and entrance of their home/headquarters were donated to art museums, Demetrios’ mother Lucia bundled up the rest of the office contents and moved them to her farm in Sonoma County.

Demetrios, a museum curator and artist herself, is now cataloging those contents and re-imagining her grandparents’ legacy with the nonprofit institute she founded in 2022, and its new exhibition space.

“The thing I learned very quickly from them is what they called ‘found learning.’ Just being around them and being at their office or at their home, you learn how they did things and how they solve problems,” she says during a recent tour, explaining her goal with the space is to impart some of that wisdom through storytelling by using the nearly 40,000 objects in the archives.

There are several cases with mementos that reveal what the designers were like from an early age, including two wonderful fashion sketches by Ray, who in 1933 earned a degree in fashion design from the Bennett School for Girls in Millbrook, N.Y. Although she largely transitioned to other areas of design, she continued to make hundreds of related sketches throughout her life, which the institute may some day show in their entirety. Also on view are her charming paper dolls, which she started making at age 3, and hand-drawn packing lists for trips with little drawings of her clothing, shoes and gloves.

All of it demonstrates how her color sense and whimsy were essential to the later work of designing textiles, clothing for herself and Charles, choir robes for a church, and uniforms for staff members of IBM’s Pavilion during the 1964 New York World’s Fair. “My favorite were her skirts which had 10 or 12 pockets. It was her tool kit, she kept her car keys, her Polaroid camera in there,” says Demetrios. “They also mended their clothes. Charles loved having his socks darned because he wanted them to last. There wasn’t a throwaway mentality at all.”

During the Depression, Charles went to Mexico and earned money to send home to his family by painting houses and making watercolors, some of which are here. “It’s on that trip he had an epiphany, which is how he put it, when he saw people with far less than he had who were far happier. And the reason was, as he looked at it, they were working on projects for their church, their community, their school, their town. That became a really important idea to him and evolved into how to approach what to design or not design,” Demetrios says of his less-is-more philosophy and the couple’s focus on design for the good of society as a whole.

It was that kind of thinking that led the Eames to eventually stop harvesting Brazilian rosewood for furniture when they heard about the impact on the forests, and to discontinue using plastic and fiberglass when they learned it was going in landfills, making them early proponents of sustainability.

A beautifully curated center display highlights some of the couple’s most important designs, including a set of four molded plywood seats — works in progress — that were forerunners to the famous Eames dining chairs, made by their Kazam! machine that used an inflatable rubber pouch to shape the wood. “The wood was not working the way they wanted it to, but they never called anything a failure, they called it a misconception and moved on,” says Demetrios, explaining how the misshapen seats are juxtaposed with the eventual perfected design, a chair split into two plywood pieces on a welded steel rod base.

“Today you can laser cut and do a molded plywood chair, but they worked within the constraints of what they had, which is another great lesson. Honest use of materials, hands-on, do not delegate understanding are all lessons that they learned from the very first project that they did together and it informed everything they did after,” she says.

The entry room opens up into an industrial warehouse packed with shelves of furniture, much of it chairs in various iterations and colors — office chairs, dining chairs, lounge chairs — with cat’s cradle and Eiffel Tower inspired bases, for dentists’ offices, the 1964 World’s Fair IBM Pavilion and airport lounges, produced by Herman Miller and Vitra.

“Part of what we like to share here is not just the chairs, but the stories and the questions Ray and Charles asked in designing those chairs,” says Demetrios, pointing out the Eames’ design for airport seating.

“Their first question was always, ‘What’s wrong with what exists?’ So they went and talked to maintenance teams at about five airports. Now think ‘Mad Men’ era, and how much smoking happened. The biggest issue was replacement parts.”

The designers noticed existing seats were heavily upholstered, and new cushions took up a lot of storage, so they redesigned the seating to create a version where the back and the seat were the same shape, and the covering rolls up. “I call it the Ray and Charles Eames mending system; as opposed to replacing it, they just pushed it along a little farther.”

Several of the designers’ tools are on display, including a steel cabinet full of the miniature photographs of people they used for their scale models. “Everyone was asked to pose, everyone who came to the office, everyone from the factory. There usually was a day where ‘you were dressed for the city’ is how it was put,” Demetrios says of the hundreds upon hundreds of midcentury-dressed people. Another cabinet reveals meticulously organized colored pencils, and another decorative papers they used to cover light sockets.

Other items speak to the designers’ love of play, including letters written to their grandchildren in Rebus, ride-on toys, spinning tops, and Japanese-fish-on-a-string and more collected around the world over the years. Also charming: a 15-foot vertical xylophone that the Eameses designed for the Time-Life building lobby in Manhattan in the 1950s, which plays musical notes when a marble is dropped in the slot above.

Tours of the archives end with a “chair tasting” where visitors can try out some of the famous designs, including a “couch but not a casting couch” created for their friend, the legendary filmmaker Billy Wilder.

“What we’re doing is taking Ray and Charles off the pedestal and sharing how in many ways, they were just solving problems that interested them,” says Demetrios. “What’s funny is we have a lot of the same problems today.”

The Eames Archives are open for public for guided tours by reservation and tickets can be purchased at eamesinsitutute.org.

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