hiv aids research paper topics

193 HIV Essay Topics

🏆 best essay topics on hiv, ✍️ hiv essay topics for college, 👍 good hiv research topics & essay examples, 💡 simple hiv essay ideas, 🎓 most interesting hiv research titles, ❓ essay questions on hiv.

• HIV and AIDS Prevention: Teaching Plan
• HIV/AIDS: Prevention, Control, Treatment
• HIV/AIDS Education and Teaching Plan
• HIV and AIDS Comparing and Contrasting
• Public Health: The Issue of HIV/AIDS Pandemic
• The Importance of World AIDS Day
• HIV/AIDS Treatment Obstacles in Mumbai: Research
• HIV/AIDS Epidemiology and Nursing This paper applies the concepts of epidemiology and nursing research to HIV/Aids: description of the disease, epidemiologic triangle, the role of the Community Health Nurse.
• Health Promotion Among HIV, AIDS Patients The paper Healthy People 2020 points out the intervention measures against HIV/AIDS among young people in the United States.
• Application of Analysis of Variance in the Analysis of HIV/AIDS-Related Depression Cases Analysis of variance (ANOVA) is a commonly used approach in the testing of the equality of various means using variance.
• HIV and AIDS: Treatment Management HIV/AIDS is a virus that quickly multiplies and mutates. While no cure exists for the disease, effective treatment and management vital to maintaining good health are available.
• Concepts of Biology: HIV and AIDS The primary purpose of the paper is to examine the symptoms and the effects that HIV and AIDS have on a human being.
• The Lack of Awareness About the HIV Currently, the lack of awareness about the issue, and the fact that HIV status is considered to be a stigma, leads to the decreased willingness for people to take the test.
• Stigma and Discrimination in Children Living With HIV-AIDS The paper aims to conduct a literature review to establish the contributing factors of prejudice among and against children victims of HIV/AIDS.
• Ethical Dilemmas in Nursing Practice: Dealing With HIV & AIDS Patients When one is faced with an ethical dilemma, making decisions between two conflicting options should be done with care.
• HIV-AIDS Risks Awareness Among Adolescents The paper discusses a series of intervention programs that can raise awareness among adolescents and improve their understanding of HIV/AIDS risks.
• HIV and AIDS Epidemic in Africa: Causes and Effects This research paper is designed to explain the reasons for the HIV/AIDS epidemic within the context of the antecedents of African colonization.
• Factors Challenging the Development of an Effective Vaccine for HIV Developing this vaccine is one of the greatest challenges that medical practitioners and organizations worldwide have encountered for the longest time.
• HIV Research: Assessment of Adolescents ́ Sexual Behaviour It must be emphasized once again that HIV infection is an extremely dangerous disease leading to AIDS and the death of the patient.
• HIV-AIDS in Countries of Sub-Sahara Africa The severity and prevalence of HIV/AIDS vary from one nation to another, depending on how the national strategies manage the disease effectively.
• Correlation of HIV, AIDS in White Males Who Are Injection Drug Users The testable hypothesis for this work states that socioeconomic status is correlated with HIV/AIDS in white males who are injection drug users.
• “And the Band Played On” During the AIDS Pandemic The movie “And the Band Played On” touches on different prevalent issues during the AIDS pandemic that affected the world in the 1980s.
• The U.S. Government and the Global Fund: Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria The United States participates in a range of international health programs, in particular, and contributes financially to the Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis, and Malaria.
• HIV: Epidemiology, Symptoms and Consequences This paper analyzes the symptoms and consequences of HIV, demographic data, the treatment of the infection, and the organizations specializing in it.
• Age of AIDS: Analysis of Problem The world should create awareness about HIV and stigmatization of the people living with the virus. Awareness should be provided as early.
• Nurses in HIV-AIDS Diagnosis and Treatment The analysis of the current state of the problem of HIV/AIDS proves the impact of this disease both on individuals and on the state of healthcare industry in general.
• New York City STD-HIV Prevention Training Center The New York City STD/HIV Prevention Training Center is aimed at managing the problems associated with reproductive health among the U.S. population.
• HIV-AIDS, Nutrition and Cancer in Society Patients suffering from HIV/AIDS need to have a perfect schedule for their nutrition. It is important that they watch their diet to boost their immunity.
• An Investigation of HIV/ AIDS Prevention Program Targeted to Unique Population Group in Bangkok The prevention strategy for unique populations, like in the project initiated in Thailand, is aggravated by the necessity to study these populations.
• The U.S President’s Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief The overall mission of the U.S President’s Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief (PEPFAR) is to consider the populace living with HIV/AIDS all over the globe.
• African American Women With HIV in the United States This paper aims to determine factors that can influence treatment compliance among African American women and provide support during the treatment process.
• HIV Disease’s and Kaposi Sarcoma’s Relationship This paper analyzes the relationship between Kaposi Sarcoma and HIV disease, analyzes the relationship between these two variables, provides results and statistical analysis.
• Sampling for African American HIV Women Study This paper is aimed at defining the appropriate sampling strategy and sample size for the study concerning the relationship between HIV treatment compliance and social support.
• Education Level and HIV Transmission Among Alcoholics in California This research highlights the objective elements and statistical information regarding the relationship between education level and HIV transmission among alcoholics in California.
• Stigma in HIV-Positive Women Article by Sandelowski et al. This article attempts to describe how studies have addressed issues of gender, race/ethnicity, and social class in studying stigma among HIV-positive women.
• Overview of Immune Dysfunction and AIDS AIDS can be characterized by a weakened state of the immune system. The loss of those cells leads to a highly vulnerable state of the immune system and further complications.
• Surveillance for Implementing the HIV-AIDS Awareness Program Monitoring the needs of the target audience is a crucial step toward creating a safe environment in which the needs of patients can be addressed accordingly.
• An Investigation of HIV/ AIDS Prevention Program This paper presents a letter to the editor on the topic of an investigation of HIV/AIDS prevention programs targeted to a unique population group in Bangkok, Thailand.
• Public Health Issue of HIV Infection in Australia Public health statistics indicate important facts about the distribution of HIV/AIDS in Australia. There are diverse segments of the population already affected by this condition.
• Correlation Between HIV, AIDS and Kaposi Sarcoma Based on the causative correlation between HIV/AIDS and Kaposi Sarcoma, this paper presents the details about a Biostatistics project that investigates the correlation.
• Rising Heights Program for HIV The principles of economics underlying the evaluation and assessment processes for the Rising Heights Program for HIV Care premise on the concepts of cost-benefit analysis.
• HIV Treatment Compliance and Social Support The research focuses on the way HIV treatment compliance is influenced by social support among African American women with HIV.
• HIV Intervention in South Africa: Awareness and Campaign The paper discusses HIV/AIDS awareness and campaign as an intervention applied to prevent HIV in South Africa.
• HIV & AIDS Among African-Americans in the United States The paper begins with a detailed synopsis that describes the African Americans, followed by highlighting factors that lead to the propagation of the disease.
• HIV/AIDS Epidemic in Russia Overview The rate of HIV/AIDS infection has risen up to about two hundred and fifty percent in Russia, central Asia, and Eastern Europe.
• HIV/AIDs and STDs in the USA and Other Countries The paper introduces the difference in view and Challenges facing people living with HIV/AIDs and STDs in the United States and other countries.
• New Strategies for HIV Vaccines The HIV virus is spreading fast worldwide, and the AIDS clinical consequences are clearly devastating. Therefore, an effective vaccine is required to contain the situation.
• Women and HIV Resource Availability: Challenges and Needs The study aims at showing how strategies such as providing education, emotional support, resource outlets, and counseling can be used to help in lowering HIV infection rates.
• HIV: Populations and Factors that Affect Its Control, Prevention, and Treatment This paper aims to investigate what populations traditionally face the most substantial risk of HIV infection and how HIV is affected by economic, social, and legislative variables.
• Social Aspects of HIV/AIDS, Education & Community Mobilisation The paper discusses the health issues associated with HIV/AIDS and their transmissions and the preventive measures that have been adopted to curb and minimise the cases.
• The Level of HIV & AIDS in African Countries The level of HIV/AIDS in African countries is extremely high. The research shows that the level of information awareness among the population is rather low.
• The Individualistic Approach to HIV Prevention The individualistic approach to HIV prevention has notable strengths and limitations. The concept of personal behavior change is very crucial.
• HIV Treatment Compliance and Social Support Among African American Women HIV is one of the major public health threats. Researchers find that among all the groups of the American population, African-Americans are affected by HIV the most.
• Current Ethical Dilemma: HIV and AIDS in Africa The New Hock Times newspaper published on May 14, 2010, was about the rising percentages of people suffering from Aids in South Africa.
• Epidemiology: Controling Spread of HIV in China Chang conducted the study “China tries to stop spread of HIV/AIDS among prostitutes” to evaluate efforts by the Chinese government to control the spread of HIV in China.
• HIV Among Adolescents: Nurse Practitioners Intervention The increased prevalence of HIV among the representatives of the adolescent population can partly be attributed to drug abuse.
• HIV and AIDS Etiology and Management The paper reviews HIV and AIDS as two different disease processes that are related but occur at different stages.
• HIV/AIDS: Etiology, Risk Factors, and Prevention HIV is a human immunodeficiency virus that kills body cells aimed at helping people combat different kinds of viruses. The human body is protected by the immune system.
• Return on Investment of HIV Treatment Among African-American Women This paper has briefly analyzed the MAAH program, which has a high return on investments and strives to improve support among African-American women suffering from HIV.
• The Relationship Between HIV and Kaposi Sarcoma This paper investigated the nature of the relationship between HIV and Kaposi Sarcoma, conclusion and discussion of the conducted study.
• HIV, AIDS Prevention: Sonagachi Project This essay gives the background to the HIV epidemic and the necessary prevention methods. Later, it examines the Sonagachi project.
• HIV Treatment Compliance in African American Women The study tries to prove that social support for African American females affects HIV treatment adherence and allows them to cope with negative influences.
• Today’s HIV/AIDS Epidemic in the United States Today, more than 1.5 million U.S. citizens are living with HIV infection and approximately 1 out of 5 U.S. citizens are not aware of their HIV infection.
• Maternal Mortality of HIV‐Infected Pregnant Women in Tanzania This research paper determines the risk factors for mortality rates in expectant women in the Republic of Tanzania.
• The Efficacy of Female Condom Skills Training in HIV Risk The paper includes an evaluation of the research method and validity of the research concerning the efficacy of the training on the use of female condoms.
• HIV Treatment Compliance and Social Support The aim of the quantitative study is to determine the correlation between medical and social support and medication adherence among HIV-positive African American women.
• HIV and AIDS Pathophysiology and Management Comparison This paper is an investigation of the similarities and differences between the AIDS condition and HIV infection.
• Treatment Compliance Among African American Women With HIV This study looks into how African American women relate to HIV in terms of treatment and the social support offered to those living with HIV.
• HIV & AIDS Prevention by International Non-Governmental Organizations Because of their limited connection with the local government, NGO programs aimed at improving HIV/AIDS awareness and prevention can be quite effective.
• HIV Treatment in the African American Women The research is important for finding out the connections between social support and HIV treatment in the African American women population, which is the most affected.
• HIV-Positive African American Women Living in Rural Areas This study shows how Black American women have a higher transmission rate of being infected and are more affected relative to their counterparts in the population.
• Prince George’s County: Demographic and Epidemiological Situation for HIV/AIDS This paper will focus on the county of Prince George, in Maryland, its demographic and epidemiological situation, and the problem of HIV/AIDS.
• Female Condom Skills Training for HIV Risk Reduction The number of women who are victims of HIV amounts to almost half the total number of victims who live with the virus.
• Demographic Change Among People With HIV & AIDS The research paper examines the demographic nature of people with AIDS in the United States and the changes over certain time intervals analyze.
• HIV and Kaposi Sarcoma: Research Methodology The proposed study would use a quantitative research approach. Its appropriateness for paper emerges from its ability to gather personal data.
• HIV in Adolescent Population: Healthy Promotion Intervention Plan The intervention program is about the distribution of leaflets for adolescents with HIV as well as other representatives of society.
• The HIV-AIDS Spread in African Regions Low economical development and lack of population awareness about HIV/AIDS danger are the main reasons for the increase of newly infected people in African regions.
• Sexually Transmissible Infections and HIV in Uganda Uganda since 1986 is one of the countries with a high HIV prevalence, but in recent years, there has been a decline in patients with sexually transmitted infections.
• Prevalence Study of HIV Infection Analysis The purpose of this study is to determine the occurrence of HIV infection among adults aged 18-60 who present themselves for care to the ED at Franklin Square Hospital.
• Mandatory HIV Testing for All Pregnant Women Ensuring the health of the nation required component activities to ensure universal access to prevention and treatment of HI, significant reduction in HIV-related morbidity.
• HIV and Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome HIV/AIDS patients have increased chances of developing a wide range of microbial infections. This outcome is possible since the destroyed cells are unable to fight microorganisms.
• Books Devoted to the AIDS: Key Points Summary This paper is an annotated bibliography for three books on AIDS thematics, the paper briefly summarizes the key points of each.
• STIs: Human Immunodeficiency Virus and AIDS HIV diagnosis is associated with detecting particular particles in the blood called the retrovirus. These are the tiny viruses that penetrate the T cells of the blood.
• Nutritional “Cures” for Clients With Cancer or HIV-AIDS The paper analysis nutrition, which can play a pivotal role in providing some relief to patients especially those with HIV/AIDS.
• AIDS Project Los Angeles Organization’s Strategic Planning Process This paper seeks to bring to the fore the typical managerial challenges faced by non-profit health organizations and recommend a strategic planning process.
• Opportunistic Infections: HIV and Kaposi’s Sarcoma Kaposi’s Sarcoma is usually triggered by the herpes virus, which, on condition of immunity functions normally, does not affect health.
• HIV Medication Adherence: Analysis of There Articles Introducing new tools for assisting patients with HIV is essential for managing both physiological effects of the disease and the psychological weight that HIV patients have to carry.
• HIV&AIDS Articles by Betancur et al. and Téllez et al. The paper analyzes Betancur et al.’s and Téllez et al.’s articles on quality of life and a care program for HIV/AIDS patients.
• AIDS Pandemic: Impact on Human Health Scientific evidence has shown that AIDS is the causative virus of the Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) that is the cause of death because it affects the immune system.
• Proper Education Through Music for Youth for HIV, AID Prevention The attachment of youths to music and their high level of vulnerability form the basis for the implementation of a prevention strategy , use of music to prevent the spread of HIV and AIDS.
• Rhetoric. Should the State Know Your HIV Status? by Alfieri In her article “Should the State Know Your HIV Status?”, Rosemarie Gionta Alfieri sets a case against the proposals to make the practice of HIV testing mandatory.
• Why HIV Has Spread So Rapidly in Sub-Saharan Africa? AIDS , the deadly disease caused by HIV has plagued the Sub-Saharan African countries more than any other region in the world.
• Preventing HIV: Clean Needle Exchange Programs The many view clean needle exchange programs as a state-sponsored encouragement for drug users to continue their practice.
• Highly Active Antiretroviral Therapy and Oral Health in HIV Patients The oral manifestations could occur as initial signs, as side effects of medications, underlying systemic disease or as opportunistic infections.
• HIV&AIDS Impact on Australians HIV/AIDS remains a potential danger to many Australians, if left unchecked. Interventional, supportive, and educational solutions help keep the spreading of the disease in check.
• PEPFAR’s Impact on Africa’s Fight Against AIDS The United States extended a helping hand when the Bush Administration created the President’s Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief or PEPFAR.
• Globalization, the Sex Trade and HIV-AIDS Two separate incidents but same destiny. Caught in the racket of sex traffickers both the girls end up as sex slaves. This brings us only to face with an increasing truth of trafficking of women globally.
• HIV & AIDS Education Programs and Interventions The proposed intervention was to introduce community-wide education programs to raise awareness of the people regarding the needs of HIV/AIDS patients.
• World AIDS Day Celebration: Newspaper Research The concept of the celebration of World AIDS Day started at the 1998 World Summit of Ministers of Health on Programmes for AIDS Prevention joined by 140 countries.
• HIV Management in African American Residents of Houston, TX Due to the drop in health literacy levels among vulnerable groups, along with restricted access to the necessary healthcare resources, the levels of HIV have risen among the specified demographic.
• Miami-Based Sources for Patients Living With HIV This paper reports on three Miami-based sources for patients living with HIV. They include AIDS Drug Assistance Program, Housing Opportunities for Persons with AIDS, and South Florida AIDS Network.
• Chronic Illness of Interest: HIV HIV, which is human immunodeficiency virus, is a burden for contemporary society and a challenge for healthcare.
• Communicable Diseases: The Epidemiological Potential of HIV This study aims to investigate HIV from the perspective of epidemiology, addressing various issues related to the selected disease, including its causes and symptoms.
• HIV&AIDS Education in Afro-American Community The engagement of African American women in discussions about HIV/AIDS is one of the efficient ways to eliminate existing health disparities and promote community well-being.
• The International Conference on HIV Treatment and Prevention Adherence On June 8, I have attended the International Conference on HIV Treatment and Prevention Adherence, which was held in Miami, Florida.
• HIV Among Caucasian, African American, and Latino Homosexual Men Creating awareness at the community level would play a significant role in reducing the number of new HIV infections among Caucasian, African American, and Latino homosexual men.
• Managing the Problem of HIV Among Gay Men at the Community Level Since there are noticeable disparities in the degree of HIV contraction among gay men belonging to different ethnicities, a detailed analysis of the factors to which the vulnerable groups are exposed must be due.
• HIV: The Impact of Chronic Illness The care plan should follow the goals and objectives of Healthy People 2020 program about HIV which are focused on HIV prevention.
• HIV Criminalization: From a Bill to a Law Despite the fact that the current legislation is admittedly legitimate from the perspective of the community and its members’ safety, it jeopardizes the security of HIV patients.
• HIV Transmission and Syringe Trade-In System In the modern societal culture, the transmission of HIV is more commonly found to happen via sexual intercourse rather than sharing of syringes while using narcotics.
• HIV/AIDS and Safe Sex Behaviors in India This article is devoted to the problem of HIV and AIDS in India. It attracts national and international priority, as the rate of spreading the disease has been increased.
• Association of Nurses in AIDS Care and Its Activity ANAC (Association of Nurses in AIDS Care) is one of the leading professional nursing organizations working on the issue of AIDS and HIV.
• HIV/AIDS as an Epidemiological Problem in the US Many people in the United States are affected by the problem of HIV/AIDS. This condition has been observed to catalyze numerous implications such as reduced social problems.
• AIDS, Hepatitis A, Influenza A in Miami, Florida Healthy People 2020 provides no goals for combating influenza A. But the Miami Health Department follows the guidelines by the CDC Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices.
• HIV Prevention and Education Among Population The presence of high HIV rates among the population is a concern that might lead to severe consequences. The problem of HIV can be viewed from multiple angles.
• Ethical Health Informatics for HIV Patients Privacy concerns should never be inferior to the ultimate performance of the system, especially when it comes to patients with HIV (or any other ethically-marked illness).
• Adherence to Antiretroviral in HIV Treatment The article delves into the relevance of the drugs and narrows down to the reasons why ARVs need consistent usage.
• The Spreading of HIV Across the Gay Men A thorough study of the age distribution of the HIV-positive gay men population would be the first step to determining an effective prevention strategy.
• Reducing HIV Amongst Gay and Bisexual Men in Florida There are many misconceptions regarding the passage of HIV among men with different sexual preferences.
• Cultural Variations in Environment and Biology: AIDS The research studies the prevalence of AIDS among ethnic groups in the United States and suggests patient education interventions, which can be performed by nurses.
• HIV/AIDS Epidemiology in Miami, Florida
• HIV and AIDS among African American Women
• AIDS, Tuberculosis, Hepatitis in Miami Community
• Drug Abuse, HIV/AIDS, and Songs on Social Issues
• The HIV Risk for Older Hispanic Women
• Malaria, AIDS, and Tuberculosis in Miami, Florida
• AIDS, Influenza, Syphilis as Florida Health Issues
• Prevention of HIV Among Older Adults: Review and Research
• HIV/AIDS Prevalence in African-American Population
• Prevention of HIV Prevalence Among Latinos
• HIV/AIDS Infection among Women
• Influenza, Tuberculosis, AIDS Prevention in Miami
• Epidemics of HIV in Gay Men
• The Problem of Addressing HIV in Gay Populations
• Lesotho Apparel Industry Unites to Fight AIDS
• Tuberculosis, AIDS, and Influenza A Virus in Miami
• HIV/AIDS Prevalence Among Latino Population
• AIDS, Influenza, Rabies in Miami-Dade County
• HIV, Gonorrhea, and Tuberculosis in Miami
• Gonorrhea, Syphilis, AIDS and Healthy People 2020
• HIV/AIDS, Influenza, and Syphilis Rates in Miami
• HIV/AIDS: Public Administration of Western Nations
• HIV/STI Risk Factors in African-American Students
• Old Hispanic Women and HIV Risk Factors
• Patient Attitudes towards HIV Testing
• HIV/AIDS Trend, Monitoring, Management in the USA
• HIV/AIDS Patients’ Prognosis and Affecting Factors
• HIV/AIDS, Respiratory Syndrome, Unhealthy Lifestyle
• HIV and AIDS Pathophysiology and Clinical Manifestations
• Hepatitis A, Syphilis, AIDS in Miami-Dade County
• Seasonal Influenza, AIDS, Zika Fever in Miami
• The Trend of HIV and AIDS Infection
• Tuberculosis, Influenza A, AIDS in Healthy People 2020
• HIV/AIDS Awareness in Mississippi Youth Population
• Influenza A, HIV/AIDS, Giardiasis in Miami, Florida
• Women and Men HIV Prevention
• Addressing HIV Prevalence among Gay Men
• The Black Coalition for AIDS Prevention: Human Resources
• Medicine: HIV Case Management
• Development Project. Avahan: India AIDS Initiative
• AIDS and Other Social Viruses
• HIV/AIDS in Children of Nigeria
• Immunology: HIV and AIDS in the African-American Community
• Are Condoms Effective in Reducing the Spread of HIV?
• Are Evolution and the Intracellular Innate Immune System Key Determinants in HIV Transmission?
• How Is HIV Diagnosed?
• Are Geographical Cold Spots of Male Circumcision Driving Differential HIV Dynamics in Tanzania?
• What Does HIV Do to a Person?
• What Are the Five Symptoms of HIV?
• Are HIV Carriers Suffering From Discrimination?
• What Are the Four Stages of HIV Infection?
• Can HIV-1-Specific ADCC Assist the Clearance of Reactivated Latently Infected Cells?
• What Is the Best Treatment for HIV?
• Can HIV Be Treated Permanently?
• Can Community Group Participation Help Young Women to Avoid HIV?
• How Long Does HIV Treatment Last?
• Does Antigen Glycosylation Impact the HIV-Specific T Cell Immunity?
• Does Democracy Reduce the HIV Epidemic?
• Can HIV Be Treated or Cured?
• Does Education Affect HIV Status?
• What Are Symptoms of HIV in Males?
• Has HIV Displaced Other Health Funding Priorities?
• What Is the Impact of HIV/Aids on Society?
• Have Cells Harboring the HIV Reservoir Been Immunoedited?
• How Does Communal HIV Affect Fertility?
• How Common Is HIV in Pregnancy?
• Can a Mother With Aids Have a Healthy Baby?
• How Does HIV Infect the Body?
• Should People Adopt Foreign Children With HIV?
• What Does It Mean to Adopt a Child Who Has HIV?
• When Do HIV Signs Start Showing?
• What Can Gamma Delta T Cells Contribute to an HIV Cure?
• How Common Is HIV in Adults?

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These essay examples and topics on HIV were carefully selected by the StudyCorgi editorial team. They meet our highest standards in terms of grammar, punctuation, style, and fact accuracy. Please ensure you properly reference the materials if you’re using them to write your assignment.

This essay topic collection was updated on December 27, 2023 .

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HIV infections articles from across Nature Portfolio

HIV infections (human immunodeficiency virus infections) include the spectrum of infections caused by the virus HIV that range from asymptomatic seropositivity to acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS)-related complex (ARC) and AIDS.

Affinity maturation of CRISPR-engineered B cell receptors in vivo

CRISPR–Cas12a was used to directly replace mouse antibody variable chain genes with human versions in primary B cells. The edited cells underwent affinity maturation in vivo, improving the potency of HIV-1 and SARS-CoV-2 neutralizing antibodies without loss of bioavailability. Affinity maturation of edited cells also enables new vaccine models and adaptive B cell therapies.

Latest Research and Reviews

MDSC expansion during HIV infection: regulators, ART and immune reconstitution

• Mahmoud Mohammad Yaseen
• Nizar Mohammad Abuharfeil
• Homa Darmani

CoPoP liposomes displaying stabilized clade C HIV-1 Env elicit tier 2 multiclade neutralization in rabbits

HIV vaccine candidates often have limited capacity to induce broadly neutralizing antibodies (nAbs). In this study, the authors show that stabilized Clade C HIV-1 Env protein trimers decorated on CoPoP liposomes induce nAbs against 18 of 20 multiclade tier 2 HIV-1 strains in immunized rabbits.

• Annemart Koornneef
• Kanika Vanshylla
• Frank Wegmann

Immunoglobulin G N -glycan markers of accelerated biological aging during chronic HIV infection

In this study, Giron et al. find that people living with chronic HIV experience accelerated aging-associated alterations in antibody glycans. These alterations, attributed to senescence enzymes, predict comorbidities and reduce the antiviral function of antibodies.

• Leila B. Giron
• Mohamed Abdel-Mohsen

Late presentations and missed opportunities among newly diagnosed HIV patients presenting to a specialty clinic in Lebanon

• Maya Mahmoud
• Tala Ballouz
• Nesrine Rizk

Autophagy-enhancing ATG16L1 polymorphism is associated with improved clinical outcome and T-cell immunity in chronic HIV-1 infection

T cell dysregulation is a hallmark of chronic HIV-1 infection that is partially restored by antiretroviral therapy. Here the authors show that ATG16L1 rs6861 polymorphism is associated clinically with prolonged control of disease pathogenesis, and functionally with enhanced autophagy and T-cell immunity in chronically HIV-1 infected individuals.

• Renée R. C. E. Schreurs
• Athanasios Koulis
• Carla M. S. Ribeiro

Identification of the shared hub gene signatures and molecular mechanisms between HIV-1 and pulmonary arterial hypertension

• Huanzhuo Mai
• Jiegang Huang

News and Comment

Combination treatment for immune-mediated HIV remission

In rhesus macaques, treatment with an IL-15 superagonist and broad neutralizing antibodies led to durable suppression of viremia after discontinuation of antiretroviral therapy.

• Karen O’Leary

CARD8 kills CD4 + T cells in response to HIV entry

• Alexandra Flemming

Blockbuster obesity drug leads to better health in people with HIV

Semaglutide reduces weight and fat accumulation associated with the antiretroviral regimen that keeps HIV at bay.

• Mariana Lenharo

Why have T cell-inducing vaccines for HIV failed so far?

The failure of T cell-targeted vaccines for HIV in clinical trials is likely due to impaired degranulation of low-avidity CD8 + T cells in the context of low levels of antigen presentation.

Close the gender gap in Africa’s HIV epidemic

Improving HIV interventions for men could reduce HIV acquisition in women, close the growing gender gap in HIV infections and further reduce HIV incidence in African countries.

• Bryan Tegomoh
• Boghuma K. Titanji

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264 HIV Essay Topic Ideas & Examples

🏆 best hiv topic ideas & essay examples, 👍 good essay topics on hiv, 📑 interesting topics to write about hiv, ✅ good research topics about hiv, ⭐ simple & easy hiv essay titles, 📌 most interesting hiv topics to write about, ❓ hiv research questions.

• The HIV/AIDS Epidemic in the Movie “And the Band Played On” In particular, they knew that many of the patients had sexual intercourse with one another, but they could not explain why this disease was widespread in the gay community.
• Prevention and Treatment of HIV/AIDS Gates Foundation The main objective of the Gates Foundation is “to reduce the incidence of HIV infection and extend the lives of people living with HIV”. We will write a custom essay specifically for you by our professional experts 808 writers online Learn More
• HIV/AIDS in Papua New Guinea Even though the disease was first noticed in the earlier years of the 1980s, it was news to the country of Papua New Guinea till in the year 1987 when the first case of AIDS […]
• The International Problem of HIV/AIDS in Modern World In addition, the effects of HIV/AIDS today are not only confined to the families and individuals infected, but also involve the political, economic, and social factors of the country and people in the country.
• AIDS Discrimination in “Philadelphia” (1993) by Jonathan Demme “Philadelphia” is the film that appeared on the screens at the end of the 20th century. He is a lawyer, who copes with his duties easily and is known as one of the best professionals.
• HIV and AIDS in Adolescents The teenagers in America and the world are a group that is constantly at risk of infection with the Human-Immunodeficiency-Virus and developing the Acquired-Immune-Deficiency-Syndrome, the disease condition that eventually results; this is stemming mainly from […]
• Epidemiologic Triangle Elements Applied to HIV The epidemiologic triangle can be extremely beneficial in this perspective, because it “is a model for explaining the organism causing the disease and the conditions that allow it to reproduce and spread”. Anyway, the spread […]
• HIV/AIDS Education’ Importance for Young People Due to the impact of this challenge in many countries, better education system that informs the youth and new generation is essential in informing the youths on the safety behaviors that can help reduce the […]
• HIV in South Africa This negative side of the warfare led to the re-interpretation of human security on the onset of the Cold War that ushered in the second phase of the human security approach.
• Ethical Issues on HIV/AIDS The issues to be discussed include ethical issues related to research and counseling for AIDS patients, discrimination, and intentional transmission of the disease and the protection of vulnerable groups in the society.
• Anglo American Plc’s HIV/AIDS Strategy The stakeholders include the South African government, the Anglo American employees, the populations of surrounding communities, families of employees, the Global Council on HIV/AIDS, The National Union of Mineworkers, pharmaceutical companies and other multinational companies […]
• HIV/AIDS Stigma in Tanzania The education sector is also affected due to the rise in the number of orphans who at times are forced to drop out of school owing to lack of parental care.
• HIV/AIDS in Africa and The PEN-3 Model In most communities in Africa, the prevention of HIV/AIDS lies within the cultural practices. In conclusion, the fight against HIV/AIDS in Africa should lie parallel with the eradication of cultural practices, which hinder promotion of […]
• Thailand Issues: Environment, Child Prostitution, and HIV/AIDS The intensification of child prostitution is largely associated with the growing industry in Thailand, the relegated position of women in the Thai society due to Thai Buddhism and the culture of recreational sex.
• HIV-AIDS in News Reports and Literature The report further shows that the use of ART has led to a reduction in the total cost of managing HIV-related cases annually in low and middle-income countries.
• HIV-AIDS and Male Circumcision: The Cases of Kenya and Sri Lanka In India, religion and culture have been identified as impediments to the fight and prevention of HIV-AIDS. Religion as the main basis of culture has resulted in the entrenchment of the ban on circumcision to […]
• AIDS/HIV: Description of the Disease This is the very reason why many who have acquired HIV or AIDS result to an eventual death because of the lack of immune system that protects them from acquiring other forms of illnesses.
• Microbial-Environmental Interactions in HIV & AIDS The virus manifests in two subtypes, HIV-1 and HIV-2, and the severity of infection depends on the type of viral attack.
• HIV and AIDS Prevalence in South Africa According to Africa Science Focus, despite effective HIV/AIDS treatments available around the world, there is a distinct inequality in the ability of South Africa to access them. Before listening to the podcast, I knew that […]
• Human Immunodeficiency Virus and AIDS in Women HIV and AIDS are global health problems affecting women disproportionately due to cultural beliefs and worldviews. Biological variations also contribute to the spread of HIV and AIDS among women due to peculiarities of their body […]
• Addressing the Issue of the HIV Epidemic in the US It aims to end the HIV epidemic in the country by utilizing the latest scientific advancements in diagnosis, treatment, and prevention.
• Living With HIV: Stigma and Discrimination The mental health and emotional well-being of the population living with this virus are affected due to the humiliation and judgment they face from their fellows around them.
• Recent Advancements in HIV Treatment An example of a recent advancement is the approval of Cabenuva, an injectable HIV therapy reducing the need for daily medication intake.
• Nursing: HIV Among Queer (LGBT) Community A combinatory program is required to reduce the rates of HIV transmission, improve the prevention techniques against the virus and ensure the early-stage diagnosis procedures are as effective as possible.
• HIV-Positive Women’s Mental Health Problems Peer review implies the submission of the article describing the details of the research process and the design to a journal that then sends this article to the professionals working in the same field, who […]
• The HIV Vaccine: Discontinuation of Trials Therefore, the primary benefit of this study is that people could get immune to the HIV infection, provided the vaccine worked.
• The Stigma of People Living With HIV and AIDS Consequently, in this case, it is recommended to pay special attention to the development and implementation of policies to combat HIV/AIDS stigmatization from the point of view of taking into account the interests of older […]
• Aspects of Stop AIDS Delaware Initiative The four that are incredibly essential to their own lives as well as to a wider community include emotional resilience, communication skills, medical knowledge of the condition, and empathy.
• Stigma and Psychological Distress in HIV Caregivers The inclusion criteria of the participants in the study were if they had a confirmed HIV diagnosis. This study’s findings are similar to the findings in “Depression, anxiety, stress, and stigma in informal caregivers of […]
• Math: Aspects of HIV Modeling The indicator of the fit of the constructed model to the data set is the parameter R2, the coefficient of determination.
• Ethical and Legal Issues With the Disclosure of HIV Status of Healthcare Workers The first glance at the situation compels one to immediately support the idea that healthcare professionals should disclose their HIV status since the alternative scenario would pose a significant health risk to a patient.
• Adherence to Antiretroviral Therapy Among HIV People The abstract provides a concise summary of the background of the research, aims, methodology, results, and conclusions to help the audience understand the without reading the entire report.
• HIV Infection: Diagnosing and Testing Therefore, a comprehensive approach to clarifying the diagnosis, using a synthesis of scientifically based and subjective aspects of the course of the disease. The purpose of this study is to determine a comprehensive approach to […]
• HIV-AIDS Prevention & Advocacy Through Legislation Despite the existing programs to promote HIV/AIDS prevention among the population and criminalization of the failure to disclose HIV status prior to sexual intercourse, the Florida state legislature does not obtain any mandatory outreach and […]
• Increasing Public Awareness of HIV Infection The HIV denialism movement, which emerged almost immediately after the discovery of the disease and its identification as the cause of AIDS, actively promotes anti-scientific hypotheses about the absence of both the virus itself and […]
• Stories of People Battling HIV-AIDs She always ensures that supportive communication is at the center of her engagement with the children and shows acceptance and respect to improve her relationship with them.
• Counseling Clients With HIV-AIDS Thus, the central recommendation for human service professionals counseling clients with HIV/AIDS is to allow time for the shock of the news to sink.
• HIV Subtype Diversity Worldwide HIV is a severe global health issue because almost 40 million people were infected in 2017. That is why it is not surprising that Australians also suffer from this health problem.
• Los Angeles: Community Strategic Plan For STD and HIV Reduction Thus, one of the main concerns is the risk of transmission of both STDs and HIV due to the crisis of homelessness and loneliness in Los Angeles Country.
• Vulnerable Population: HIV-AIDS The latest statistics identify HIV/AIDS as a major medical problem affecting the health sector. The disease currently affects over one million citizens.
• African American Women With HIV: HIV Treatment Compliance The sampling strategy that will be used in the study is simple random sampling. This strategy will be appropriate because it is likely that the sample will be representative of the general population, for any […]
• HIV, STI as a Public Health Issue In light of the fact that the HIV/STI development levels remain rather high among the target population, the necessity to educate young people about the threats of HIV/STI, as well as the methods of avoiding […]
• Health Interventions in the AIDS Epidemic This development has created the need for introducing the social-ecological model in curbing the increased rates of HIV infection in some communities. This paper identifies income and stigma as the main social factors that affect […]
• Changes in the Research on AIDS Some of the current researches on this disease include treatment of the disease, the content of Aids protein and the preventive modes.
• The Most Effective Methods of Preventing the Spread of HIV Recent statistics show that in the United States the number of people living with HIV and AIDS is higher among men than women.
• Segregation of HIV-Positive Prisoners The biggest debate on segregation of HIV-positive prisoners surrounds the ethical impact it renders to the inmates. The proponents of segregation of HIV-positive prisoners believe that segregation protects prisoners and the correctional staff from catching […]
• The Problem of Homeless Youths With HIV-AIDS Studies carried out in the city of New York in 2008 showed that 21 percent of homeless youth males and 24 percent of homeless female youths had “more than 100 lifetime partners”. 5 percent of […]
• Country Health Policy Proposal on Improving HIV-AIDS Outcomes in South Africa One of the significant public health problems facing the South African public health system is the high prevalence of HIV/AIDs. Inefficiency of the public health system contributes significantly to the HIV burden in South Africa.
• HIV/AIDS and International Health Community Over the years, the level of people’s awareness about the notion of HIV/AIDS has increased dramatically, yet the health condition itself remains frowned upon and stigmatized by the global community.
• AIDS, Then and Now This view spread to the U.S.culture at large and contributed to an exaggerated representation of the disease as a “gay plague” in the media.
• Film “The Silent Partner: HIV in Marriage” In a region whose fight against HIV is slowed by a lack of awareness, the film shows how traditional ways of fighting the pandemic fail to serve the needs of married women.
• Communicable Disease Health Education Tool: HIV, AIDS The Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) is a contagious that causes a condition known as the Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS).
• The HIV/AIDS Situation in India Most of the initial cases had occurred through heterosexual sex; but at the end of the 1980s, a rapid spread of HIV was observed among injecting drug users in Manipur, Mizoram and Nagaland. An explosion […]
• HIV, Health & Rights – Sustaining Community Action In general, the strategies are useful since they focus on the existing challenges and address the target population. In conclusion, one can state that the strategic drivers have been successfully developed into the four directional […]
• Saudi Student Nurses’ Perception of Their Educational Preparation for HIV/AIDS Patient Care In this research, the review will explore the current knowledge and literature regarding the level of comfort of nursing student’s on educational program preparation for the care of people living with HIV/AIDS in Saudi Arabia.
• HIV in Saudi Arabian Children Analysis For a long time, this society has considered those who are suffering from HIV as adulterous and are not living according to the teachings of the Quran.
• Problem of HIV in Saudi Arabian Children Although the rate of HIV infection still remains low when compared to the world’s average, the number has been on the rise over the past five years.
• HIV and AIDS as a Chronic Disease: The Unique Contributions of Nursing Through Philosophical, Theoretical, and Historical Perspectives In most societies across the world, the responsibility of caring for the sick in the community feel on the family and the entire society.
• The Historical and Current Role of Stigma in the Provision of HIV and AIDS Care: The Context of Ghana The paper describes the historical and current role of stigma in the provision and care of people living with HIV and AIDS in the context of Ghana.
• Men Issues With HIV/AIDS in Miami Various men’s issues and social well-being have contributed to the increased rate of infection among men in Miami and Florida. In conclusion, the rate of HIV/AIDS infection in Miami is higher among men than among […]
• From Exceptional to Chronic Illness: New Challenges in HIV Prevention in the UK The current paper is an attempt to analyze the shift in the perception of HIV from an exception to a chronic illness and the new challenges experienced in HIV prevention in the UK.
• Researching HIV, AIDS and Social Justice Disney claims that poverty and social injustice lead to the spread of HIV/AIDS among underprivileged people in all countries. The disease was a kind of stigma and infected people were subjected to discrimination and alienation.
• The Threat of HIV, AIDS and the Means to Avoid It Taking into account the results of the case study conducted by Cornish and Ghosh, instances of people in India becoming infected with the HIV virus have increased recently, which is given as a reason for […]
• The Combivir Medication in HIV, AIDS Treatment Hence by blocking the enzyme the rate of virus multiplication is reduced and consequently the amount of HIV cells in the blood is reduced.
• Natural HIV Control by Bruce Walker The ability of the immune system of individuals to fight HIV infection depends on T cells and not by how many T cells are produced. The article is important in that it shows the role […]
• The Policy Topic on the Impact of HIV/AIDS Pandemic in the USA This paper will discuss the policy topic on the impact of the HIV/AIDS pandemic in the United States and the rest of the world.
• Circumcision of Male Infants as a Way to Combat the HIV Therefore, by circumcising all the men, the rate of heterosexual infections in Australia will reduce considerably as circumcised men are lesser prone to HIV infections than uncircumcised ones.
• Genco Company: A Distribution of HIV-AIDS Drugs in Malaysia The management of Genco Company should be keen on setting out the date of registration because it helps to determine the period, which the business will be legal to operate in the country.
• HIV From a Social Sciences Perspective In the US, the disease was initially associated with gays only but in the recent past, it is has been claiming many lives in the country and other parts of the world. The first social […]
• Microbiological View of HIV Epidemic and Possibility of Discovering Its Cure The glycoprotein facilitates attachment and fusion of the virus to human cell membrane. In Golgi complex it is cleaved by protease and proceased in to human immunodeficiency virus and released.
• HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus) Prevention In so doing, they ignore the importance of the community in the prevention of HIV transmission. HIV prevention strategies that focus on the social drivers of HIV transmission are usually very effective.
• HIV/AIDS Pandemic Facing the Female Global Population The questions that arise are; what factors are contributing to the prevalence, who are the most affected and what are the actions taken to mitigate the HIV/AIDS epidemic?
• HIV Transmission From Homosexual Men Receiving Cure The study reaches the following conclusions: In general, male partners to MSM receiving treatment are at risk of contracting HIV virus although the risk is relative to condom use as well as the last time […]
• Depressive Symptoms and HIV Disease Relationship Moreover, the study also noted that it was imperative to identify and treat causes of physical symptoms while self-esteem and emotional support for HIV-positive pregnant women required strengthening in Thailand.
• Hepatitis C and HIV Among Intravenous Drug Users In relation to this health issue of HIV and HCV, the community health nurse has the responsibility of promoting health among intravenous drug users.
• Addressing the Needs of HIV Patients According to the latest report published on the subject matter, the therapy provided to the patients in question implies that the family members should take an active part in the process of managing the disorder […]
• Decreasing Inflammation in People With HIV: The Efficiency of Low-Dose Methotrexate The principal objective of the research is to obtain a numerical estimate of the issue and the reaction of respondents towards it.
• HIV Pandemic in Africa and the United States However, there is no epidemic of AIDS in the United States due to appropriate measures conducted by the government including the prohibition of the polygamy and anti-drug policy. Additionally, authors regard the role of the […]
• Communicable Disease Control Strategies for AIDS Governments should consider AIDS as a health priority, among the strategies to control the spread of disease are ensuring that public and private sectors are sharing AIDS’ responsibility, provision of enough resources to research on […]
• Guidelines on HIV and Infant Feeding The objective of this guideline was to find ways through which HIV-positive mothers can protect their HIV-free children from a possible infection.
• People Infected With HIV in India The proposed research aims to highlight the particular factors that led to a decrease in the number of people infected with HIV in India.
• Pneumonia Infection & Risk of Mortality in HIV-Infected Children The topic is quite interesting because only a few studies have attempted to focus on the role of HIV infection on the rates of mortality and morbidity rates in pneumonia infections. It is the first […]
• HIV Rates and Infant Mortality: US, UK and Kenya The purpose of this paper is to compare the HIV rates and infant mortality cases of the United States with the situation in a developed country such as the United Kingdom) and a developing nation […]
• Disclosure of a Physician’s HIV Status The addition of another corpus that needs the disclosure of HIV/AIDS status to partners is as important as it is harmful if done without prior consent.
• AIDS: The Legal Rights and Responsibilities of Employees and Patients It is the responsibility of employees to adhere to adjusted schedules and to maintain high productivity and efficiency. Employees also have a right to assess information on HIV and AIDS in the workplace.
• Late Phase of HIV Type 1 Replication The Late Phase of HIV type 1 replication involves the assembly of Gag proteins with the plasma membrane of hematopoietic cells.
• Baby With HIV Is Deemed Cured After reading the article, the first question I asked myself was whether it is possible for a baby with HIV to be cured without medication.
• Routes of HIV Transmission Based on the NACO annual report, it can be seen that the primary drivers of the HIV epidemic in India are commercial female sex workers, drug use and unprotected sex between homosexuals and heterosexuals.
• Health Services Research: AIDS-Related Stigma The information obtained from the analysis of the research findings are used by the healthcare organizations and policy makers to improve on the delivery of quality healthcare services to the people.
• HIV Intervention in Gay Community The AIDS scourge is at the center of this study because this paper seeks to address AIDS as a special health concern affecting the gay community in the Montrose area, with a clear aim of […]
• Risks for HIV&AIDS in Juvenile Detention The participants in this study willingly shared their perceptions and experience of risk for HIV/AIDS within the context of their social and ecological environments and, in so doing, embodied other models of interaction and behavior […]
• The Impact of HIV and AIDS Epidemic on Women In the anatomy while having intercourse the vagina is very susceptible to tears and irritations when engaging in sex and thus with the tears and the irritations the exposed flesh offers a good penetrating surface […]
• The Impact of Social Determinants of Health in the HIV-AIDS Efforts have been made to contain the pandemic but in vain, and that is why researchers are concentrating on the social determinants of health in the context of HIV/AIDS.
• The Social Environments and the Effectiveness of Youth HIV Prevention It is saddening that most of the youth view sex education negatively since their elders have socialized them to view it as a curse.
• Combining Efforts to Combat HIV and AIDS The difference in health care systems and standards of health care resources available in different parts of the world, greatly affect the course of the disease in individuals and groups.
• HIV Testing of High School Seniors Should Not Be a Mandatory Requirement for Graduation Still if a policy like mandatory HIV screening of students is formulated by the governing body of the University it is the indication of a serious lack of proper understanding of HIV/AIDS and the rights […]
• Research Into the Causes of HIV Though HIV is still incurable in modern days, one of the problems that people in slow developing countries face is high death rate from HIV due to the lack of funds for purchasing effective medication […]
• The Problem of HIV & AIDS in Spain: The Leading Rate of Infection in Europe Considering the fact that Spain has the leading number of the homosexual in Europe, the rate of the infections in this group stands at 10%.
• HIV and People Who Use Drugs: Cases of Infection Caused by Injection Drug Use The existing condition of the epidemic in a certain region can be termed as low-level, concentrated, or generalized depending on the prevalence levels of the virus in the specified demographic.
• Concepts of Culture and Disease Paper: AIDS However, in general, African governments and non-governmental organizations with the help of the United Nations Department of AIDS, UNAids, continue to educate Africans on the spread, symptoms, and other AIDS factors. In sub-Saharan Africa, numerous […]
• AIDS and Its Trends: An Infectious Disease That Causes the Vulnerability of the Human Internal System These facts address the query of the author having the valid experience to make writings regarding the Disease, it is clear that he had first-hand experiences. The disease is manageable with the use of drugs […]
• Effects of HIV and AIDS on Young Children and Women The hypothesis of this study is to establish the prevalence of HIV and AIDS on the general population this is with particular attention to the young children and the women who are more vulnerable.
• HIV Counseling and Testing: Lifetime Treatment Program Some of the possible intervention that can be adopted by the clinicians in order to improve adherence include the encouragement of the patients to be in contact with people of their age who will encourage […]
• Epidemiological Analysis of the Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS) The virus is found in most of the body fluids of the infected person; and this is the main route of infections.
• Drugs for the Treatment of HIV Infection: Over 30 Antiretroviral Drugs to Counter the Effects of the Deadly AIDS Virus By the latest study, the Food and Drug Administration has approved 30 antiretroviral drugs to counter the effects of the deadly AIDS virus According to the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, the drugs, […]
• Health Care Management: HIV and AIDS Prevention and Treatment To define the measurement system, and define the failure or success of HIV/AIDS treatment it is necessary to give the image of the situation in general.
• HIV, AIDS Health Determinants in Africa: The Research and Development in Curative and Preventive Medicare Emphasis was laid on the research and development in curative and preventive Medicare so that the members of the society lived a healthy life. This is compared to a total of between 130,000 and 180,000 […]
• HIV Crisis in Africa: Review of Major Public Health Concerns on the Continent The paper will examine the issue of HIV/AIDS in Africa, focusing on the effects of the disease, procedures of its containment, and the prevention tactics used by the African public.
• The Spread of HIV and AIDS in Prisons: Causes and Measures of Control Other causes of the spread of the disease include overcrowding and lack of education on the danger of the virus. At-risk individuals need to be sensitized about the devastating consequences of this virus and the […]
• ART HIV Medicine Saves Lives: Maintains Functions of the Immune System and Prevents Opportunistic Infections The goal of the essay is to increase the level of awareness of readers on the importance of ART. A brief overview of HIV treatment programs should also be included in the essay to support […]
• HIV: Overview of the Clinical Manifestations of Infection and Symptoms and Known Cases of Complete Cure The information includes detailed information about the molecular structure of the virus, the form of the genome, and the mechanism of self-reproduction within a targeting cell.
• Faith-Based Organization Services as the Best Means to Prevent HIV and AIDS in Southern Cameroons The HIV/AIDS issue was complicated by the fact that at the moment of this research, there was no cure and the only way of addressing the infection spread was through prevention and ensuring that people […]
• An Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay and Drug Treatment for HIV and AIDS It is also vital to stress that non-adherence leads to the return of the symptoms and the development of HIV-related diseases that could lead to death.
• HIV & AIDS Diagnosis and Treatment Measures After decades of its first appearance, the human immunodeficiency virus, which causes AIDS at a more severe stage, continues to be a major threat to human health and searches for developments in diagnosis and treatment.
• Breast Cancer and AIDS: Significant Issues in the United States in the Late 20th Century Thus, the given paper is going to explain why these activists challenged regulatory and scientific authorities and what they demanded. That is why the enthusiasts challenged their practices and made specific demands to improve the […]
• The Effect of HIV Treatment on Individuals and Contributing to a Longer Life of the Patients As a result, better treatment of the illnesses globally and especially in Africa has contributed to a longer life expectancy of the patients.
• Male Circumcision for HIV Prevention in South Africa The primary purpose of this study is to determine the cost-effectiveness of the use of circumcision and if this practice is appropriate.
• Misinform Partner’s HIV-AIDS Status: How to Prevent From Being Misinformed However, I believe that the key to avoiding the issue of the HIV growing epidemic does not lie in the doctor’s duty to anonymously inform one’s sexual partners.
• The Issue of HIV-AIDS-Positive Status Disclosure Whereas at the beginning of the epidemic, the therapists felt it was their duty to inform the patient’s surroundings of the issue, the introduction of the HIV/AIDS Confidentiality Act turned this duty into a forthright […]
• Global Health Issue Analysis: HIV – A Relatively New Disease Rapid detection and treatment are crucial to limit the spread of HIV and limit the patient’s effects. As the frequency and intensity of symptoms vary from person to person, testing is the only clear way […]
• High Risk of HIV Among Injection Drug Users The aim of this Health Promotion Plan is to improve the situation with infection diseases spreading among the injection drug users due to the social importance of this problem and the high level of mortality […]
• Childhood Sexual Abuse and HIV Risk in San Salvador Still, the women interviewed presented a peculiar layer of the society that made it possible to understand the clear connection of the CSA to HIV/AIDS and drug addictions.
• New Directions and Strategies for Current and Future Research in HIV The authors therefore are in agreement that future research paradigms focusing on HIV should lay much focus on developing an efficacious vaccine to curtail further spread of the virus.
• Health and Health Policy of HIV and AIDS: Physical and Psychological Wellbeing Health is defined and understood as the state of full physical and psychological wellbeing, and not just the absence of diseases in the body, while a health policy is the plans, strategies and actions undertaken […]
• Bubonic Plague and AIDS: Differences and Similarities Transmission of the diseases is also another area that generated debate in the entire course of The Plague and during the initial stages of AIDS.
• Pricing AIDS Drugs Sold to Developing Countries The majority of the world’s HIV/AIDS cases are in Africa particularly the sub-Saharan and many of the infected have been faced with a huge challenge to live a normal life due to limitations in access […]
• Does Black America Need White Support in Order to Combat HIV, AIDS Epidemic? The economic instability, the lack of education and improper health care facilities all attribute to the spread of the epidemic in the black community which is set to rise in the coming years.
• Women With AIDS in Africa: Treatment Possibilities Starting with the economical issues, the countries of Africa are the countries of the third world and the economy is very weak in the area.
• The Relationship Between the High Rate of Urbanization in Africa and AIDS Spread This movement results in to increase in the number of people in the towns and cities in a particular year. The increased social interaction of people in towns has led to increased HIV/AIDS infections in […]
• Language and Stigmatization: Cancer, HIV, and AIDS Much has been written concerning the alarming spread and effects of HIV/AIDS in the society and the effects of cancer and the position of its victims and how to care for them.
• The Human and Economic Effects of AIDS on the United States The social impact of HIV has been well documented and widely distributed which has served to educate the public and acted to stem the tide of the epidemic.
• Workplace Stereotypes About People With HIV: Business Ethics After analyzing the every angel of the case, it can be said that this is the picture of the stereotyping prejudice of people with AIDS.
• Capitalism and Industrialization as a Cause of AIDS Spread Population growth rates are the highest in most of Asia, Africa, and Latin America due to the high degree of fertility and the dramatic decrease in mortality following World War II.
• The Pharmaceutical Industry Faces AIDS in Africa Food insecurity in these countries has to lead to the quick progression of patients to full brown AIDS and completely worsened the immunity of the patients.
• HIV, AIDS and the Social Environment The obvious place to start is to find out the sociological impact of HIV/AIDS with regards to the infected person. Thus, there is a tendency to concentrate on the scientific aspect of the disease as […]
• African Gold: Ethics and AIDS in the Workplace The issue that is troubling the management of the organization in the case, African Gold is that of the costs, medical costs and disability programs as a result of the rising workforce succumbing to the […]
• Center for Disease Control and HIV Prevention Goals The first short-term mission of the CDC Preventions is to increase the percentage of those HIV-affected people who indulge in such activities which alleviates the risks or dangers of HIV transmission.
• AIDS Infection in Europe Statistics: A National Disaster in Many Countries Most of these young men and women that engage in this business are end up being infected with HIV virus since they do not have the power to negotiate for safe sex and especially the […]
• Rational System of HIV Disclosure Laws Since the start of HIV pandemic, the humanity aimed to regulate and minimize the spread of the infection. The people, who became the victims, as they were unaware of the danger of the infection, finally […]
• World AIDS Day Celebration: Increasing the Awareness of the People About the Disease The World AIDS Day is not just celebrated in the United States, Europe, or Asia, it is observed all over the world because the disease does not only affect this part of the globe, but […]
• Public Policy Development. AIDS.gov Benefit Types CDC is a premier public health agency which undertakes the control and prevention of AIDS in US, and their mission is to promote health and quality of life.
• Public Policy. Eligibility Rules Used by AIDS.gov There are no restrictions that prohibit the tailoring of health care programs by clients and using various services and providers that are eligible for meeting the health care needs of individuals.
• HIV/AIDS and Orphans in Sub-Saharan Africa On the choice of orphans in sub-Saharan Africa as the topic for this research, it aims at addressing the cause of overwhelming numbers of orphans in the region and how this impacts society.
• Social Networks of People Living With HIV and AIDS The purpose of the study was to compare the social networks of younger patients with the older ones. The convoy theory of social support lent credence to the research.
• Changes in Prostitution and AIDS Epidemic in Thailand This provided information on commercial sex trends such as the types of CSEs in existence, the number of sex workers, and the price of sex. However, the decline in the number of sex workers was […]
• How AIDS.gov Fund Its Programs to Respond to the Impact of the Epidemic on Ethnic and Minority Populations Transportation costs to go to the clinic and lost wages should be accounted for and records kept acting as evidence of how the funds were used.
• The Pharmaceutical Industry and the AIDS Crisis in Developing Countries One of the reasons of this difference is that excise and custom duties that are responsible for the unaffordable prices of medicines have been avoided by the developed countries by the creation of pharmaceutical industries, […]
• Advancements in AIDS Research: A Potential Advancement in the Attempt to Cure HIV Infection After HIV’s genetic code is altered from a single thread to a double-strand by the reverse transcriptase enzyme, it gets included in the genetic code of the infected cell.
• Ethics of Leukemia Treatment With Disabled HIV Cells In recent years, the medical community has pondered the radically new approach to cancer treatment, which is isolating and collecting T-cells from the patient.
• AIDS: Emergence Factors of Infectious Disease Emerging diseases refer to the newly identified pathogens that have been recognized in the past few decades that lead to a new manifestation of diseases.
• AIDS and Its Impact on Humankind: The Leading Killer Disease in the World From these statistics, it is easy to deduce the effect of the disease of humankind. At the international level, more and more funds have been committed to the treatment of AIDS.
• AIDS in a Different Culture Review: Cultural Differences, Prejudice, and Racism Now, gay youth and men face the possibility of HIV infection in the course of sexual relationships. The pejorative view of gay men prevalent in some black and Hispanic communities can inhibit they are coming […]
• Lewis’ Race Against Time: Curbing HIV&AIDS in Africa Lewis points out that, “HIV/AIDS has sabotaged all of the socioeconomic indices, and the continued damaging western policies in trade and aid and debt, serve to drive the nails into the coffins”.
• Community Health. HIV/AIDS Prevention for the 50+ The specificity of the paper is that it relates the issue of HIV prevention for the people over 50. It is necessary to mention, that: 10% of all AIDS cases in the USA are people […]
• Microbiology. AIDS Vaccine Studies: Different Developments Strategy So far there is no practical hope that ongoing AIDS vaccine development will produce tangible results, According to one of the leading AIDS vaccine expert Mr. Clinical trials will have to continue as they will […]
• Medical Anthropology. HIV&AIDS Preventive Measures Since the detection of the first case of HIV in India, the government introduced both surveillance and preventative plans to reduce the risk of the disease spread.
• Drug Treatments for HIV/AIDS To lower the complacency of people to HIV/AIDS and change the perceptions about the condition for individuals with and without HIV/AIDS, health care professionals should focus on such aspects as safety, responsibility, and stigma.
• Descriptive and Analytical Epidemiology: Tuberculosis and HIV The establishment of trends in the epidemic process for the rapid introduction of adjustments helps optimize preventive and anti-epidemic measures alongside the evaluation of the effectiveness of the activities.
• AIDS and Its Related Aspects The report aims to show that clinicians and nurses should discuss AIDS and associated risks with their patients to enhance individuals’ health outcomes and eliminate the prevalence of the disease.
• Anti-HIV Nonprofit’s Organizational Design Particularly, three areas of concern are of the primary interest: the design and functional characteristics of NGOs, the problem of HIV in the context of NGOs, and differences between organic and mechanistic organizational structures.
• HIV and AIDS: Legal and Ethical Conduct
• OraQuick Home HIV Test and Its Pros & Cons
• Female HIV-Positive Patients’ Medication Adherence
• Immunology and Virology of HIV Infection
• Mandatory HIV Screening: Ethical Issues
• Spreading and Dying From AIDS and the Increasing Spread of the Disease
• Health Fraud: HIV/AIDS and Sexual Enhancement Scams
• HIV and AIDS Early History and Risks
• HIV Prevention Programs in Africa
• HIV and AIDS Infection Levels and Their Social Effects
• HIV Prevalence Among American Queer Communities
• HIV Testing Among African American Women
• HIV Rates Among African American Women
• HIV Prevention Policy Development for Chicago
• HIV Prevention Among Young Adults in Chicago
• Techniques for Helping Women With HIV
• Group Policy Regarding the HIV/AIDS Transmission Issue
• Pharmacology: HIV Drug Resistance
• HIV Prevention in Youth: Public Health Campaign
• HIV/AIDS as a Long-Wave Event in Politics
• Act Up Movement for Surviving HIV/AIDS Plague
• HIV/AIDS Activism in “How to Survive a Plague”
• HIV/AIDS Prevention by Anti-Retroviral Drugs
• The Impact of AIDS and Reasons Behind the Outbreak
• HIV/AIDS Policies in India and Antropological Study
• AIDS in New York in “How to Survive a Plague” Film
• ”The Cure for AIDS” by Apoorva Mandavilli and Various Ethical Issues
• Qatari Laws: HIV/AIDS Visitors, Pets, Dressing Code
• Legal Ethics, Patients’ Rights, and HIV/AIDS
• HIV/AIDS as a Communicable Disease
• Ancillary Services for HIV/AIDS Patients
• HIV/AIDS Patients: Legal Ethics and Patient Rights
• Medicine: HIV/ AIDS Campaign Slogan
• Medicine: HIV/AIDS as the Key Threat for the Kenyan Population
• HIV and AIDS in Kenya
• HIV/AIDS in Kenya: Evaluation Plan
• Health Promotion Program HIV/AIDS in Kenya
• HIV Among Adolescents – Treatment and Prevention
• HIV/AIDS Definition, Prevention and Treatment
• Medical Issues: HIV in the U.S.
• 5 Years Strategic Plan for HIV Prevention in Swaziland
• HIV and AIDS Prevention Among the Youth in Asia
• STD/HIV Health Promotion Evaluation Plan
• HIV and AIDS: an Evolving Global Response
• HIV Epidemic in Enrique’s Native Country
• AIDS: From the Perspective of Sociology
• Critical Analysis of Avahan – the India AIDS Initiative
• HIV/AIDS by Allan Whiteside
• The Rate of Smoking Among HIV Positive Cases.
• Critical Review of Chapter 5 and 6 of the Book HIV/AIDS
• AIDS Combating in the 21st Century: Issues and Challenges
• HIV/AIDS in the UK
• History of Treatment the HIV/AIDS
• Pathology of HIV and AIDS
• How the AIDS Epidemic Has Affected the World on a Political, Social, Economical Way
• The HIV and AIDS Problem Between Educated and Non-Educated Children in Uganda
• Implementation of AIDS Control Policies in Australia and South Africa
• HIV/AIDS Among African Americans
• AIDS: The Guilt and Failure of the West in a Spread of the Disease
• AIDS as an Epidemic of Signification: A Globally Potential Threat
• Key Drivers of HIV/AIDS in Sub Saharan Africa and in San Francisco
• Key Drivers of HIV and AIDS in Sub-Saharan Africa and in San Francisco and Church’s Response to the AIDS Pandemic
• Drivers of HIV and AIDS in Sub-Saharan Africa and San Francisco
• Impact of HIV/AIDS on Microeconomics
• Why Lack of Awareness Leads to the Spread of HIV/AIDS in New York Prisons
• Theory, Methodology and Human Development: HIV/AIDS and Education in African Countries
• Vital Signs: HIV Testing and Diagnosis Among Adults – United States, 2001-2009
• Community HIV/AIDS Mobilization Project (CHAMP)
• Communicable Diseases: HIV and AIDS
• Why HIV/AIDS Crises Are High in African-American Community
• A Project on Establishment of Jousing Flats Voluntary Counselling and Testing Centers in Njoro Area to Reduce Prevalence of HIV/AIDS and Provide Nutritional Support Among the Youths Aged Between 16-35 Years
• HIV/AIDS Issues in African Women
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The Extended Impact of Human Immunodeficiency Virus/AIDS Research

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Tara A Schwetz, Anthony S Fauci, The Extended Impact of Human Immunodeficiency Virus/AIDS Research, The Journal of Infectious Diseases , Volume 219, Issue 1, 1 January 2019, Pages 6–9, https://doi.org/10.1093/infdis/jiy441

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Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is one of the most extensively studied viruses in history, and numerous extraordinary scientific advances, including an in-depth understanding of viral biology, pathogenesis, and life-saving antiretroviral therapies, have resulted from investments in HIV/AIDS research. While the substantial investments in HIV/AIDS research are validated solely on these advances, the collateral broader scientific progress resulting from the support of HIV/AIDS research over the past 30 years is extraordinary as well. The positive impact has ranged from innovations in basic immunology and structural biology to treatments for immune-mediated diseases and cancer and has had an enormous effect on the research and public and global health communities well beyond the field of HIV/AIDS. This article highlights a few select examples of the unanticipated and substantial positive spin-offs of HIV/AIDS research on other scientific areas.

The first cases of AIDS were reported in the United States 37 years ago. Since then, >77 million people have been infected worldwide, resulting in over 35 million deaths. Currently, there are 36.9 million people living with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), 1.8 million new infections, and nearly 1 million AIDS-related deaths annually [ 1 ]. Billions of research dollars have been invested toward understanding, treating, and preventing HIV infection. The largest funder of HIV/AIDS research is the National Institutes of Health (NIH), investing nearly $69 billion in AIDS research from fiscal years 1982–2018. Despite the staggering disease burden, the scientific advances directly resulting from investments in AIDS research have been extraordinary. HIV is one of the most intensively studied viruses in history, leading to an in-depth understanding of viral biology and pathogenesis. However, the most impressive advances in HIV/AIDS research have come in the arena of antiretroviral therapy. Before the development of these life-saving drugs, AIDS was an almost universally fatal disease. Since the demonstration in 1987 that a single drug, zidovudine, better known as azidothymidine or AZT, could partially and temporarily suppress virus replication [ 2 ], the lives of people living with HIV have been transformed by the current availability of >30 antiretroviral drugs that, when administered in combinations of 3 drugs, now in a single daily pill, suppress the virus to undetectable levels. Today, if a person in their 20s is infected and given a combination of antiretroviral drugs that almost invariably will durably suppress virus to below detectable levels, they can anticipate living an additional 50 years, allowing them almost a normal life expectancy [ 3 ]. In addition, a person receiving antiretroviral therapy with an undetectable viral load will not transmit virus to their uninfected sexual partner. This strategy is referred to as “treatment as prevention” [ 4 ]. Also, administration of a single pill containing 2 antiretroviral drugs taken daily by an at-risk uninfected person decreases the chance of acquiring HIV by >95%. Finally, major strides are being made in the quest for a safe and effective HIV vaccine [ 5 ].

The enormous investment in HIV research is clearly justified and validated purely on the basis of advances specifically related to HIV/AIDS. However, the collateral advantages of this investment above and beyond HIV/AIDS have been profound, leading to insights and concrete advances in separate, diverse, and unrelated fields of biomedical research and medicine. In the current Perspective, we discuss a few select examples of the positive spin-offs of HIV/AIDS research on other scientific areas ( Table 1 ).

Positive Spin-offs of Human Immuno deficiency Virus/AIDS Research on Other Areas of Medicine

Abbreviation: HIV, human immunodeficiency virus.

Regulation of the Human Immune System

Congenital immunodeficiencies have been described as “experiments of nature,” whereby a specific defect in a single component of the complex immune system sheds light on the entire system. Such is the case with AIDS, an acquired defect in the immune system whereby HIV specifically and selectively infects and destroys the CD4 + subset of T lymphocytes [ 6 ]. In this respect, HIV infection functions as a natural experiment that elucidates the complexity of the human immune system. The selectivity of this defect and its resulting catastrophic effect on host defense mechanisms, as manifested by the wide range of opportunistic infections and neoplasms, underscore the critical role this cell type plays in the overall regulation of the human immune system. This has provided substantial insights into the pathogenesis of an array of other diseases characterized by aberrancies of immune regulation. Additionally, the in-depth study of immune dysfunction in HIV disease has shed light on the role of the immune system in surveillance against a variety of neoplastic diseases, such as non-Hodgkin lymphoma and Kaposi sarcoma. As a result of its association with HIV/AIDS, Kaposi sarcoma was discovered to be caused by human herpesvirus 8 [ 7 ].

Targeted Antiviral Drug Development

Targeted antiviral drug development did not begin with HIV infection. However, the enormous investments in biomedical research supported by the NIH and in drug development supported by pharmaceutical companies led to highly effective antiretroviral drugs targeting the enzymes reverse transcriptase, protease, and integrase, among other vulnerable points in the HIV replication cycle, and have transformed the field of targeted drug development, bringing it to an unprecedented level of sophistication. Building on 3 decades of experience, this HIV model has been applied in the successful development of antiviral drugs for other viral diseases, including the highly effective and curative direct-acting antivirals for hepatitis C [ 8 ].

Probing the B-Cell Repertoire

The past decade has witnessed extraordinary advances in probing the human B-cell lineage resulting from the availability of highly sophisticated technologies in cellular cloning and genomic sequencing [ 9 ]. AIDS research aimed at developing broadly reactive neutralizing antibodies against HIV and an HIV vaccine that could induce broadly neutralizing antibodies has greatly advanced the field of interrogation of human B-cell lineages, leading to greater insights into the humoral response to other infectious diseases, including Ebola [ 10 ], Zika [ 11 ], and influenza [ 12 ], as well as a range of autoimmune, neoplastic, and other noncommunicable diseases [ 13 ].

Structure-Based Vaccine Design

Although a safe and effective HIV vaccine has not yet been developed, the discipline of structure-based vaccine design using protein X-ray crystallography and cryoelectron microscopy has matured greatly in the context of HIV vaccine research. The design of immunogens based on the precise conformation of epitopes in the viral envelope as they bind to neutralizing antibodies has been perfected within the arena of HIV vaccine immunogen design. This has had immediate positive spinoffs in the design of vaccines for other viruses, such as respiratory syncytial virus, in which the prefusion glycoprotein was identified as the important immunogen for a vaccine using structure-based approaches [ 14 ].

Advances in HIV/AIDS-Related Technologies

Insights into the basic immunology of HIV drove the development and optimization of several broadly applicable technologies. Using inactivated HIV as a means of altering T lymphocytes to modulate the immune response, safe lentiviral gene therapy vectors are now US Food and Drug Administration–approved to treat certain cancers (eg, acute lymphoblastic leukemia) [ 15 ]. Additionally, it was discovered early in the epidemic that HIV is associated with the loss of CD4 + T lymphocytes [ 16 ]. While much of the initial research on CD4 + T lymphocytes was possible due to existing flow cytometry technologies, probing the complexities of immune dysregulation in HIV infection spurred the development of multicolor cytofluorometric technologies that have proven extremely useful for studying a variety of other diseases characterized by immune dysfunction [ 17 ]. The reality of utilizing these technologies in resource-poor areas accelerated the advancement of new simplified, automated, affordable, and portable point-of-care devices with broader implications for clinical medicine [ 18 ].

Role of Immune Activation in Disease Pathogenesis

Studying the pathogenesis of HIV disease has clearly demonstrated that aberrant immune activation stimulated by virus replication is the driving force of HIV replication [ 19 ]. In essence, the somewhat paradoxical situation exists whereby the very immune activation triggered by the virus in an attempt to control virus replication creates the microenvironment where the virus efficiently replicates. Even when the virus is effectively suppressed by antiretroviral drugs, a low degree of immune activation persists [ 20 ]. In this regard, the flagrant immune activation associated with uncontrolled virus replication, as well as the subtle immune activation associated with control of virus replication, are important pathogenic triggers of the increased cardiovascular and other organ system diseases associated with HIV infection. This direct association of even subtle levels of immune activation seen in HIV infection with a variety of systemic diseases has led to considerable insight into the role of immune activation and inflammation in human disease [ 21 ]. For example, recognition of the increased incidence of heart disease in the HIV population that is associated with chronic inflammation has stimulated interdisciplinary advances in understanding and treating coronary heart disease apart from HIV infection [ 22 ].

Comorbidities in HIV Disease

Antiretroviral therapy, which has transformed HIV treatment, is shifting the incidence of certain diseases in people living with HIV. Even when well-controlled by antiretrovirals, HIV disease is associated with an increased incidence of diseases, such as cardiovascular disease, kidney and liver disease, the premature appearance of pathophysiologic processes associated with aging, and several cancers [ 21–24 ]. This is especially true for non-AIDS-defining cancers, whose incidence rates are increasing while AIDS-defining cancer rates are decreasing [ 24 ]. In lower-income countries, tuberculosis is a common coinfection with HIV, and HIV coinfection was shown to be a key risk factor for progression of latent Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection to active disease [ 25 ]. There are a variety of ongoing studies [ 21 ] investigating the pathogenic bases of these conditions to shed greater insight into their causes and potential interventions that might impact these diseases apart from HIV infection and immunodeficiency.

The collateral advantages resulting from the substantial resources devoted to HIV/AIDS research over the past 30 years are extraordinary. From innovations in basic immunology and structural biology to treatments for immune-mediated diseases and cancer, the conceptual and technological advances resulting from HIV/AIDS research have had an enormous impact on the research and public and global health communities over and above the field of HIV/AIDS. The HIV/AIDS research model has proven that cross-fertilization of ideas, innovation, and research progress can lead to unforeseen and substantial advantages for a variety of other diseases.

Acknowledgments.  The authors thank Carl Dieffenbach, Daniel Rotrosen, Charles Hackett, and Robert Eisinger for their helpful input in preparation of the manuscript.

Potential conflicts of interest.  Both authors: No reported conflicts of interest. Both authors have submitted the ICMJE Form for Disclosure of Potential Conflicts of Interest. Conflicts that the editors consider relevant to the content of the manuscript have been disclosed.

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CDC provides national leadership for HIV prevention research, including the development and evaluation of HIV biomedical and behavioral interventions to prevent HIV transmission and reduce HIV disease progression in the United States and internationally. CDC’s research efforts also include identifying those scientifically proven, cost-effective, and scalable interventions and prevention strategies to be implemented as part of a high-impact prevention approach for maximal impact on the HIV epidemic.

The AIDS epidemic, although first recognized only 20 years ago, has had a profound impact in communities throughout the United States.

The Serostatus Approach to Fighting the HIV Epidemic: Prevention Strategies for Infected Individuals R. S. Janssen, D. R. Holtgrave, and K. M. De Cock led the writing of this commentary. R. O. Valdiserri, M. Shepherd, and H. D. Gayle contributed ideas and helped with writing and reviewing the manuscript.

CDC has provided funding to HIV partners to help implement programs that will help curb the increase of HIV infections. These programs facilitated with our partners and grantees are critical in the goal of eliminating HIV infection in the United States.

CDC has researched several HIV prevention interventions that have proven effective in helping to prevent HIV infection in certain populations and communities.

CDC has worked with key cities to create effective policies and programs to curb the tide of HIV infections in those cities. These cities have higher rates of HIV due to a number of factors therefore making them key locations for studies.

The Medical Monitoring Project (MMP) is a surveillance system designed to learn more about the experiences and needs of people who are living with HIV. It is supported by several government agencies and conducted by state and local health departments along with the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.

• Assessment of 2010 CDC-funded Health Department HIV Testing Spending and Outcomes pdf icon [PDF – 359 KB]
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Cost-effectiveness of HIV Prevention

• The cost-effectiveness of HIV prevention efforts has long been a criterion in setting program priorities. The basic principle is straightforward: choose those options that provide the greatest outcome for the least cost.
• The fact sheet Projecting Possible Future Courses of the HIV Epidemic in the United States pdf icon compares the cost-effectiveness of three different prevention investment scenarios.

The HIV/AIDS Prevention Research Synthesis (PRS) Project identifies evidence-based HIV behavioral interventions (EBIs) listed in the Compendium of Evidence-Based HIV Behavioral Interventions to help HIV prevention planners and providers in the United States choose the interventions most appropriate for their communities.

• On January 1, 2012, CDC began a new 5-year HIV prevention funding cycle with health departments, awarding $339 million annually.
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How to write a hiv research paper.

Writing an HIV research paper requires extensive research and understanding of the available data. HIV/AIDS is among the most challenging diseases that humankind has ever faced. When pursuing medical studies, a student will most likely be asked to write a research paper about aids. That’s because educators want learners to understand different aspects of this disease and some of the ways to resolve them.

Researching and writing about HIV/AIDS is not easy. A learner has to search books, journals, and magazines that publish content about the disease to get a paper written . A student has to study the available information thoroughly and analyze it before writing an HIV AIDS research paper. And this is not easy because students have lectures to attend and other assignments to complete while writing research papers.

Why Write an HIV Research Paper

Preparation for writing an hiv research paper, how to write a research paper on hiv, topics for hiv papers.

But, research alone is not enough. Learners should also be persuasive in their writing for their papers to stand out and earn them the top grades. Ideally, a learner should present ideas in a way that convinces the reader that they engaged in a thorough research process before composing the paper. If struggling to compose a strong HIV and AIDS research paper, this guide comprises relevant topics and tips that should guide you.

HIV/AIDS is a preventable disease. When implemented properly, prevention intervention can reduce the transmission of this disease. What’s more, people infected with HIV/AIDS can make behavioral changes and improve their health. Such changes can also reduce the risk of infecting others with the disease.

• When a student engages in research and then writes a paper on HIV AIDS, they learn such aspects of this disease. Ideally, this academic task equips the learner with the knowledge and information required to guide and help people avoid this disease. It also enables them to counsel those living with HIV to lead better lives without transmitting the disease to other people.
• A student will most likely be required to write a research paper about AIDS and HIV when pursuing medical or social science studies. That’s because they will most likely meet people living with the disease or at a higher risk of infection once they venture into the job market. As such, such people will play a significant role in increasing awareness of the disease once they start working. Some individuals are already working while pursuing their studies. Therefore, this assignment equips them with relevant knowledge that they can apply every day at their workplaces.

The reason you’re reading this article is probably that you’ve been assigned a research paper about HIV. However, you don’t know how to complete this task or even where to start. Although you may find a lot of information on this subject online, there are hardly any guides for writing a research paper about it.

To compose a great AIDS research paper, you need to prepare adequately. Here are the three steps to follow when preparing to write an HIV essay paper.

• Choose a topic : You’re supposed to write about HIV/AIDS. However, there are many aspects of this disease that you can write about. Therefore, start by selecting a topic for your research paper. For instance, you can write about the effects of HIV on specific demographics. You can also write about the changes the fight against HIV/AIDS has undergone over the years. Ideally, pick a topic you will be comfortable researching and writing about. Also, make sure that your topic is not too narrow or too broad. That’s because an extremely narrow topic will limit you when it comes to the information you can include in your paper. A broader topic will seem shallow because you won’t cover every aspect of it in your paper.
• Compose a thesis statement : A thesis statement for HIV paper should tell the audience what the paper is about. Your reader should know what to expect in the rest of the paper after reading it in the introduction. Therefore, come up with a clear thesis statement that captures the main theme or idea of your paper. You should compose a thesis statement after conducting preliminary research about your topic.
• Draft an outline : An HIV paper outline is the skeleton of the entire paper. It shows where the information gathered through research will appear in the paper. Ideally, an outline should help with the organization of your ideas and information in the research paper.

Once you’ve chosen a topic, composed a thesis statement, and outlined your paper, you can now proceed to actual writing.

When writing your research paper, focus on answering the questions that the audience might have after reading your topic. To do this, follow these steps when writing a research paper on HIV AIDS.

• Research your topic extensively : You can find many online sources, journals, books, and magazines with information about HIV/AIDS. Composing a great paper requires you to research your topic extensively. If you’re writing a concept paper on HIV AIDS, ensure that your message comes out. For instance, you can expound on the epidemiological landscape of the disease. This includes the challenges and history of HIV prevention. After research and learning all you can about the topic, analyze your information and then come up with the main points to present in your paper.
• Write the introduction : Start by introducing your topic to the audience. Tell them why you chose this particular topic and why it’s worth exploring. Your intro to a paper about HIV can also provide background information. For instance, you can provide statistics that show the impact of the disease on a specific demographic group. Use a relevant hook in the introduction to capture the audiences’ attention and make them want to read the rest of the paper. Also, include your thesis statement in the introduction. That way, your audience will know what your paper is about after reading the introduction. They also decide whether to read the entire paper or some of its sections.
• Write the body : The body of a research paper on AIDS is where you expound on your main points. For instance, if you want to write about HIV prevention, you can expound on the major prevention measures. Tell your readers what every prevention measure entails and how effective it is. You can include statistics to support your point. Present every point in its paragraph and support it with relevant information.
• Write the conclusion : Compose a conclusion for your AIDS paper by wrapping up your argument nicely. Remind the audience what you set out to do by restating your thesis statement and then show them how you’ve accomplished your mission. You can also leave the audience with something to think about or suggest ideas for further research on your topic.

Writing your paper will be relatively easy if you follow these steps. However, you should pick a good title for AIDS research paper because this will dictate the direction of your research and writing process.

As hinted, choosing the right topic is very crucial because the title of your paper will influence the direction of your research and writing process. HIV/AIDS is a broad subject with many health research topics that learners can research and write about. Here are sample topics to consider when writing a paper about HIV/AIDS.

• How the AIDS virus affects the human immune systems
• How HIV/AIDS compares to most diseases affecting the human DNA
• The most effective methods for curbing the spread of HIV
• The origin of the AIDS pandemic
• Is AIDS a pandemic or epidemic disease?
• Countries with the highest cases of HIV/AIDS and why
• Common myths about HIV/AIDS
• Effects of stigmatization of the people living with HIV/AIDS
• How governments help HIV/AIDS patients
• Why pregnant women undergo HIV/AIDS testing
• How ignorance contributes to the stigmatization of HIV/AIDS patients
• Strides made by medical researchers towards the prevention and possible cure of HIV/AIDS
• How misconception of HIV patients affect their lives
• Common stereotypes about HIV patients in movies
• Factors that accelerate the spread of HIV in developing countries
• How a person’s sexual behavior influence their risk of contracting HIV
• How the struggles of men and women with HIV compare
• Why the world has a hard time preventing the spread of HIV/AIDS among teenagers
• HIV prevention measures- How they compare between the UK and the US
• Common opportunistic illnesses among people with HIV/AIDs

Whether you choose to write an HIV reflection paper or HIV AIDS reaction paper, take your time to conduct extensive research and analyze your information. Also, list down all your sources when researching your topic because you will need them when composing the reference section of the paper. If possible, include in-text citations to help your readers engage in further reading. This will help readers that are interested in a specific aspect of your topic. Also, take your time to research your topic and analyze information before composing your HIV research paper thesis. That way, you will come up with a statement that will reflect what your paper will cover.

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Current Research on HIV Drug Resistance—A Topical Collection with “ Pathogens ”

1 National Microbiology Laboratory at JC Wilt Infectious Diseases Research Centre, Public Health Agency of Canada, Winnipeg, MB R3E 3R2, Canada; [email protected]

2 Max Rady College of Medicine, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB R3E 0J9, Canada

Viral drug resistance is an everlasting topic for HIV/AIDS professionals from clinical, laboratory and public health perspectives [ 1 ]. As one of the most challenging human viral pathogens, HIV is notorious for its significant genetic and antigenic diversity, both intra-host and inter-host, resulting from poor proofreading of the viral reverse transcriptase as the virus replicates coupled with its high replication rate [ 2 , 3 , 4 ]. Unsurprisingly, HIV drug resistance (HIVDR) was reported soon after the commercialization of the first antiretroviral drug [ 5 ]. Since then, HIVDR has been symbiotic with all HIV drugs currently applied in antiretroviral therapy (ART), although the genetic barriers for the resistance development again different drugs vary. Pathogens launched a topical collection of submissions in 2021 to catch the latest advances in HIVDR diagnosis, surveillance and research perspectives. While this collection remains open for new submissions, we already have ten excellent articles published thus far. This editorial piece provides a brief walkthrough of these articles and highlights their significant contributions to the HIVDR field in general.

Next-generation sequencing (NGS)-based HIVDR testing is a trending new standard for HIVDR typing, attributable to its high sensitivity and accuracy in semi-quantitative detection of HIVDR variants, especially those present at lower frequencies [ 6 ]. Li et al. applied NGS HIVDR testing in a cross-sectional study in China, revealing that HIVDR prevalence in patients under ART interruption is higher than in ART-naïve patients or those on ART therapy [ 7 ]. It provides more convincing evidence, reassuring the improved sensitivity of NGS in detecting lower abundance HIVDR mutations.

The application of integrase strand transfer inhibitor (INSTI)-based therapy is rising globally in first-line ART, attributable largely to the well-documented higher genetic barriers for resistance development against INSTIs. Two articles in this collection dealt with HIVDR against INSTIs. Seatla K et al. reported their findings in examining the correlation between 3′-polypurine tract (3′PPT) variations in the HIV-1 nef gene and failure of INSTI-based ART treatment [ 8 ]. Multiple HIV-1 genetic variations outside the pol gene have been reported to be associated with HIVDR occurrence, although they do not directly alter the coding of drug-targeted HIV enzymes [ 9 , 10 , 11 , 12 ]. One such viral genetic trait identified by in vitro breakthrough selection experiments is the 3′PPT variation in the HIV-1 nef gene, reported to be contributing to INSTI resistance [ 9 ]. However, several later studies failed to confirm this association in patients failing INSTI-based ART, but all reported the high genetic conservation of this region [ 13 , 14 , 15 ]. By examining the 3′PPT from 6009 HIV-1 subtype C sequences from Botswana, this study provides solid evidence of the high conservation of the 3′PPT sequence and rules out the causal connection between variations in this motif and INSTI resistance [ 8 ]. Martin et al. reported on the coevolution of the ART-targeted HIV-1 genes and the potential impacts of the co-evolved HIV-1 protease (PR) and reverse transcriptase (RT) genes on the HIV-1 viral fitness and its susceptibility to INSTIs [ 16 ]. This study highlights the close interactions of the ART-targeted viral enzymes/genes during ART, which necessitate the analysis of the whole HIV-1 pol gene, or even the entire genomes, to better decipher the mechanisms of HIVDR occurrence in the context of ART.

HIVDR occurrence is, by all means, a multifactorial phenomenon involving many interconnected factors from social, economic, medical and behavioural perspectives. Kiekens et al. developed and presented a comprehensive local systems map that enables in-depth analysis and an understanding of HIVDR-relevant factors in a complex adaptive system [ 17 ]. While it was developed in a Tanzania-based study, this system could be easily adapted or adopted in other settings to better understand the local HIVDR situation and identify actionable strategies to combat HIVDR.

Population-level HIVDR surveillance provides valuable information in monitoring the HIVDR situation in the region, evaluating the impact of HIVDR-related policies and strategies and forming treatment guidelines to optimize clinical outcomes at population levels [ 1 , 18 ]. Two HIVDR surveillance studies from Mexico were included in this topical collection. García-Morales et al. presented a four-year observational study monitoring the pre-treatment HIVDR prevalence trend against protease inhibitor (PI), RT inhibitor (RTI) and INSTI in a large patient cohort from Mexico City during 2017~2020 [ 19 ]. Caro-Vega et al. presented a report describing the clinical outcomes of participants from a 2017 to 2018 national representative HIV PDR survey in Mexico [ 20 ]. Both articles exemplify large-scale HIVDR monitoring for a designated population or patient cohort and for the evaluation of its clinical significance.

Following the above is an excellent report on the spectrum of atazanavir-selected PI resistance mutation from Rhee et al. [ 21 ]. While ritonavir-boosted atazanavir is now an often-used second-line PI option in ART, especially in low- to middle-income countries (LMIC), there is a paucity of studies examining the PR mutations occurring in patients receiving atazanavir treatment. To fill this gap, the authors analyzed 1497 PR sequences from patients receiving boosted or unboosted atazanavir treatments and profiled all PR mutations selected by atazanavir in previously PI-naïve patients who failed atazanavir-containing regimens. I highly recommend this article for HIVDR researchers and clinicians in order to better understand the cross-resistance among commonly applied PIs for the optimal use of these drugs in clinical settings.

The last group of manuscripts in this collection includes three review or commentary articles summarizing the advances in three perspectives pertaining to HIVDR laboratory testing. Munyuza et al. reviewed the recent progress in applying a probe-capturing enrichment strategy for improved viral template recovery from samples containing degraded viral RNA/DNA or low viral loads for HIV and HCV genotyping [ 22 ]. Chua et al. summarized up-to-date advances in point-of-care test (POCT) technologies that may help boost the accessibility and simplicity of HIVDR assays with improved cost-effectiveness [ 23 ]. This information is valuable for promoting de-centralized HIVDR testing in LMIC where ART coverage is scaling up while HIVDR monitoring lags behind due to resource limitations. Ji and Sandstrom provided a comprehensive review of all clinical analytes that have been used in HIVDR testing thus far in both research and clinical settings [ 24 ]. It may assist in the optimal selection of specimens for different HIVDR testing needs.

Taken together, I hope this HIVDR topical collection will contribute to further advancements in basic research, laboratory testing and effective management pertaining to HIVDR. New submissions are always welcome when the collection is still open.

As the collection editor, I appreciate the collective efforts from all authors, reviewers, and editorial personnel of Pathogens who have made this topical collection a reality. Thank you!

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The author declares no conflict of interest.

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Open Access

Peer-reviewed

Research Article

The emergence and evolution of the research fronts in HIV/AIDS research

* E-mail: [email protected] (DF-O); [email protected] (VMC)

Affiliation Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mexico City, Mexico

Affiliation Institute of Data Science, Maastricht University, Maastricht, The Netherlands

Affiliation Instituto de Biología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mexico City, Mexico

Affiliation Colegio de la Frontera Sur, Chiapas, Mexico

Affiliation Centro de Física Aplicada y Tecnología Avanzada, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Queretaro, Mexico

• David Fajardo-Ortiz, 
• Malaquias Lopez-Cervantes, 
• Luis Duran, 
• Michel Dumontier, 
• Miguel Lara, 
• Hector Ochoa, 
• Victor M. Castano

• Published: May 25, 2017
• https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0178293
• Reader Comments

In this paper, we have identified and analyzed the emergence, structure and dynamics of the paradigmatic research fronts that established the fundamentals of the biomedical knowledge on HIV/AIDS. A search of papers with the identifiers "HIV/AIDS", "Human Immunodeficiency Virus", “HIV-1” and "Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome" in the Web of Science (Thomson Reuters), was carried out. A citation network of those papers was constructed. Then, a sub-network of the papers with the highest number of inter-citations (with a minimal in-degree of 28) was selected to perform a combination of network clustering and text mining to identify the paradigmatic research fronts and analyze their dynamics. Thirteen research fronts were identified in this sub-network. The biggest and oldest front is related to the clinical knowledge on the disease in the patient. Nine of the fronts are related to the study of specific molecular structures and mechanisms and two of these fronts are related to the development of drugs. The rest of the fronts are related to the study of the disease at the cellular level. Interestingly, the emergence of these fronts occurred in successive "waves" over the time which suggest a transition in the paradigmatic focus. The emergence and evolution of the biomedical fronts in HIV/AIDS research is explained not just by the partition of the problem in elements and interactions leading to increasingly specialized communities, but also by changes in the technological context of this health problem and the dramatic changes in the epidemiological reality of HIV/AIDS that occurred between 1993 and 1995.

Citation: Fajardo-Ortiz D, Lopez-Cervantes M, Duran L, Dumontier M, Lara M, Ochoa H, et al. (2017) The emergence and evolution of the research fronts in HIV/AIDS research. PLoS ONE 12(5): e0178293. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0178293

Editor: Dimitrios Paraskevis, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, GREECE

Received: November 16, 2016; Accepted: May 10, 2017; Published: May 25, 2017

Copyright: © 2017 Fajardo-Ortiz et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

Data Availability: All relevant data are within the paper and its Supporting Information files.

Funding: The authors received no specific funding for this work.

Competing interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Introduction

The Human Immunodeficiency Virus/ Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (HIV/AIDS) is a global health problem: over 70 million people have been infected with HIV, 35 million have died and 36.7 million people currently live with the disease [ 1 ]. HIV/AIDS is one of the most studied infection diseases with more than 260,000 papers (mentioning the topic) listed in GOPubMed [ 2 ] and more than 42,000 papers (mentioning HIV/AIDS in the title) in the Web of Science [ 3 ] spanning over thirty year of scientific research. HIV/AIDS is studied by a plurality of biomedical disciplines like epidemiology [ 4 ], virology [ 5 ], immunology [ 6 ] or drug development [ 7 ] and non-biomedical disciplines like social sciences [ 8 ] and humanities [ 9 ]. All the biomedical disciplines working on HIV/AIDS strongly rely on a solid scientific consensus, which explains the clinical manifestation of HIV/AIDS in terms of the virus interactions with the immune system cells; the behavior and demography of the immune system cells, and, most importantly, the virus interaction with the biomolecular machinery of the host cells [ 10 – 12 ]. Two features are believed to be at the core of the scientific consensus on HIV/AIDS: the natural history of the HIV infection (the number of CD4+ cells and HIV RNA copies plotted over the time) [ 11 ] and the virus replication cycle (from the virus entry to the virus assembly, budding and maturation) [ 10 , 12 ].

Paradigms are the keystone of research communities [ 13 , 14 ], for they provide a foundation for members of the community; they also define the questions, the standards, the rules and the expected results that drive research efforts [ 13 , 14 ]. Paradigms of HIV/AIDS research are often presented in a timeline format [ 12 , 15 ]. However, while such a historical perspective is informative, they present two disadvantages: the first is that the selection of the most relevant discoveries is arbitrary, i.e., not supported by scientometric evidence, while the second disadvantage is that the paradigms are not presented as the key elements of the organizing process of the research communities.

The study of the emerging research fronts offers the possibility of analyzing the relationship between the paradigms and the organizational process of the scientific communities [ 14 , 16 , 17 ]. Research fronts can be considered as modules or clusters in a citation network of papers, i.e., sparse sub-networks of papers that exhibit dense connections [ 18 ].

It must be pointed out that research fronts are the footprint of the scientific communities. That is, citation patterns of scientists exhibit homophily [ 14 , 19 ], which is caused by the scientists trend to cite those papers that focus in similar topics with a similar approach -and very often they cite those papers that strengthen the papers argumentation [ 14 , 19 , 20 ]. Citations tend to point toward those discoveries that the research (sub)communities consider the most relevant ones. i.e., the paradigms [ 13 , 14 , 21 – 23 ]. Therefore, paradigms occupy the most central location in the citation networks; they are the seeds that organize the emergence of the research fronts [ 14 , 17 ]. To explain the emergence of the biomedical consensus on HIV/AIDS requires a study of the structure and dynamics of the research fronts.

Previous studies using the research fronts analysis approach were mainly focused in topics from engineering [ 24 , 25 ], biotechnologies [ 18 ] and scientometrics [ 26 ]. There are some studies that focused in the structure of the biomedical knowledge on specific diseases [ 14 , 16 , 17 , 27 , 28 ]. Our previous research has been particularly focused in the core region of the literature networks [ 14 , 17 , 27 ]. By doing this we have discovered the key feature of the organization of the knowledge on cervical cancer [ 27 ] and Ebola fever [ 17 ]. Others have reported the evolution of research fronts in anthrax research [ 16 ], cancer research [ 28 ] and cardiovascular medicine [ 28 ]. By analyzing the structure and evolution of HIV/AIDS knowledge we further our understanding of the nature of the biomedical knowledge discovery.

Through a combination of text mining and network analysis, we sought to understand the emergence and evolution of the research fronts (the footprints of the research communities) that produced the paradigmatic explanation of this disease.

Methodology

• A search of papers on HIV/AIDS was performed in the Web of Science [ 3 ] during March, 2017. The search criteria were the following: TITLE: ("HIV AIDS") OR TITLE: ("Human immunodeficiency virus") OR TITLE: ("acquired immune deficiency syndrome") OR TITLE: (hiv-1). Refined by: DOCUMENT TYPES: (ARTICLE). Timespan: All years. Indexes: SCI-EXPANDED, SSCI, A&HCI, CPCI-S, CPCI-SSH, BKCI-S, BKCI-SSH, ESCI. 60,464 papers were found.
• A network model was built with the papers found in the Web of Science by using the software HistCite [ 29 ]. Then, the network model was analyzed and visualized with Cytoscape [ 30 ]. The indegree distribution of the network was evaluated to determine if it fitted to a power law function (y = ax^b).
• A core sub-network of papers with an indegree ≥ 28 was then closely examined. Normally, the indegree distribution in citation networks follows a power law function such that only a few papers are very well cited, while most papers are not [ 31 ]. This applies to the case of HIV/AIDS research as we report. We selected the papers with an indegree ≥ 28 because they are a small and workable quantity of papers that account for nearly half of the communication process through the citations network as it is reported in the results section (The selected papers received 42,8911 out of 679,497 citations from the HIV/AIDS literature). Top cited papers appear related to the paradigmatic milestones of a particular research topic.
• A cluster analysis based in the Newman modularity [ 32 ] was performed on the core sub-network using Clust&see, a Cystoscape plug-in [ 33 ]. This analysis divided the sub-network of citation in several research fronts (clusters or modules of papers). This clusters are defined by Newman as “groups of vertices within which connections are dense but between which they are sparse” [ 32 ].
• The sub-network was displayed by using the “yFiles organic” algorithm, which is based on the force-directed layout [ 30 ]. This algorithm considers the nodes as charged particles that exhibit repulsive forces and the vertices as springs. In this layout, the papers that cite the same papers tend to stick together making easier the visualization of the research fronts.
• The number of papers of each research front was plotted over the years in order to track the dynamics of the research fronts.
• The content of the identified research fronts -the abstract of their papers- was analyzed with KH Coder [ 34 ], a software for quantitative content analysis (Text mining). KH Coder delivered several outputs. However, we considered that the most informative output was the list of the most distinctive words which provided key information about what was the main focus of the papers of each front. Additionally, the five papers with the highest indegree within each of the research fronts were identified. in order to provide a context to the reading of the text mining results.
• Because front 1 “patient” is the largest and most central front according to our results, a cluster analysis was then performed on it by using Clust&see. The sub-modules that form front 1 were identified.

The network model

60,464 published articles on HIV/AIDS were identified by keyword search over the Thomson Reuters Web of Science. 57,485 of these papers form a single network of 679,497 inter-citations. The structural network analysis performed by Cytoscape showed that the distribution of the indegree in this network fitted a power law function (y = ax^b, a = 51,954, b = -1.79, correlation = 0.827, R-squared = 0.909). This means that a very small number of papers receive the overwhelming majority of citations while most papers receive few if any citations [ 31 , 35 ].

We selected papers with an indegree ≥ 28, that is, 5,933 documents. Together, these papers receive 63% of the inter-citations that form the whole network (42,8911 of 679,497), and would represent a relevant part of the historical core of the HIV/AIDS research as it was explained in the methodology section. These 5,933 highly cited papers formed a network of 86,963 inter-citations ( Fig 1 ). The cluster network analysis identified fourteen clusters (or modules as defined by Newman). However, one cluster were too small to be considered relevant research fronts. The thirteen clusters were formed by 12,303, 9,115, 7,407, 6,746, 5,680, 4,763, 4,696, 3507, 2,861, 2,768, 2,597, 2,053, and 1,662 inter-citations.

• PPT PowerPoint slide
• PNG larger image
• TIFF original image

The model is displayed by using the “yFiles organic” algorithm. The color of nodes (representing the papers) and vertices indicates which research front they belong to.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0178293.g001

The organization and dynamics of the research fronts

The main interaction among the seven research fronts is shown in Fig 2 . In this figure, each of the research fronts is represented by a single node, and the edges represent the sum of the inter-citations among the fronts ( Fig 2 ). Therefore, this graphical synthesis allows us to understand how the paradigmatic core of HIV/AIDS research was organized. However, the complete panorama can be only understood when Fig 2 is simultaneously read with Fig 3 and with Table 1 and S1 Table . Fig 3 shows the dynamics of the research fronts by plotting the number of citation papers per year of each research. In Fig 3 , the fronts are shown in different plots according to the period of time in which the fronts reached their maximum number of papers per year: between 1990 and 1991 ( Fig 3A ), between 1996 and 1999 ( Fig 3B ), and between 2004 and 2007 ( Fig 3C ). S1 Table provides the detailed description of each research front, including its structural features; the main topics of each research fronts according to the text mining analysis, and the list of the papers with the highest indegree within each research front. Table 1 groups the fronts according to the organization level (Individual, cellular-tissular and molecular) and the period in which the number of papers of each front peaked. The figures and the tables together offer an interesting view of the evolution and organization of HIV/AIDS research in the three first decades:

Each node represents one of the seven research fronts. The edges represent the sum of the inter-citations between two clusters. Only the interactions formed by a minimal of 500 inter-citations or the largest interaction (If the front have none interaction ≥ 500 inter-citations) of each front are shown.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0178293.g002

A: Research fronts whose number of papers peaked between 1990 and 1991, B: peaked between 1996 and 1999 and C: peaked between 2004 and 2007.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0178293.g003

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0178293.t001

HIV/AIDS research is reductionistly-organized, following a hierarchy of biological structures and systems ( Fig 2 , Table 1 ). That is, at the core of the network is located the front 1 “patient” (Figs 1 and 2 ) which focus on the study of the HIV/AIDS phenomenon at individual-systemic level. Surrounding front 1, there are research fronts (Front 3 “isolate,” front 9 “Cytotoxic T lymphocyte” and front 10 “brain” in Fgs 1 and 2) that are related to the study of specific events of the disease at cellular level ( Table 1 and S1 Table ). In the most external part of the network model there are most of the fronts related to the study of molecular structures and mechanisms (Front 5 “reverse transcriptase inhibitor” front 6 “assembly,” front 7 “protease inhibitor” front 8 “integration,” front 11 “replication,” front 12 “nucleocapsid” front and 13 “infectivity”; see Figs 1 and 2 and Table 1 and S1 Table ). On the other hand, Front 2 “glycoprotein 120” and front 5 “reverse transcriptase inhibitor” are strongly connected to front 1 “patient” (Figs 1 and 2 ) However, the research in these fronts (2 and 5) is oriented to the development of treatments (immuno-therapies and small molecules drugs, respectively), which may explain their strong connection to front 1. Notice that fronts 3 and 2 function as transition zones in HIV/AIDS research connecting the different levels of observation (systemic, tissular-to-cellular and molecular) (Figs 1 and 2 ).

On the other hand, the research fronts clearly can be grouped in three different periods of time in which the fronts reach their maximum number of papers per year: 1990–1991, 1996–1999 and 2004–2007 ( Fig 3 ). In order to properly read Fig 3 it is important to keep in mind the dramatic changes in the epidemiology of HIV/AIDS in the United States (USA) that happened between 1993 and 1995 [ 36 ]. In that period, the number of AIDS diagnosis and deaths reached their maximum and then declined[ 36 ]. Simultaneously, in 1995, the number of persons living with HIV began to rise[ 36 ]. Therefore, we can consider the existence of two stages in the history of HIV/AIDS: before 1995 in which AIDS was the main concern and after 1995 when HIV infection is at the center of HIV/AIDS research. A second important consideration to understand Fig 3 is that the phase of expansion or growth in science (the “normal” science of Thomas Kuhn) follows the publication of those scientific achievements that organize the subsequent research[ 13 ]. This would explain that the peaks in Fig 3 generally occurred years after the publication of the papers with the highest degree ( Fig 3 and S1 Table ). The peaks in figure can be considered a delayed response to fundamental events and discoveries in the history of HIV/AIDS research. A third consideration is that the network model is made from the ten percent of papers with the highest indegree. Therefore, the succession of research fronts observed in Fig 3 does not mean the end of the research on specific topics but that these topics are not longer in the core of HIV/AIDS research.

Fronts 2 “glycoprotein 120,” 4 “tat-tar,” 5 “reverse transcriptase inhibitor” and 10 “brain” emerged immediately after front 1 and peaked in the 1990 and 1991 years. The expansion of these fronts in this early stage in the history of HIV/AIDS research suggests that these fronts are relevant to the description, explanation or intervention of AIDS. For example, it has been pointed out that tat (Trans-activator of transcription) protein, which is essential for virus replication, could be involved in the progression to AIDS and in the development of Kaposi's sarcoma lesions.[ 37 , 38 ] Along the same line, the interaction between glycoprotein 120 and CD4 is the first event in the replication cycle and is considered fundamental to virus entry.[ 39 ] It is important to keep in mind that the depletion of lymphocytes expressing CD4 is considered the most severe hematological feature of AIDS.[ 39 ] Similarly, encephalopathy is one of the most dominant feature of AIDS.[ 40 ] Finally, a reverse transcriptase inhibitor, zidovudine (AZT) was the first drug approved by the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) to treat AIDS.[ 41 ]

Research fronts 1 “patient,”and 3 “isolate,” reached their maximum number of papers per year between 1996 and 1999 ( Fig 3 ). The peaks of these fronts follow the changes in the epidemiology of HIV/AIDS in the USA. Therefore, these fronts are possibly related to a collective response from the scientific community to the new reality of the disease. The research in front 1 is the largest, central and most clinical among the fronts (Figs 1 and 2 , and S1 Table ). This front connects the clinical and epidemiological manifestations of HIV/AIDS with their explanation at a cellular level. Because of the size, the centrality and clinical relevance, we decided to perform a second round of cluster analysis to identify the sub-modules that may conform front 1. We plotted the contribution of each sub-module to the evolution of front 1 in Fig 4 . Sub-module 1A, 1D and 1E are the key components of the 1999's peak ( Fig 4 ). The papers with the highest indegree in sub-modules 1A, 1D and 1E are, respectively, “Reduction of maternal-infant transmission of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 with zidovudine treatment,”[ 42 ] “Rapid turnover of plasma virions and CD4 lymphocytes in HIV-1 infection”[ 43 ] and “Identification of a reservoir for HIV-1 in patients on highly active antiretroviral therapy”.[ 44 ] These papers report and explain fundamental changes in the clinical reality of HIV/AIDS produced by the implementation of anti-retroviral therapies. Front 3 “isolate,” to the study of HIV tropism, i.e., the differential capacity of the HIV strains to infect and replicates in different cell types ( Table 1 ). Importantly, the availability of screening tools that allowed the identification of asymptomatic individuals infected with HIV and the use of anti-retroviral therapies make extensively available the blood and tissue samples from the patients that were fundamental to the emergence of front 3.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0178293.g004

On the other hand, most of the research fronts specialized in the study of specific molecular mechanisms and structures (fronts 6 to 9 and fronts 11 to 13) peaked either in the 1996–1999 or 2004–2007 periods ( Fig 3 ). It is important to notice that all these fronts emerged at the end of the first decade of HIV/AIDS research. The difference between fronts peaking in the second and the third periods is that the former decline earlier. In order to understand the evolution of these fronts is important to keep in mind that the scientific specialization is a continuous process of solving problems that follows the establishment of a paradigm (HIV-1 as the etiological agent of HIV/AIDS).[ 13 ] In that sense, the decline of fronts 8, 11 and 12 ( Fig 3B ) may be so because the scientific problem is either essentially solved or the changes in the HIV/AIDS epidemiology made less relevant the topics related to these fronts.

According to the Cytoscape analysis, the network of HIV/AIDS papers displays a power law distribution of their citations, which has important methodological implications. The first implication is that a research front (a citation network module) could be formed by other research fronts, which in turn can be partioned into sub-modules [ 44 ]. The second implication is that the nodes (papers) with the highest indegree tend to be more “cosmopolitan” i.e., they have the lowest clustering coefficient values [ 44 ]. That is, they could belong simultaneously to several fronts or any of them. Therefore, there are not clearly defined frontiers dividing the research fronts. However, the standard in the scientometrics study of research fronts seems to be to use clustering methods that define frontiers between the modules [ 14 , 17 , 18 , 24 , 25 , 27 , 28 ], probably because this is make much more understandable the community structure in a literature network. Moreover, our analysis reveals the front that is most relevant to each paper. Finally, the most important implication is that in a hierarchical literature network the most the papers with the highest indegree are related with the paradigms that organize a research field or topic [ 14 ]. Top cited papers have been extensively used to identify the scientific achievements that establish the standards of research practice of a particular community [ 14 , 17 , 22 , 23 , 27 , 28 , 45 , 46 ]. There are no set guidelines on the proportion of top cited papers that should be selected. However, there is a trade off between selecting the most informative papers and maintaining diversity of the information [ 14 , 17 ]. In this work, we used a minimal indegree of 30 to select the top cited papers, and in turn obtaining a considerable percentage of the citations. The selected papers consist of only ten percent of the network but they effectively account for two thirds of the citations. The selected papers are a reasonable representation of the paradigmatic core of HIV/AIDS research.

Once the HIV was recognized as the etiological factor HIV/AIDS research entered in normal science mode that is characterized by a high productivity and for a specialization of the researchers. By specialization we refer to “concentrate exclusively upon the subtlest and most esoteric aspects of the natural phenomena that concern his group” [ 12 ]. Once the paradigms are established, researchers focus on the details, the smaller range problems and solutions that the current paradigm provide [ 13 ]. Our results suggest that the emergence of several of the specialized research fronts was caused by the partition of the general problem in interacting elements. That is, HIV/AIDS research could be understood to some extent as a particular instance of part-whole science in which paradigms determine the abstraction of the parts that are considered the most relevant to explain the whole phenomenon [ 47 , 48 ].

The general structure and evolution of the research fronts in HIV/AIDS research shares similarities to that of anthrax and Ebola. The evolution of anthrax investigation began with a preliminary on the immunology of the disease [ 16 ]. From this, four research fronts emerged: “anthrax gene sequencing”, “vaccine research”, secondary research on PA (protective antigen) and LF (lethal factor), and “making and purifiying toxin” [ 16 ]. Subsequently, the research front on PA and LF split in three fronts: “specific PA research”, PA mediated delivery of other substances” and specific “LF research” [ 16 ]. Similarly, the evolution of the fronts in Ebola research are marked by a front related to the report of the epidemiology and the clinical manifestation of the disease [ 17 ]. A second front provide an explanation of the disease at tissue-cellular level [ 17 ]. Then, research on Ebola split into four research fronts, each one specialized in one different virus protein [ 17 ]. There is also a front aimed to the development of vaccines and other immunotherapies [ 17 ]. Similarly, the emergence of the fronts in HIV/AIDS research started with a general research front that provided the pathology of the disease and subsequently split into specialized fronts focused on the study of specific molecular mechanism of the virus replication cycle. In all three cases, the specialization of the research led to the emergence of research fronts focused in the study of the parts that are thought to be key in explaining the diseases. A report on the emergence of the research fronts in cancer and cardiovascular diseases showed that the specialization process in these types of diseases is complex [ 28 ]. Jones et al. reported fronts specialized on microarrays, targeted therapies, clinical trials, epidemiology and molecular etiology in cancer research [ 28 ], while in cardiovascular diseases the fronts are organized around drug-eluting stents, anti-platelet agents, pacemakers, hypertension and atrial fibrillation [ 28 ]. The difference between these two groups of diseases is that HIV/AIDS, anthrax and Ebola are infectious diseases with a clearly identified etiological agent while cancer and cardiovascular diseases are both complex multifactorial diseases [ 49 ].

This is the first time that the complex organization (and the evolution) of HIV/AIDS research is reported. Our research provides fundamental knowledge concerning the emergence of the paradigmatic explanation for HIV/AIDS and therefore makes a contribution to the understanding of the nature of biomedical knowledge. In addition, our work suggests that the development of the paradigmatic knowledge on HIV/AIDS in terms of the emergence and evolution of the research fronts followed two different routes. First, the emergence of the specialized fronts (molecular mechanism and structures and cellular process) was caused by the division of the general problem in their key process, element and interactions, which is related to the concept of part-whole science. Second, the dynamics of the fronts, particularly the evolution of front 1 “patient” and 2 “isolate”, appears to represent an adaptive and collective response from the scientific community to changes in the epidemiological (the decline in the morbidity and mortality of AIDS in the USA) and technological (the availability of treatments and screening tools) context of this health problem.

Supporting information

S1 table. description of the research fronts..

Structural properties; top 10 distinctive worlds, and list of the five papers with the highest indegree within each of the research fronts.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0178293.s001

Author Contributions

• Conceptualization: DF-O VMC.
• Data curation: DF-O.
• Formal analysis: DF-O.
• Investigation: DF-O.
• Methodology: DF-O.
• Project administration: DF-O.
• Resources: DF-O.
• Supervision: DF-O VMC.
• Validation: DF-O.
• Visualization: DF-O.
• Writing – original draft: DF-O VMC ML-C LD MD ML HO.
• Writing – review & editing: DF-O MD.
• 1. World Health Organization. Global health observatory (GHO) data. URL. http://www.who.int/gho/tb/en . 2015 May.
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• 4. Wilson D. HIV epidemiology: A review of recent trends and lessons. The World Bank: Washington DC. 2006.
• 13. Kuhn TS. The Structure of Scientific Revolutions. Enlarged International Encyclopedia of Unified Science.
• 48. Valadez Blanco EO. La parte y el todo en la explicación científica del cáncer (Dissertation). UAM-Iztapalapa.

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Resources - National Youth HIV & AIDS Awareness Day 2024

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Wednesday, April 10 marks National Youth HIV & AIDS Awareness Day (NYHAAD). It has been commemorated annually since 2013 and is directed by Advocates for Youth Exit Disclaimer , an organization that partners with young people and their adult allies to promote effective adolescent reproductive and sexual health programs and policies. NYHAAD is a day to educate and urge policymakers and the public to act regarding the impact of HIV on young people, as well as highlight the HIV prevention, treatment, and care campaigns for this community.

According to the CDC, youth between the ages of  13 to 24 made up 19% of all new HIV diagnoses  in the United States in 2021. The CDC also reports that they are the least likely of any age group to be aware of their HIV infection. Thus, it is key for youth to have access to and receive HIV education, prevention, and testing, as, per the CDC, in 2021 only 6% of high school students have ever been tested for HIV (PDF, 9.88MB). NYHAAD is a crucial part of ongoing efforts to end the HIV epidemic and provides the opportunity to raise awareness about the impact of HIV and AIDS on youth and share important resources that can help combat the HIV epidemic. Please use the resources below to support the ongoing efforts to reduce HIV and AIDS in this community.

Get Involved with NYHAAD

From April 5-11, Advocates for Youth invites the public to take part in  a series of events and activities Exit Disclaimer  in the lead-up to NYHAAD. Check out their  social media toolkit and other resources Exit Disclaimer  to participate.

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