type 2 research questions

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Type 2 diabetes articles from across Nature Portfolio

Type 2 diabetes mellitus, the most frequent subtype of diabetes, is a disease characterized by high levels of blood glucose (hyperglycaemia). It arises from a resistance to and relative deficiency of the pancreatic β-cell hormone insulin.

Macrophage vesicles in antidiabetic drug action

Thiazolidinediones (TZDs) are potent insulin-sensitizing drugs, but their use is accompanied by adverse side-effects. Rohm et al. now report that TZD-stimulated macrophages release miR-690-containing vesicles that improve insulin sensitization and bypass unwanted side-effects.

• Rinke Stienstra
• Eric Kalkhoven

Latest Research and Reviews

Applications of SGLT2 inhibitors beyond glycaemic control

Here, the authors discuss the beneficial effects of sodium–glucose cotransporter 2 (SGLT2) inhibitors for a range of clinical outcomes beyond glucose lowering, including kidney and cardiovascular protection. They also discuss the need for implementation and adherence initiatives to help translate the benefits of these agents into real-world clinical outcomes.

• Daniel V. O’Hara
• Carolyn S. P. Lam
• Meg J. Jardine

Folic acid supplementation on inflammation and homocysteine in type 2 diabetes mellitus: systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials

• Kabelo Mokgalaboni
• Given. R. Mashaba
• Sogolo. L. Lebelo

An estrogen receptor α-derived peptide improves glucose homeostasis during obesity

Type 2 diabetes mellitus is an increasing global health issue, which is caused by systemic insulin resistance. Here, the authors show a ligand-independent effect of hepatic ERα in regulating insulin sensitivity and identify an ERα-derived peptide that functions as an insulin sensitizer.

• Wanbao Yang
• Shaodong Guo

Targeting the incretin system in obesity and type 2 diabetes mellitus

This article reviews advances in incretin-based pharmacotherapy, including the latest glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP1) receptor agonists (GLP1RAs), ‘GLP1 plus’ agents, which combine the benefits of these agonists with the activity of additional hormones, and oral GLP1RAs, which promise to extend the benefits of GLP1 therapy.

• Saleem Ansari
• Bernard Khoo

The impact of CREBRF rs373863828 Pacific-variant on infant body composition

• Francesca Amitrano
• Mohanraj Krishnan
• Christopher J. D. McKinlay

Adipose tissue macrophages secrete small extracellular vesicles that mediate rosiglitazone-induced insulin sensitization

Rohm et al. show that small extracellular vesicles from adipose tissue macrophages from obese rosiglitazone-treated mice ameliorate glucose tolerance and insulin sensitivity in obese mice, while circumventing the adverse effects of rosiglitazone.

• Theresa V. Rohm
• Felipe Castellani Gomes Dos Reis
• Jerrold M. Olefsky

News and Comment

Metformin acts through appetite-suppressing metabolite: Lac-Phe

• Shimona Starling

Slowly progressive insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus in type 1 diabetes endotype 2

• Tetsuro Kobayashi
• Takashi Kadowaki

Metformin induces a Lac-Phe gut–brain signalling axis

The mechanism by which metformin affects food intake remains controversial. Now, two studies link metformin treatment with the induction of the appetite-suppressing metabolite N -lactoyl-phenylalanine, which is produced by the intestine.

• Tara TeSlaa

Low-calorie diets for people with isolated impaired fasting glucose

Thirunavukkarasu et al. discuss how standard lifestyle interventions prove ineffective in preventing type 2 diabetes in individuals with isolated impaired fasting glucose, a highly prevalent prediabetes phenotype globally. They propose low-calorie diets as a promising strategy for diabetes prevention in this high-risk population.

• Sathish Thirunavukkarasu
• Jonathan E. Shaw

Functionally heterogeneous β cells regulate biphasic insulin secretion

Here, we reveal functional heterogeneity among β cells and discover that readily releasable β cells (RRβs) are a subpopulation that disproportionally contributes to biphasic glucose-stimulated insulin secretion. We further show that the dysfunction of RRβs has a crucial role in the progression of diabetes.

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Type 2 Diabetes Research At-a-Glance

The ADA is committed to continuing progress in the fight against type 2 diabetes by funding research, including support for potential new treatments, a better understating of genetic factors, addressing disparities, and more. For specific examples of projects currently funded by the ADA, see below.

Greg J. Morton, PhD

University of Washington

Project: Neurocircuits regulating glucose homeostasis

“The health consequences of diabetes can be devastating, and new treatments and therapies are needed. My research career has focused on understanding how blood sugar levels are regulated and what contributes to the development of diabetes. This research will provide insights into the role of the brain in the control of blood sugar levels and has potential to facilitate the development of novel approaches to diabetes treatment.”

The problem: Type 2 diabetes (T2D) is among the most pressing and costly medical challenges confronting modern society. Even with currently available therapies, the control and management of blood sugar levels remains a challenge in T2D patients and can thereby increase the risk of diabetes-related complications. Continued progress with newer, better therapies is needed to help people with T2D.

The project: Humans have special cells, called brown fat cells, which generate heat to maintain optimal body temperature. Dr. Morton has found that these cells use large amounts of glucose to drive this heat production, thus serving as a potential way to lower blood sugar, a key goal for any diabetes treatment. Dr. Morton is working to understand what role the brain plays in turning these brown fat cells on and off.

The potential outcome: This work has the potential to fundamentally advance our understanding of how the brain regulates blood sugar levels and to identify novel targets for the treatment of T2D.

Tracey Lynn McLaughlin, MD

Stanford University

Project: Role of altered nutrient transit and incretin hormones in glucose lowering after Roux-en-Y gastric bypass surgery

“This award is very important to me personally not only because the enteroinsular axis (gut-insulin-glucose metabolism) is a new kid on the block that requires rigorous physiologic studies in humans to better understand how it contributes to glucose metabolism, but also because the subjects who develop severe hypoglycemia after gastric bypass are largely ignored in society and there is no treatment for this devastating and very dangerous condition.”

The problem: Roux-en-Y gastric bypass (RYGB) surgery is the single-most effective treatment for type 2 diabetes, with persistent remission in 85% of cases. However, the underlying ways by which the surgery improves glucose control is not yet understood, limiting the ability to potentially mimic the surgery in a non-invasive way. Furthermore, a minority of RYGB patients develop severe, disabling, and life-threatening low-blood sugar, for which there is no current treatment.

The project: Utilizing a unique and rigorous human experimental model, the proposed research will attempt to gain a better understanding on how RYGB surgery improves glucose control. Dr. McLaughlin will also test a hypothesis which she believes could play an important role in the persistent low-blood sugar that is observed in some patients post-surgery.

The potential outcome: This research has the potential to identify novel molecules that could represent targets for new antidiabetic therapies. It is also an important step to identifying people at risk for low-blood sugar following RYGB and to develop postsurgical treatment strategies.

Rebekah J. Walker, PhD

Medical College of Wisconsin

Project: Lowering the impact of food insecurity in African Americans with type 2 diabetes

“I became interested in diabetes research during my doctoral training, and since that time have become passionate about addressing social determinants of health and health disparities, specifically in individuals with diabetes. Living in one of the most racially segregated cities in the nation, the burden to address the needs of individuals at particularly high risk of poor outcomes has become important to me both personally and professionally.”

The problem: Food insecurity is defined as the inability to or limitation in accessing nutritionally adequate food and may be one way to address increased diabetes risk in high-risk populations. Food insecure individuals with diabetes have worse diabetes outcomes and have more difficulty following a healthy diet compared to those who are not food insecure.

The project: Dr. Walker’s study will gather information to improve and then will test an intervention to improve blood sugar control, dietary intake, self-care management, and quality of life in food insecure African Americans with diabetes. The intervention will include weekly culturally appropriate food boxes mailed to the participants and telephone-delivered diabetes education and skills training. It will be one of the first studies focused on the unique needs of food insecure African American populations with diabetes using culturally tailored strategies.

The potential outcome: This study has the potential to guide and improve policies impacting low-income minorities with diabetes. In addition, Dr. Walker’s study will help determine if food supplementation is important in improving diabetes outcomes beyond diabetes education alone.

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Clinical Research in Type 2 Diabetes

Studies in humans aimed at the prevention, treatment, and diagnosis of Type 2 Diabetes and the mechanistic aspects of its etiology.

The Clinical Research in Type 2 Diabetes (T2D) program supports human studies across the lifespan aimed at understanding, preventing and treating T2D. This program includes clinical trials that test pharmacologic, behavioral, surgical or practice-level approaches to the treatment and/or prevention of T2D, including promoting the preservation of beta cell function. Studies may also advance the development of new surrogate markers for use in clinical trials. Studies can be designed to understand the pathophysiology of T2D, including the role of gestational diabetes and metabolic imprinting on the development of T2D, as well as factors influencing the response to treatment. The program also encompasses epidemiologic studies that improve our understanding of the natural history and pathogenesis of T2D, and the development of diagnostic criteria to distinguish type 1 and type 2 diabetes, especially in the pediatric population. The program also supports research to understand and test approaches to accelerate the translation of efficacious interventions into real-world practice and adoption; and to address health equity by reducing health disparities in the incidence and/or clinical outcomes of T2D.

NIDDK Program Staff

• Shavon Artis Dickerson, Dr.P.H., M.P.H. Health Equity and Implementation Science
• Henry B. Burch, M.D. Clinical studies utilizing existing digital health technology for the prevention and treatment of type 2 diabetes, clinical and basic science studies involving non-neoplastic disorders of the thyroid, clinical studies involving medical and novel dietary treatment of type 2 diabetes.
• Maureen Monaghan Center, Ph.D., CDCES Health Psychology, Behavioral Science, Clinical Management of Diabetes
• Jean M. Lawrence, Sc.D., M.P.H., M.S.S.A. Type 2 diabetes risk and prevention after gestational diabetes; Studies of adults with diabetes/pre-diabetes using secondary data and observational designs, and natural experiments
• Hanyu Liang, M.D., Ph.D. Hepatic Metabolism; Insulin Resistance; Type 2 Diabetes; Obesity; Bariatric Surgery
• Barbara Linder, M.D., Ph.D. Type 2 diabetes in children and youth; human studies of metabolic imprinting
• Saul Malozowski, M.D., Ph.D., M.B.A. Neuroendocrinology of hypothalamic-pituitary axis, neuropeptide signaling and receptors; hormonal regulation of bone and mineral metabolism; HIV/AIDS-associated metabolic and endocrine dysfunction
• Pamela L. Thornton, Ph.D. Health Equity and Translational Research; Centers for Diabetes Translation Research (P30) Program
• Theresa Teslovich Woo, Ph.D. Human behavior, developmental cognitive neuroscience, and brain-based mechanisms involved in obesity and diabetes

Recent Funding Opportunities

Mentored research scientist development award (parent k01 - independent clinical trial required), mentored research scientist development award (parent k01 - independent clinical trial not allowed), mentored clinical scientist research career development award (parent k08 independent clinical trial not allowed), nih pathway to independence award (parent k99/r00 independent clinical trial required), nih pathway to independence award (parent k99/r00 independent clinical trial not allowed), related links.

View related clinical trials from ClinicalTrials.gov.

Study sections conduct initial peer review of applications in a designated scientific area. Visit the NIH’s Center for Scientific Review website to search for study sections.

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NIDDK makes publicly supported resources, data sets, and studies available to researchers to accelerate the rate and lower the cost of new discoveries.

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The NIDDK offers and participates in a variety of opportunities for trainees and researchers from communities underrepresented in the biomedical research enterprise. These opportunities include travel and scholarship awards, research supplements, small clinical grants, high school and undergraduate programs, and a network of minority health research investigators.

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Type 2 Diabetes

Healthy eating is your recipe for managing diabetes.

About 38 million Americans have diabetes (about 1 in 10), and approximately 90-95% of them have type 2 diabetes. Type 2 diabetes most often develops in people over age 45, but more and more children, teens , and young adults are also developing it.

What Causes Type 2 Diabetes?

Insulin is a hormone made by your pancreas that acts like a key to let blood sugar into the cells in your body for use as energy. If you have type 2 diabetes, cells don’t respond normally to insulin; this is called insulin resistance . Your pancreas makes more insulin to try to get cells to respond. Eventually your pancreas can’t keep up, and your blood sugar rises, setting the stage for prediabetes and type 2 diabetes. High blood sugar is damaging to the body and can cause other serious health problems, such as heart disease ,  vision loss , and kidney disease .

Symptoms and Risk Factors

Type 2 diabetes  symptoms often develop over several years and can go on for a long time without being noticed (sometimes there aren’t any noticeable symptoms at all). Because symptoms can be hard to spot, it’s important to know the  risk factors and to see your doctor to get your blood sugar tested if you have any of them.

Testing for Type 2 Diabetes

A simple blood test will let you know if you have diabetes. If you’ve gotten your blood sugar tested at a health fair or pharmacy, follow up at a clinic or doctor’s office to make sure the results are accurate.

Managing Diabetes

Unlike many health conditions, diabetes is managed mostly by you, with support from your health care team (including your primary care doctor, foot doctor, dentist, eye doctor, registered dietitian nutritionist, diabetes educator, and pharmacist), family, and other important people in your life. Managing diabetes can be challenging, but everything you do to improve your health is worth it!

You may be able to manage your diabetes with healthy eating and being active, or your doctor may prescribe insulin, other injectable medications, or oral diabetes medicines to help manage your blood sugar and avoid complications . You’ll still need to eat healthy and be active if you take insulin or other medicines. It’s also important to keep your blood pressure and cholesterol close to the targets your doctor sets for you and get necessary screening tests.

You’ll need to check your blood sugar  regularly. Ask your doctor how often you should check it and what your target blood sugar levels should be. Keeping your blood sugar levels as close to target as possible will help you prevent or delay diabetes-related complications.

Stress is a part of life, but it can make managing diabetes harder, including managing your blood sugar levels and dealing with daily diabetes care. Regular physical activity, getting enough sleep, and relaxation exercises can help. Talk to your doctor and diabetes educator about these and other ways you can manage stress.

Make regular appointments with your health care team to be sure you’re on track with your treatment plan and to get help with new ideas and strategies if needed.

Whether you were just diagnosed with diabetes or have had it for some time, meeting with a diabetes educator is a great way to get support and guidance, including how to:

• Develop a healthy eating and activity plan
• Test your blood sugar and keep a record of the results
• Recognize the signs of high or low blood sugar and what to do about it
• If needed, give yourself insulin by syringe, pen, or pump
• Monitor your feet, skin, and eyes to catch problems early
• Buy diabetes supplies and store them properly
• Manage stress and deal with daily diabetes care

Ask your doctor about diabetes self-management education and support services and to recommend a diabetes educator, or search the Association of Diabetes Care & Education Specialists’ (ADCES) nationwide directory  for a list of programs in your community.

Type 2 Diabetes in Children and Teens

Childhood obesity rates are rising, and so are the rates of type 2 diabetes in youth. More than 75% of children with type 2 diabetes have a close relative who has it, too. But it’s not always because family members are related; it can also be because they share certain habits that can increase their risk. Parents can help prevent or delay type 2 diabetes by developing a plan for the whole family:

• Drinking more water and fewer sugary drinks
• Eating more fruits and vegetables
• Making favorite foods healthier
• Making physical activity more fun

Healthy changes become habits more easily when everyone makes them together. Find out how to take charge family style with these healthy tips .

Get Support

Tap into online diabetes communities for encouragement, insights, and support. The American Diabetes Association’s Community page and ADCES’s Peer Support Resources  are great ways to connect with others who share your experience.

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• Managing Diabetes: Medicare Coverage and Resources [PDF - 1 MB]
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Home » Research Questions – Types, Examples and Writing Guide

Research Questions – Types, Examples and Writing Guide

Table of Contents

Research Questions

Definition:

Research questions are the specific questions that guide a research study or inquiry. These questions help to define the scope of the research and provide a clear focus for the study. Research questions are usually developed at the beginning of a research project and are designed to address a particular research problem or objective.

Types of Research Questions

Types of Research Questions are as follows:

Descriptive Research Questions

These aim to describe a particular phenomenon, group, or situation. For example:

• What are the characteristics of the target population?
• What is the prevalence of a particular disease in a specific region?

Exploratory Research Questions

These aim to explore a new area of research or generate new ideas or hypotheses. For example:

• What are the potential causes of a particular phenomenon?
• What are the possible outcomes of a specific intervention?

Explanatory Research Questions

These aim to understand the relationship between two or more variables or to explain why a particular phenomenon occurs. For example:

• What is the effect of a specific drug on the symptoms of a particular disease?
• What are the factors that contribute to employee turnover in a particular industry?

Predictive Research Questions

These aim to predict a future outcome or trend based on existing data or trends. For example :

• What will be the future demand for a particular product or service?
• What will be the future prevalence of a particular disease?

Evaluative Research Questions

These aim to evaluate the effectiveness of a particular intervention or program. For example:

• What is the impact of a specific educational program on student learning outcomes?
• What is the effectiveness of a particular policy or program in achieving its intended goals?

How to Choose Research Questions

Choosing research questions is an essential part of the research process and involves careful consideration of the research problem, objectives, and design. Here are some steps to consider when choosing research questions:

• Identify the research problem: Start by identifying the problem or issue that you want to study. This could be a gap in the literature, a social or economic issue, or a practical problem that needs to be addressed.
• Conduct a literature review: Conducting a literature review can help you identify existing research in your area of interest and can help you formulate research questions that address gaps or limitations in the existing literature.
• Define the research objectives : Clearly define the objectives of your research. What do you want to achieve with your study? What specific questions do you want to answer?
• Consider the research design : Consider the research design that you plan to use. This will help you determine the appropriate types of research questions to ask. For example, if you plan to use a qualitative approach, you may want to focus on exploratory or descriptive research questions.
• Ensure that the research questions are clear and answerable: Your research questions should be clear and specific, and should be answerable with the data that you plan to collect. Avoid asking questions that are too broad or vague.
• Get feedback : Get feedback from your supervisor, colleagues, or peers to ensure that your research questions are relevant, feasible, and meaningful.

How to Write Research Questions

Guide for Writing Research Questions:

• Start with a clear statement of the research problem: Begin by stating the problem or issue that your research aims to address. This will help you to formulate focused research questions.
• Use clear language : Write your research questions in clear and concise language that is easy to understand. Avoid using jargon or technical terms that may be unfamiliar to your readers.
• Be specific: Your research questions should be specific and focused. Avoid broad questions that are difficult to answer. For example, instead of asking “What is the impact of climate change on the environment?” ask “What are the effects of rising sea levels on coastal ecosystems?”
• Use appropriate question types: Choose the appropriate question types based on the research design and objectives. For example, if you are conducting a qualitative study, you may want to use open-ended questions that allow participants to provide detailed responses.
• Consider the feasibility of your questions : Ensure that your research questions are feasible and can be answered with the resources available. Consider the data sources and methods of data collection when writing your questions.
• Seek feedback: Get feedback from your supervisor, colleagues, or peers to ensure that your research questions are relevant, appropriate, and meaningful.

Examples of Research Questions

Some Examples of Research Questions with Research Titles:

Research Title: The Impact of Social Media on Mental Health

• Research Question : What is the relationship between social media use and mental health, and how does this impact individuals’ well-being?

Research Title: Factors Influencing Academic Success in High School

• Research Question: What are the primary factors that influence academic success in high school, and how do they contribute to student achievement?

Research Title: The Effects of Exercise on Physical and Mental Health

• Research Question: What is the relationship between exercise and physical and mental health, and how can exercise be used as a tool to improve overall well-being?

Research Title: Understanding the Factors that Influence Consumer Purchasing Decisions

• Research Question : What are the key factors that influence consumer purchasing decisions, and how do these factors vary across different demographics and products?

Research Title: The Impact of Technology on Communication

• Research Question : How has technology impacted communication patterns, and what are the effects of these changes on interpersonal relationships and society as a whole?

Research Title: Investigating the Relationship between Parenting Styles and Child Development

• Research Question: What is the relationship between different parenting styles and child development outcomes, and how do these outcomes vary across different ages and developmental stages?

Research Title: The Effectiveness of Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy in Treating Anxiety Disorders

• Research Question: How effective is cognitive-behavioral therapy in treating anxiety disorders, and what factors contribute to its success or failure in different patients?

Research Title: The Impact of Climate Change on Biodiversity

• Research Question : How is climate change affecting global biodiversity, and what can be done to mitigate the negative effects on natural ecosystems?

Research Title: Exploring the Relationship between Cultural Diversity and Workplace Productivity

• Research Question : How does cultural diversity impact workplace productivity, and what strategies can be employed to maximize the benefits of a diverse workforce?

Research Title: The Role of Artificial Intelligence in Healthcare

• Research Question: How can artificial intelligence be leveraged to improve healthcare outcomes, and what are the potential risks and ethical concerns associated with its use?

Applications of Research Questions

Here are some of the key applications of research questions:

• Defining the scope of the study : Research questions help researchers to narrow down the scope of their study and identify the specific issues they want to investigate.
• Developing hypotheses: Research questions often lead to the development of hypotheses, which are testable predictions about the relationship between variables. Hypotheses provide a clear and focused direction for the study.
• Designing the study : Research questions guide the design of the study, including the selection of participants, the collection of data, and the analysis of results.
• Collecting data : Research questions inform the selection of appropriate methods for collecting data, such as surveys, interviews, or experiments.
• Analyzing data : Research questions guide the analysis of data, including the selection of appropriate statistical tests and the interpretation of results.
• Communicating results : Research questions help researchers to communicate the results of their study in a clear and concise manner. The research questions provide a framework for discussing the findings and drawing conclusions.

Characteristics of Research Questions

Characteristics of Research Questions are as follows:

• Clear and Specific : A good research question should be clear and specific. It should clearly state what the research is trying to investigate and what kind of data is required.
• Relevant : The research question should be relevant to the study and should address a current issue or problem in the field of research.
• Testable : The research question should be testable through empirical evidence. It should be possible to collect data to answer the research question.
• Concise : The research question should be concise and focused. It should not be too broad or too narrow.
• Feasible : The research question should be feasible to answer within the constraints of the research design, time frame, and available resources.
• Original : The research question should be original and should contribute to the existing knowledge in the field of research.
• Significant : The research question should have significance and importance to the field of research. It should have the potential to provide new insights and knowledge to the field.
• Ethical : The research question should be ethical and should not cause harm to any individuals or groups involved in the study.

Purpose of Research Questions

Research questions are the foundation of any research study as they guide the research process and provide a clear direction to the researcher. The purpose of research questions is to identify the scope and boundaries of the study, and to establish the goals and objectives of the research.

The main purpose of research questions is to help the researcher to focus on the specific area or problem that needs to be investigated. They enable the researcher to develop a research design, select the appropriate methods and tools for data collection and analysis, and to organize the results in a meaningful way.

Research questions also help to establish the relevance and significance of the study. They define the research problem, and determine the research methodology that will be used to address the problem. Research questions also help to determine the type of data that will be collected, and how it will be analyzed and interpreted.

Finally, research questions provide a framework for evaluating the results of the research. They help to establish the validity and reliability of the data, and provide a basis for drawing conclusions and making recommendations based on the findings of the study.

Advantages of Research Questions

There are several advantages of research questions in the research process, including:

• Focus : Research questions help to focus the research by providing a clear direction for the study. They define the specific area of investigation and provide a framework for the research design.
• Clarity : Research questions help to clarify the purpose and objectives of the study, which can make it easier for the researcher to communicate the research aims to others.
• Relevance : Research questions help to ensure that the study is relevant and meaningful. By asking relevant and important questions, the researcher can ensure that the study will contribute to the existing body of knowledge and address important issues.
• Consistency : Research questions help to ensure consistency in the research process by providing a framework for the development of the research design, data collection, and analysis.
• Measurability : Research questions help to ensure that the study is measurable by defining the specific variables and outcomes that will be measured.
• Replication : Research questions help to ensure that the study can be replicated by providing a clear and detailed description of the research aims, methods, and outcomes. This makes it easier for other researchers to replicate the study and verify the results.

Limitations of Research Questions

Limitations of Research Questions are as follows:

• Subjectivity : Research questions are often subjective and can be influenced by personal biases and perspectives of the researcher. This can lead to a limited understanding of the research problem and may affect the validity and reliability of the study.
• Inadequate scope : Research questions that are too narrow in scope may limit the breadth of the study, while questions that are too broad may make it difficult to focus on specific research objectives.
• Unanswerable questions : Some research questions may not be answerable due to the lack of available data or limitations in research methods. In such cases, the research question may need to be rephrased or modified to make it more answerable.
• Lack of clarity : Research questions that are poorly worded or ambiguous can lead to confusion and misinterpretation. This can result in incomplete or inaccurate data, which may compromise the validity of the study.
• Difficulty in measuring variables : Some research questions may involve variables that are difficult to measure or quantify, making it challenging to draw meaningful conclusions from the data.
• Lack of generalizability: Research questions that are too specific or limited in scope may not be generalizable to other contexts or populations. This can limit the applicability of the study’s findings and restrict its broader implications.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

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Research Question 101 📖

Everything you need to know to write a high-quality research question

By: Derek Jansen (MBA) | Reviewed By: Dr. Eunice Rautenbach | October 2023

If you’ve landed on this page, you’re probably asking yourself, “ What is a research question? ”. Well, you’ve come to the right place. In this post, we’ll explain what a research question is , how it’s differen t from a research aim, and how to craft a high-quality research question that sets you up for success.

Research Question 101

What is a research question.

• Research questions vs research aims
• The 4 types of research questions
• How to write a research question
• Frequently asked questions
• Examples of research questions

As the name suggests, the research question is the core question (or set of questions) that your study will (attempt to) answer .

In many ways, a research question is akin to a target in archery . Without a clear target, you won’t know where to concentrate your efforts and focus. Essentially, your research question acts as the guiding light throughout your project and informs every choice you make along the way.

Let’s look at some examples:

What impact does social media usage have on the mental health of teenagers in New York?

How does the introduction of a minimum wage affect employment levels in small businesses in outer London?

How does the portrayal of women in 19th-century American literature reflect the societal attitudes of the time?

What are the long-term effects of intermittent fasting on heart health in adults?

As you can see in these examples, research questions are clear, specific questions that can be feasibly answered within a study. These are important attributes and we’ll discuss each of them in more detail a little later . If you’d like to see more examples of research questions, you can find our RQ mega-list here .

Research Questions vs Research Aims

At this point, you might be asking yourself, “ How is a research question different from a research aim? ”. Within any given study, the research aim and research question (or questions) are tightly intertwined , but they are separate things . Let’s unpack that a little.

A research aim is typically broader in nature and outlines what you hope to achieve with your research. It doesn’t ask a specific question but rather gives a summary of what you intend to explore.

The research question, on the other hand, is much more focused . It’s the specific query you’re setting out to answer. It narrows down the research aim into a detailed, researchable question that will guide your study’s methods and analysis.

Let’s look at an example:

Research Aim: To explore the effects of climate change on marine life in Southern Africa.

Research Question: How does ocean acidification caused by climate change affect the reproduction rates of coral reefs?

As you can see, the research aim gives you a general focus , while the research question details exactly what you want to find out.

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Types of research questions

Now that we’ve defined what a research question is, let’s look at the different types of research questions that you might come across. Broadly speaking, there are (at least) four different types of research questions – descriptive , comparative , relational , and explanatory . 

Descriptive questions ask what is happening. In other words, they seek to describe a phenomena or situation . An example of a descriptive research question could be something like “What types of exercise do high-performing UK executives engage in?”. This would likely be a bit too basic to form an interesting study, but as you can see, the research question is just focused on the what – in other words, it just describes the situation.

Comparative research questions , on the other hand, look to understand the way in which two or more things differ , or how they’re similar. An example of a comparative research question might be something like “How do exercise preferences vary between middle-aged men across three American cities?”. As you can see, this question seeks to compare the differences (or similarities) in behaviour between different groups.

Next up, we’ve got exploratory research questions , which ask why or how is something happening. While the other types of questions we looked at focused on the what, exploratory research questions are interested in the why and how . As an example, an exploratory research question might ask something like “Why have bee populations declined in Germany over the last 5 years?”. As you can, this question is aimed squarely at the why, rather than the what.

Last but not least, we have relational research questions . As the name suggests, these types of research questions seek to explore the relationships between variables . Here, an example could be something like “What is the relationship between X and Y” or “Does A have an impact on B”. As you can see, these types of research questions are interested in understanding how constructs or variables are connected , and perhaps, whether one thing causes another.

Of course, depending on how fine-grained you want to get, you can argue that there are many more types of research questions , but these four categories give you a broad idea of the different flavours that exist out there. It’s also worth pointing out that a research question doesn’t need to fit perfectly into one category – in many cases, a research question might overlap into more than just one category and that’s okay.

The key takeaway here is that research questions can take many different forms , and it’s useful to understand the nature of your research question so that you can align your research methodology accordingly.

How To Write A Research Question

As we alluded earlier, a well-crafted research question needs to possess very specific attributes, including focus , clarity and feasibility . But that’s not all – a rock-solid research question also needs to be rooted and aligned . Let’s look at each of these.

A strong research question typically has a single focus. So, don’t try to cram multiple questions into one research question; rather split them up into separate questions (or even subquestions), each with their own specific focus. As a rule of thumb, narrow beats broad when it comes to research questions.

Clear and specific

A good research question is clear and specific, not vague and broad. State clearly exactly what you want to find out so that any reader can quickly understand what you’re looking to achieve with your study. Along the same vein, try to avoid using bulky language and jargon – aim for clarity.

Unfortunately, even a super tantalising and thought-provoking research question has little value if you cannot feasibly answer it. So, think about the methodological implications of your research question while you’re crafting it. Most importantly, make sure that you know exactly what data you’ll need (primary or secondary) and how you’ll analyse that data.

A good research question (and a research topic, more broadly) should be rooted in a clear research gap and research problem . Without a well-defined research gap, you risk wasting your effort pursuing a question that’s already been adequately answered (and agreed upon) by the research community. A well-argued research gap lays at the heart of a valuable study, so make sure you have your gap clearly articulated and that your research question directly links to it.

As we mentioned earlier, your research aim and research question are (or at least, should be) tightly linked. So, make sure that your research question (or set of questions) aligns with your research aim . If not, you’ll need to revise one of the two to achieve this.

FAQ: Research Questions

Research question faqs, how many research questions should i have, what should i avoid when writing a research question, can a research question be a statement.

Typically, a research question is phrased as a question, not a statement. A question clearly indicates what you’re setting out to discover.

Can a research question be too broad or too narrow?

Yes. A question that’s too broad makes your research unfocused, while a question that’s too narrow limits the scope of your study.

Here’s an example of a research question that’s too broad:

“Why is mental health important?”

Conversely, here’s an example of a research question that’s likely too narrow:

“What is the impact of sleep deprivation on the exam scores of 19-year-old males in London studying maths at The Open University?”

Can I change my research question during the research process?

How do i know if my research question is good.

A good research question is focused, specific, practical, rooted in a research gap, and aligned with the research aim. If your question meets these criteria, it’s likely a strong question.

Is a research question similar to a hypothesis?

Not quite. A hypothesis is a testable statement that predicts an outcome, while a research question is a query that you’re trying to answer through your study. Naturally, there can be linkages between a study’s research questions and hypothesis, but they serve different functions.

How are research questions and research objectives related?

The research question is a focused and specific query that your study aims to answer. It’s the central issue you’re investigating. The research objective, on the other hand, outlines the steps you’ll take to answer your research question. Research objectives are often more action-oriented and can be broken down into smaller tasks that guide your research process. In a sense, they’re something of a roadmap that helps you answer your research question.

Need some inspiration?

If you’d like to see more examples of research questions, check out our research question mega list here .  Alternatively, if you’d like 1-on-1 help developing a high-quality research question, consider our private coaching service .

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This post was based on one of our popular Research Bootcamps . If you're working on a research project, you'll definitely want to check this out ...

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How To Write a Research Question

Academic writing and research require a distinct focus and direction. A well-designed research question gives purpose and clarity to your research. In addition, it helps your readers understand the issue you are trying to address and explore.

Every time you want to know more about a subject, you will pose a question. The same idea is used in research as well. You must pose a question in order to effectively address a research problem. That's why the research question is an integral part of the research process. Additionally, it offers the author writing and reading guidelines, be it qualitative research or quantitative research.

In your research paper , you must single out just one issue or problem. The specific issue or claim you wish to address should be included in your thesis statement in order to clarify your main argument.

A good research question must have the following characteristics.

• Should include only one problem in the research question
• Should be able to find the answer using primary data and secondary data sources
• Should be possible to resolve within the given time and other constraints
• Detailed and in-depth results should be achievable
• Should be relevant and realistic.
• It should relate to your chosen area of research

While a larger project, like a thesis, might have several research questions to address, each one should be directed at your main area of study. Of course, you can use different research designs and research methods (qualitative research or quantitative research) to address various research questions. However, they must all be pertinent to the study's objectives.

What is a Research Question?

A research question is an inquiry that the research attempts to answer. It is the heart of the systematic investigation. Research questions are the most important step in any research project. In essence, it initiates the research project and establishes the pace for the specific research A research question is:

• Clear : It provides enough detail that the audience understands its purpose without any additional explanation.
• Focused : It is so specific that it can be addressed within the time constraints of the writing task.
• Succinct: It is written in the shortest possible words.
• Complex : It is not possible to answer it with a "yes" or "no", but requires analysis and synthesis of ideas before somebody can create a solution.
• Argumental : Its potential answers are open for debate rather than accepted facts.

A good research question usually focuses on the research and determines the research design, methodology, and hypothesis. It guides all phases of inquiry, data collection, analysis, and reporting. You should gather valuable information by asking the right questions.

Why are Research Questions so important?

Regardless of whether it is a qualitative research or quantitative research project, research questions provide writers and their audience with a way to navigate the writing and research process. Writers can avoid "all-about" papers by asking straightforward and specific research questions that help them focus on their research and support a specific thesis.

Types of Research Questions

There are two types of research: Qualitative research and Quantitative research . There must be research questions for every type of research. Your research question will be based on the type of research you want to conduct and the type of data collection.

The first step in designing research involves identifying a gap and creating a focused research question.

Below is a list of common research questions that can be used in a dissertation. Keep in mind that these are merely illustrations of typical research questions used in dissertation projects. The real research questions themselves might be more difficult.

Example Research Questions

The following are a few examples of research questions and research problems to help you understand how research questions can be created for a particular research problem.

Steps to Write Research Questions

You can focus on the issue or research gaps you're attempting to solve by using the research questions as a direction.

If you're unsure how to go about writing a good research question, these are the steps to follow in the process:

• Select an interesting topic Always choose a topic that interests you. Because if your curiosity isn’t aroused by a subject, you’ll have a hard time conducting research around it. Alos, it’s better that you pick something that’s neither too narrow or too broad.
• Do preliminary research on the topic Search for relevant literature to gauge what problems have already been tackled by scholars. You can do that conveniently through repositories like Scispace , where you’ll find millions of papers in one place. Once you do find the papers you’re looking for, try our reading assistant, SciSpace Copilot to get simple explanations for the paper . You’ll be able to quickly understand the abstract, find the key takeaways, and the main arguments presented in the paper. This will give you a more contextual understanding of your subject and you’ll have an easier time identifying knowledge gaps in your discipline.

     Also: ChatPDF vs. SciSpace Copilot: Unveiling the best tool for your research

• Consider your audience It is essential to understand your audience to develop focused research questions for essays or dissertations. When narrowing down your topic, you can identify aspects that might interest your audience.
• Ask questions Asking questions will give you a deeper understanding of the topic. Evaluate your question through the What, Why, When, How, and other open-ended questions assessment.
• Assess your question Once you have created a research question, assess its effectiveness to determine if it is useful for the purpose. Refine and revise the dissertation research question multiple times.

Additionally, use this list of questions as a guide when formulating your research question.

Are you able to answer a specific research question? After identifying a gap in research, it would be helpful to formulate the research question. And this will allow the research to solve a part of the problem. Is your research question clear and centered on the main topic? It is important that your research question should be specific and related to your central goal. Are you tackling a difficult research question? It is not possible to answer the research question with a simple yes or no. The problem requires in-depth analysis. It is often started with "How" and "Why."

Start your research Once you have completed your dissertation research questions, it is time to review the literature on similar topics to discover different perspectives.

Strong  Research Question Samples

Uncertain: How should social networking sites work on the hatred that flows through their platform?

Certain: What should social media sites like Twitter or Facebook do to address the harm they are causing?

This unclear question does not specify the social networking sites that are being used or what harm they might be causing. In addition, this question assumes that the "harm" has been proven and/or accepted. This version is more specific and identifies the sites (Twitter, Facebook), the type and extent of harm (privacy concerns), and who might be suffering from that harm (users). Effective research questions should not be ambiguous or interpreted.

Unfocused: What are the effects of global warming on the environment?

Focused: What are the most important effects of glacial melting in Antarctica on penguins' lives?

This broad research question cannot be addressed in a book, let alone a college-level paper. Focused research targets a specific effect of global heating (glacial  melting), an area (Antarctica), or a specific animal (penguins). The writer must also decide which effect will have the greatest impact on the animals affected. If in doubt, narrow down your research question to the most specific possible.

Too Simple: What are the U.S. doctors doing to treat diabetes?

Appropriately complex: Which factors, if any, are most likely to predict a person's risk of developing diabetes?

This simple version can be found online. It is easy to answer with a few facts. The second, more complicated version of this question is divided into two parts. It is thought-provoking and requires extensive investigation as well as evaluation by the author. So, ensure that a quick Google search should not answer your research question.

How to write a strong Research Question?

The foundation of all research is the research question. You should therefore spend as much time as necessary to refine your research question based on various data.

You can conduct your research more efficiently and analyze your results better if you have great research questions for your dissertation, research paper , or essay .

The following criteria can help you evaluate the strength and importance of your research question and can be used to determine the strength of your research question:

• Researchable
• It should only cover one issue.
• A subjective judgment should not be included in the question.
• It can be answered with data analysis and research.
• Specific and Practical
• It should not contain a plan of action, policy, or solution.
• It should be clearly defined
• Within research limits
• Complex and Arguable
• It shouldn't be difficult to answer.
• To find the truth, you need in-depth knowledge
• Allows for discussion and deliberation
• Original and Relevant
• It should be in your area of study
• Its results should be measurable
• It should be original

Conclusion - How to write Research Questions?

Research questions provide a clear guideline for research. One research question may be part of a larger project, such as a dissertation. However, each question should only focus on one topic.

Research questions must be answerable, practical, specific, and applicable to your field. The research type that you use to base your research questions on will determine the research topic. You can start by selecting an interesting topic and doing preliminary research. Then, you can begin asking questions, evaluating your questions, and start your research.

Now it's easier than ever to streamline your research workflow with SciSpace ResearchGPT . Its integrated, comprehensive end-to-end platform for research allows scholars to easily discover, read, write and publish their research and fosters collaboration.

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How to Write a Research Question: Types and Examples 

The first step in any research project is framing the research question. It can be considered the core of any systematic investigation as the research outcomes are tied to asking the right questions. Thus, this primary interrogation point sets the pace for your research as it helps collect relevant and insightful information that ultimately influences your work.   

Typically, the research question guides the stages of inquiry, analysis, and reporting. Depending on the use of quantifiable or quantitative data, research questions are broadly categorized into quantitative or qualitative research questions. Both types of research questions can be used independently or together, considering the overall focus and objectives of your research.  

What is a research question?

A research question is a clear, focused, concise, and arguable question on which your research and writing are centered. 1 It states various aspects of the study, including the population and variables to be studied and the problem the study addresses. These questions also set the boundaries of the study, ensuring cohesion. 

Designing the research question is a dynamic process where the researcher can change or refine the research question as they review related literature and develop a framework for the study. Depending on the scale of your research, the study can include single or multiple research questions. 

A good research question has the following features: 

• It is relevant to the chosen field of study. 
• The question posed is arguable and open for debate, requiring synthesizing and analysis of ideas. 
• It is focused and concisely framed. 
• A feasible solution is possible within the given practical constraint and timeframe. 

A poorly formulated research question poses several risks. 1   

• Researchers can adopt an erroneous design. 
• It can create confusion and hinder the thought process, including developing a clear protocol.  
• It can jeopardize publication efforts.  
• It causes difficulty in determining the relevance of the study findings.  
• It causes difficulty in whether the study fulfils the inclusion criteria for systematic review and meta-analysis. This creates challenges in determining whether additional studies or data collection is needed to answer the question.  
• Readers may fail to understand the objective of the study. This reduces the likelihood of the study being cited by others. 

Now that you know “What is a research question?”, let’s look at the different types of research questions. 

Types of research questions

Depending on the type of research to be done, research questions can be classified broadly into quantitative, qualitative, or mixed-methods studies. Knowing the type of research helps determine the best type of research question that reflects the direction and epistemological underpinnings of your research. 

The structure and wording of quantitative 2 and qualitative research 3 questions differ significantly. The quantitative study looks at causal relationships, whereas the qualitative study aims at exploring a phenomenon. 

• Quantitative research questions:  
• Seeks to investigate social, familial, or educational experiences or processes in a particular context and/or location.  
• Answers ‘how,’ ‘what,’ or ‘why’ questions. 
• Investigates connections, relations, or comparisons between independent and dependent variables. 

Quantitative research questions can be further categorized into descriptive, comparative, and relationship, as explained in the Table below. 

• Qualitative research questions  

Qualitative research questions are adaptable, non-directional, and more flexible. It concerns broad areas of research or more specific areas of study to discover, explain, or explore a phenomenon. These are further classified as follows: 

• Mixed-methods studies  

Mixed-methods studies use both quantitative and qualitative research questions to answer your research question. Mixed methods provide a complete picture than standalone quantitative or qualitative research, as it integrates the benefits of both methods. Mixed methods research is often used in multidisciplinary settings and complex situational or societal research, especially in the behavioral, health, and social science fields. 

What makes a good research question

A good research question should be clear and focused to guide your research. It should synthesize multiple sources to present your unique argument, and should ideally be something that you are interested in. But avoid questions that can be answered in a few factual statements. The following are the main attributes of a good research question. 

• Specific: The research question should not be a fishing expedition performed in the hopes that some new information will be found that will benefit the researcher. The central research question should work with your research problem to keep your work focused. If using multiple questions, they should all tie back to the central aim. 
• Measurable: The research question must be answerable using quantitative and/or qualitative data or from scholarly sources to develop your research question. If such data is impossible to access, it is better to rethink your question. 
• Attainable: Ensure you have enough time and resources to do all research required to answer your question. If it seems you will not be able to gain access to the data you need, consider narrowing down your question to be more specific. 
• You have the expertise 
• You have the equipment and resources 
• Realistic: Developing your research question should be based on initial reading about your topic. It should focus on addressing a problem or gap in the existing knowledge in your field or discipline. 
• Based on some sort of rational physics 
• Can be done in a reasonable time frame 
• Timely: The research question should contribute to an existing and current debate in your field or in society at large. It should produce knowledge that future researchers or practitioners can later build on. 
• Novel 
• Based on current technologies. 
• Important to answer current problems or concerns. 
• Lead to new directions. 
• Important: Your question should have some aspect of originality. Incremental research is as important as exploring disruptive technologies. For example, you can focus on a specific location or explore a new angle. 
• Meaningful whether the answer is “Yes” or “No.” Closed-ended, yes/no questions are too simple to work as good research questions. Such questions do not provide enough scope for robust investigation and discussion. A good research question requires original data, synthesis of multiple sources, and original interpretation and argumentation before providing an answer. 

Steps for developing a good research question

The importance of research questions cannot be understated. When drafting a research question, use the following frameworks to guide the components of your question to ease the process. 4  

• Determine the requirements: Before constructing a good research question, set your research requirements. What is the purpose? Is it descriptive, comparative, or explorative research? Determining the research aim will help you choose the most appropriate topic and word your question appropriately. 
• Select a broad research topic: Identify a broader subject area of interest that requires investigation. Techniques such as brainstorming or concept mapping can help identify relevant connections and themes within a broad research topic. For example, how to learn and help students learn. 
• Perform preliminary investigation: Preliminary research is needed to obtain up-to-date and relevant knowledge on your topic. It also helps identify issues currently being discussed from which information gaps can be identified. 
• Narrow your focus: Narrow the scope and focus of your research to a specific niche. This involves focusing on gaps in existing knowledge or recent literature or extending or complementing the findings of existing literature. Another approach involves constructing strong research questions that challenge your views or knowledge of the area of study (Example: Is learning consistent with the existing learning theory and research). 
• Identify the research problem: Once the research question has been framed, one should evaluate it. This is to realize the importance of the research questions and if there is a need for more revising (Example: How do your beliefs on learning theory and research impact your instructional practices). 

How to write a research question

Those struggling to understand how to write a research question, these simple steps can help you simplify the process of writing a research question. 

Sample Research Questions

The following are some bad and good research question examples 

• Example 1 
• Example 2 

References:  

• Thabane, L., Thomas, T., Ye, C., & Paul, J. (2009). Posing the research question: not so simple.  Canadian Journal of Anesthesia/Journal canadien d’anesthésie ,  56 (1), 71-79. 
• Rutberg, S., & Bouikidis, C. D. (2018). Focusing on the fundamentals: A simplistic differentiation between qualitative and quantitative research.  Nephrology Nursing Journal ,  45 (2), 209-213. 
• Kyngäs, H. (2020). Qualitative research and content analysis.  The application of content analysis in nursing science research , 3-11. 
• Mattick, K., Johnston, J., & de la Croix, A. (2018). How to… write a good research question.  The clinical teacher ,  15 (2), 104-108. 
• Fandino, W. (2019). Formulating a good research question: Pearls and pitfalls.  Indian Journal of Anaesthesia ,  63 (8), 611. 
• Richardson, W. S., Wilson, M. C., Nishikawa, J., & Hayward, R. S. (1995). The well-built clinical question: a key to evidence-based decisions.  ACP journal club ,  123 (3), A12-A13 

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• 8 Most Effective Ways to Increase Motivation for Thesis Writing 
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Language and grammar rules for academic writing, you may also like, measuring academic success: definition & strategies for excellence, phd qualifying exam: tips for success , quillbot review: features, pricing, and free alternatives, what is an academic paper types and elements , 9 steps to publish a research paper, what are the different types of research papers, how to make translating academic papers less challenging, 6 tips for post-doc researchers to take their..., presenting research data effectively through tables and figures, ethics in science: importance, principles & guidelines .

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November 7, 2023

Intermittent fasting for weight loss in people with type 2 diabetes

At a glance.

• People with obesity and type 2 diabetes lost more weight using daily periods of fasting than by trying to restrict calories over a six-month period.
• Blood sugar levels lowered in people in both groups, and no serious side effects were observed.

Around 1 in 10 Americans live with type 2 diabetes, a disease in which levels of blood glucose, or blood sugar, are too high. Diabetes can lead to serious health issues such as heart disease, nerve damage, and eye problems.

Excess weight is a major risk factor for the development of type 2 diabetes, and weight loss is often recommended for those with excess weight and type 2 diabetes. Calorie restriction—reducing overall calorie intake—is a mainstay of most weight loss programs. But such regimens are very difficult to stick with over the long term.

Time-restricted eating, also called intermittent fasting, has emerged as an alternative weight loss paradigm. In this approach, the time of day during which food can be eaten is restricted, but the amount or types of food are not. Small studies have suggested that intermittent fasting is safe and promotes weight loss in people with type 2 diabetes. But these studies only tracked participants for a short period of time. They also didn’t compare the approach with traditional calorie restriction.

In a new clinical trial, an NIH-funded research team led by Dr. Krista Varady from the University of Illinois Chicago compared fasting and calorie restriction for weight loss and blood-sugar reduction. They recruited 75 people with obesity and type 2 diabetes. Of these, 70 were either Hispanic or non-Hispanic Black—two groups in the U.S. with an especially high prevalence of diabetes. The participants were randomly assigned to one of three diet groups for six months.

The fasting group could eat anything they wanted, but only between the hours of noon and 8 pm. The second group worked with a dietitian to reduce their calories by 25% of the amount needed to maintain their weight. A control group did not change their diet at all. All groups received education on healthy food choices and monitored their blood glucose closely during the study. The results were published on October 27, 2023, in JAMA Network Open .

After six months, participants in the fasting group lost an average of 3.6% percent of their body weight compared to those in the control group. In comparison, people in the calorie-restriction group did not lose a significant amount of weight compared to the control group.

Both groups had similarly healthy decreases in their average blood glucose levels. Both also had reductions in waist circumference. No serious side effects, including time outside of a safe blood glucose range, were seen in either treatment group. People in the fasting group reported that their diet was easier to adhere to than calorie restriction.

“Our study shows that time-restricted eating might be an effective alternative to traditional dieting for people who can’t do the traditional diet or are burned out on it,” Varady says. “For many people trying to lose weight, counting time is easier than counting calories.”

Some medications used to treat type 2 diabetes need adjustment for time-restricted eating. Therefore, people considering intermittent fasting should speak with a doctor before changing their eating pattern.

—by Sharon Reynolds

Related Links

• Research in Context: Obesity and Metabolic Health
• Calorie Restriction and Human Muscle Function
• Popular Diabetes Drugs Compared in Large Trial
• Diabetes Control Worsened Over the Past Decade
• Fasting Increases Health and Lifespan in Male Mice
• Factors Contributing to Higher Incidence of Diabetes for Black Americans
• Diabetes Increasing in Youths
• Benefits of Moderate Weight Loss in People with Obesity
• To Fast or Not to Fast: Does When You Eat Matter?
• Managing Diabetes: New Technologies Can Make It Easier
• Type 2 Diabetes

References:  Effect of Time-Restricted Eating on Weight Loss in Adults With Type 2 Diabetes: A Randomized Clinical Trial. Pavlou V, Cienfuegos S, Lin S, Ezpeleta M, Ready K, Corapi S, Wu J, Lopez J, Gabel K, Tussing-Humphreys L, Oddo VM, Alexandria SJ, Sanchez J, Unterman T, Chow LS, Vidmar AP, Varady KA . JAMA Netw Open . 2023 Oct 2;6(10):e2339337. doi: 10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2023.39337. PMID: 37889487.

Funding:  NIH’s National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (NIDDK); University of Illinois.

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Genetics predict type 2 diabetes risk and disparities in childhood cancer survivors

Survivors of childhood cancer are at increased risk for cardiovascular disease, for which a risk factor is their greater prevalence of type 2 diabetes, with a disproportionate impact on those of non-European heritage. St. Jude Children's Research Hospital scientists have identified four previously unknown genetic variants associated with diabetes risk in all survivors. Published in the Journal of Clinical Oncology , their work also found an association between a previously reported genetic risk score for type 2 diabetes developed in the general population with diabetes risk in survivors. The findings also provide novel insights into differences in risk between individuals of varying ancestries.

The work relied on the St. Jude Lifetime cohort study (St. Jude LIFE), a long-term follow-up study for individuals treated for cancer as children. This cohort enabled the researchers to identify the four previously unknown genetic variants. Those variants were more frequent in people of African descent than those of European ancestry. They also determined that compared to a polygenic risk score for type 2 diabetes derived in the general population of European ancestry, polygenic risk scores generated from diverse ancestry datasets were more informative in assessing diabetes risk in survivors of both European and African ancestries. All genetic risks appeared magnified by childhood exposure to alkylating agents, a common class of chemotherapeutics.

"We found DNA variants in survivors that increase the risk of type 2 diabetes," said co-senior and corresponding author Yadav Sapkota, PhD, St. Jude Department of Epidemiology and Cancer Control. "Among survivors exposed to alkylating agents, these variants are conferring differential risk based on the ancestry, which may partially explain some of the disparity in type 2 diabetes burden in survivors."

Childhood cancer survivors are at a three times increased risk of developing type 2 diabetes than their siblings. However, non-Hispanic Black survivors experience three times more risk than non-Hispanic white survivors. To understand those differences, the researchers performed whole genome sequencing on the patients from the St. Jude LIFE cohort involved in this study, comparing the DNA of survivors that had type 2 diabetes to those that did not, divided by ancestry. Through this work, the team created a rich and rare trove of combined clinical and genetic data.

Ancestry affects type 2 diabetes risk in childhood cancer survivors

"The genetic risk disproportionately affected survivors of African or African American ancestry previously treated with alkylating agents," Sapkota said. "The same variant is implicated in both European and African-ancestry groups, but the amount of risk conferred by carrying the variant differs."

To address that disparity in greater detail, the scientists compared previously reported polygenic risk scores for diabetes in the general population. Earlier research used many genetic variants, considered as a group, to assess disease risk. However, these risk scores were traditionally derived from those of European descent. The researchers compared three risk scores, a traditional score based only on those of European descent and two others developed by including people of different ancestries. The more inclusive scores both performed better in survivors of both European and African ancestries.

"The two risk scores derived from multiple ancestries were strongly associated with type 2 diabetes risk in survivors of diverse ancestries compared to the score developed in European-only ancestry," Sapkota said.

Genetics amplify diabetes risk from alkylating agents in survivors

The research also suggested that another contributor to increased type 2 diabetes risk is exposure to alkylating agents, a class of chemotherapy commonly used in childhood cancer treatments.

"We saw very consistently, in three out of our four identified variants, and all of our polygenic risk scores, a significant increase in diabetes risk when survivors were exposed to alkylating agents during their initial treatment," Sapkota said. "So genetic factors in the presence of alkylating agents can significantly enhance type 2 diabetes risk."

The alkylating agent effect also had a greater impact on those of African ancestry. While the reasons for these differences in risk remain unclear, the study is a step in the right direction toward addressing them.

"We hope this information will help reduce disparities in the type 2 diabetes burden," Sapkota said. "Now we know how to identify childhood cancer survivors most at risk of type 2 diabetes so we can provide more personalized opportunities for interventions and prevent cardiovascular complications down the road."

Authors and funding

The study's first author is Cindy Im, University of Minnesota. The study's other co-senior author is Carmen Wilson, St. Jude. The study's other authors are Eric Chow, Fred Hutchinson Research Center; Sogol Mostoufi-Moab, Children's Hospital of Philadelphia; Tianzhong Yang, University of Minnesota; Melissa Richard, M. Monica Gramatges and Philip Lupo, Baylor College of Medicine; Noha Sharafeldin and Smita Bhatia, University of Alabama at Birmingham; Achal Neupane, Jessica Baedke, Brian Lenny, Angela Delaney, Stephanie Dixon, Gregory Armstrong, Melissa Hudson, Kirsten Ness, Leslie Robison and Yutaka Yasui, all of St. Jude.

The study was supported by grants from the National Cancer Institute (R21 CA261833, R01 CA261898, R01 CA216354, U01 CA195547, U24 CA55727, CA21765), Children's Cancer Research Fund and University of Minnesota Foundation Pediatric Scholar Award and ALSAC, the fundraising and awareness organization of St. Jude.

• Breast Cancer
• Personalized Medicine
• Colon Cancer
• Ovarian Cancer
• Wounds and Healing
• Diabetes mellitus type 1
• Diabetes mellitus type 2
• Diabetic diet
• Personalized medicine
• Hyperglycemia

Story Source:

Materials provided by St. Jude Children's Research Hospital . Note: Content may be edited for style and length.

Journal Reference :

• Cindy Im, Achal Neupane, Jessica L. Baedke, Brian Lenny, Angela Delaney, Stephanie B. Dixon, Eric J. Chow, Sogol Mostoufi-Moab, Tianzhong Yang, Melissa A. Richard, M. Monica Gramatges, Philip J. Lupo, Noha Sharafeldin, Smita Bhatia, Gregory T. Armstrong, Melissa M. Hudson, Kirsten K. Ness, Leslie L. Robison, Yutaka Yasui, Carmen L. Wilson, Yadav Sapkota. Trans-Ancestral Genetic Risk Factors for Treatment-Related Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus in Survivors of Childhood Cancer . Journal of Clinical Oncology , 2024; DOI: 10.1200/JCO.23.02281

Cite This Page :

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Living With Diabetes

Warning signs of diabetes, types of diabetes, type 1 vs type 2 diabetes, type 1 diabetes, type 1 diabetes causes, type 1 diabetes symptoms, is there a cure for type 1 diabetes, type 2 diabetes, type 2 diabetes treatment.

Educate teachers, school personnel and other child care providers about taking care of your child with type 1 diabetes. Download this helpful guide now.

Type 2 Diabetes is a serious condition which causes higher than normal blood sugar levels. It affects people from all social, economic, and ethnic backgrounds.

It is estimated that more than 34 million Americans have diabetes, including approximately 7 million who have the disease but have not yet been diagnosed. Worldwide, it is estimated that over 463 million people are living with some form of the disease.

Diabetes mellitus (type 2 diabetes), the medical term for the condition, occurs when the body cannot make or effectively use its own insulin, a hormone produced by special cells in the pancreas called islet (eye-let) cells. Insulin is like a key that opens the door of a cell so that food, or glucose, can enter. Without insulin, this glucose builds up in the blood and leads to starvation of the body’s cells, as well as dehydration and break down of body tissue.

There are multiple forms of diabetes. Type 2 diabetes is the most common form. Approximately 90 percent of those with diabetes have type 2. Unlike type 1 diabetes, in which all the insulin-producing cells are destroyed, people with type 2 diabetes are able to produce some of their own insulin, but their bodies are unable to use this insulin to completely control blood sugar levels. This is known as insulin resistance.

Who gets type 2 diabetes?

Type 2 diabetes usually develops after the age of 35, although it can occur in younger people as well, especially if they are overweight and have a sedentary lifestyle.

Commonly referred to as “adult onset” diabetes, 80% of those with this form of diabetes are overweight and have a family history of type 2 diabetes.

Certain ethnic groups have a higher risk of developing this form of the disease, including African Americans, Hispanics and American Indians. In addition, women who had diabetes during pregnancy (gestational diabetes) are also at greater risk of developing type 2 diabetes later in life.

What are the symptoms of type 2 diabetes?

Knowing the warning signs of type 2 diabetes is helpful for early diagnosis. Symptoms can include:

• Increased thirst
• Increased urination
• Unexplained weight loss
• Extreme hunger
• Extreme weakness or fatigue
• Blurred vision
• Infections which are slow or difficult to heal

The symptoms of type 2 diabetes usually happen over time, unlike the symptoms of type 1 diabetes which are sudden and often too severe to overlook. That’s why many people mistakenly overlook the warning signs of type 2, and often think the symptoms are signs of other conditions, such as aging, overworking, or hot weather. Because these symptoms are often ignored, it is estimated that more than seven million people in the United States have diabetes and are not aware of it.

Individuals who have undiagnosed or untreated diabetes for several years may develop some complications, such as nerve damage, pain or numbness in their hands and feet, or changes in their eyes or kidneys. People who are over 35, overweight, have a family history of diabetes, or who belong to a high-risk group should be checked at least once a year to detect diabetes at its earliest stages.

What is the treatment for type 2 diabetes?

The treatment for type 2 diabetes focuses on improving the person’s ability to more effectively use the insulin his/her own body produces to normalize blood sugar levels. A treatment program including diet, exercise, and weight loss will help decrease insulin resistance and, in turn, lower blood sugar levels. If blood sugar levels are still high, there are many medications which can help to either stimulate more insulin production in the pancreas or help the body better use the insulin it makes. Insulin injections may be needed if these oral medications, along with diet and exercise, do not lower blood sugar levels enough.

What are the problems associated with type 2 diabetes?

New advances in research and treatment methods are helping people with type 2 diabetes live full, active and healthy lives. However, it is important to remember that diabetes is a serious, chronic condition with potential short-term and long-term complications. Frequent self-monitoring of blood sugar levels and carefully following an individualized meal and exercise program is a good course of action.

People with undiagnosed, untreated or long-term diabetes are at risk of developing complications, including nerve and blood vessel damage. These potential complications, which can affect the eyes, kidneys, limbs, heart, brain, and stomach, may occur after many years of living with diabetes. Early detection, improved medications, and new technologies may help prevent or minimize diabetes-related complications.

Can type 2 diabetes be prevented?

The key to success is in preventing pre-diabetes and type 2 diabetes. Identifying risk means asking yourself the following key questions:

• Am I aged 35 years or older?
• Am I overweight?
• Do I have high blood pressure or cholesterol?
• Do I have a family history of diabetes?
• Am I African American, Hispanic, American Indian or Asian?
• Do I have a history of diabetes occurring during pregnancy?
• Did I deliver a baby weighing more than 9 pounds?

If you answered “yes” to any of these questions, then you should make an appointment with your physician to be screened. To lower your risk of pre-diabetes and type 2 diabetes try the following:

• Look for opportunities to move more during the day
• Exercise 30 minutes at least five times per week
• Eat a healthy meal plan including grains, cereals, fresh fruit and vegetables, low fat dairy and lean meat
• Reduce fat intake
• Reduce food portions
• Maintain an ideal body weight

Get more answers to your questions about type 1 diabetes, type 2 diabetes and gestational diabetes symptoms and treatments. (In Spanish: ¿Que es La Diabetes?).

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• Research Questions: Definitions, Types + [Examples]

Research questions lie at the core of systematic investigation and this is because recording accurate research outcomes is tied to asking the right questions. Asking the right questions when conducting research can help you collect relevant and insightful information that ultimately influences your work, positively. 

The right research questions are typically easy to understand, straight to the point, and engaging. In this article, we will share tips on how to create the right research questions and also show you how to create and administer an online questionnaire with Formplus . 

What is a Research Question? 

A research question is a specific inquiry which the research seeks to provide a response to. It resides at the core of systematic investigation and it helps you to clearly define a path for the research process. 

A research question is usually the first step in any research project. Basically, it is the primary interrogation point of your research and it sets the pace for your work.  

Typically, a research question focuses on the research, determines the methodology and hypothesis, and guides all stages of inquiry, analysis, and reporting. With the right research questions, you will be able to gather useful information for your investigation. 

Types of Research Questions 

Research questions are broadly categorized into 2; that is, qualitative research questions and quantitative research questions. Qualitative and quantitative research questions can be used independently and co-dependently in line with the overall focus and objectives of your research. 

If your research aims at collecting quantifiable data , you will need to make use of quantitative research questions. On the other hand, qualitative questions help you to gather qualitative data bothering on the perceptions and observations of your research subjects. 

Qualitative Research Questions  

A qualitative research question is a type of systematic inquiry that aims at collecting qualitative data from research subjects. The aim of qualitative research questions is to gather non-statistical information pertaining to the experiences, observations, and perceptions of the research subjects in line with the objectives of the investigation. 

Types of Qualitative Research Questions  

• Ethnographic Research Questions

As the name clearly suggests, ethnographic research questions are inquiries presented in ethnographic research. Ethnographic research is a qualitative research approach that involves observing variables in their natural environments or habitats in order to arrive at objective research outcomes. 

These research questions help the researcher to gather insights into the habits, dispositions, perceptions, and behaviors of research subjects as they interact in specific environments. 

Ethnographic research questions can be used in education, business, medicine, and other fields of study, and they are very useful in contexts aimed at collecting in-depth and specific information that are peculiar to research variables. For instance, asking educational ethnographic research questions can help you understand how pedagogy affects classroom relations and behaviors. 

This type of research question can be administered physically through one-on-one interviews, naturalism (live and work), and participant observation methods. Alternatively, the researcher can ask ethnographic research questions via online surveys and questionnaires created with Formplus.  

Examples of Ethnographic Research Questions

• Why do you use this product?
• Have you noticed any side effects since you started using this drug?
• Does this product meet your needs?

• Case Studies

A case study is a qualitative research approach that involves carrying out a detailed investigation into a research subject(s) or variable(s). In the course of a case study, the researcher gathers a range of data from multiple sources of information via different data collection methods, and over a period of time. 

The aim of a case study is to analyze specific issues within definite contexts and arrive at detailed research subject analyses by asking the right questions. This research method can be explanatory, descriptive , or exploratory depending on the focus of your systematic investigation or research. 

An explanatory case study is one that seeks to gather information on the causes of real-life occurrences. This type of case study uses “how” and “why” questions in order to gather valid information about the causative factors of an event. 

Descriptive case studies are typically used in business researches, and they aim at analyzing the impact of changing market dynamics on businesses. On the other hand, exploratory case studies aim at providing answers to “who” and “what” questions using data collection tools like interviews and questionnaires. 

Some questions you can include in your case studies are: 

• Why did you choose our services?
• How has this policy affected your business output?
• What benefits have you recorded since you started using our product?

An interview is a qualitative research method that involves asking respondents a series of questions in order to gather information about a research subject. Interview questions can be close-ended or open-ended , and they prompt participants to provide valid information that is useful to the research. 

An interview may also be structured, semi-structured , or unstructured , and this further influences the types of questions they include. Structured interviews are made up of more close-ended questions because they aim at gathering quantitative data while unstructured interviews consist, primarily, of open-ended questions that allow the researcher to collect qualitative information from respondents. 

You can conduct interview research by scheduling a physical meeting with respondents, through a telephone conversation, and via digital media and video conferencing platforms like Skype and Zoom. Alternatively, you can use Formplus surveys and questionnaires for your interview. 

Examples of interview questions include: 

• What challenges did you face while using our product?
• What specific needs did our product meet?
• What would you like us to improve our service delivery?

Quantitative Research Questions

Quantitative research questions are questions that are used to gather quantifiable data from research subjects. These types of research questions are usually more specific and direct because they aim at collecting information that can be measured; that is, statistical information. 

Types of Quantitative Research Questions

• Descriptive Research Questions

Descriptive research questions are inquiries that researchers use to gather quantifiable data about the attributes and characteristics of research subjects. These types of questions primarily seek responses that reveal existing patterns in the nature of the research subjects. 

It is important to note that descriptive research questions are not concerned with the causative factors of the discovered attributes and characteristics. Rather, they focus on the “what”; that is, describing the subject of the research without paying attention to the reasons for its occurrence. 

Descriptive research questions are typically closed-ended because they aim at gathering definite and specific responses from research participants. Also, they can be used in customer experience surveys and market research to collect information about target markets and consumer behaviors. 

Descriptive Research Question Examples

• How often do you make use of our fitness application?
• How much would you be willing to pay for this product?

• Comparative Research Questions

A comparative research question is a type of quantitative research question that is used to gather information about the differences between two or more research subjects across different variables. These types of questions help the researcher to identify distinct features that mark one research subject from the other while highlighting existing similarities. 

Asking comparative research questions in market research surveys can provide insights on how your product or service matches its competitors. In addition, it can help you to identify the strengths and weaknesses of your product for a better competitive advantage.  

The 5 steps involved in the framing of comparative research questions are: 

• Choose your starting phrase
• Identify and name the dependent variable
• Identify the groups you are interested in
• Identify the appropriate adjoining text
• Write out the comparative research question

Comparative Research Question Samples 

• What are the differences between a landline telephone and a smartphone?
• What are the differences between work-from-home and on-site operations?

• Relationship-based Research Questions  

Just like the name suggests, a relationship-based research question is one that inquires into the nature of the association between two research subjects within the same demographic. These types of research questions help you to gather information pertaining to the nature of the association between two research variables. 

Relationship-based research questions are also known as correlational research questions because they seek to clearly identify the link between 2 variables. 

Read: Correlational Research Designs: Types, Examples & Methods

Examples of relationship-based research questions include: 

• What is the relationship between purchasing power and the business site?
• What is the relationship between the work environment and workforce turnover?

Examples of a Good Research Question

Since research questions lie at the core of any systematic investigations, it is important to know how to frame a good research question. The right research questions will help you to gather the most objective responses that are useful to your systematic investigation. 

A good research question is one that requires impartial responses and can be answered via existing sources of information. Also, a good research question seeks answers that actively contribute to a body of knowledge; hence, it is a question that is yet to be answered in your specific research context.

• Open-Ended Questions

 An open-ended question is a type of research question that does not restrict respondents to a set of premeditated answer options. In other words, it is a question that allows the respondent to freely express his or her perceptions and feelings towards the research subject. 

Examples of Open-ended Questions

• How do you deal with stress in the workplace?
• What is a typical day at work like for you?
• Close-ended Questions

A close-ended question is a type of survey question that restricts respondents to a set of predetermined answers such as multiple-choice questions . Close-ended questions typically require yes or no answers and are commonly used in quantitative research to gather numerical data from research participants. 

Examples of Close-ended Questions

• Did you enjoy this event?
• How likely are you to recommend our services?
• Very Likely
• Somewhat Likely
• Likert Scale Questions

A Likert scale question is a type of close-ended question that is structured as a 3-point, 5-point, or 7-point psychometric scale . This type of question is used to measure the survey respondent’s disposition towards multiple variables and it can be unipolar or bipolar in nature. 

Example of Likert Scale Questions

• How satisfied are you with our service delivery?
• Very dissatisfied
• Not satisfied
• Very satisfied
• Rating Scale Questions

A rating scale question is a type of close-ended question that seeks to associate a specific qualitative measure (rating) with the different variables in research. It is commonly used in customer experience surveys, market research surveys, employee reviews, and product evaluations. 

Example of Rating Questions

• How would you rate our service delivery?

  Examples of a Bad Research Question

Knowing what bad research questions are would help you avoid them in the course of your systematic investigation. These types of questions are usually unfocused and often result in research biases that can negatively impact the outcomes of your systematic investigation. 

• Loaded Questions

A loaded question is a question that subtly presupposes one or more unverified assumptions about the research subject or participant. This type of question typically boxes the respondent in a corner because it suggests implicit and explicit biases that prevent objective responses. 

Example of Loaded Questions

• Have you stopped smoking?
• Where did you hide the money?
• Negative Questions

A negative question is a type of question that is structured with an implicit or explicit negator. Negative questions can be misleading because they upturn the typical yes/no response order by requiring a negative answer for affirmation and an affirmative answer for negation. 

Examples of Negative Questions

• Would you mind dropping by my office later today?
• Didn’t you visit last week?
• Leading Questions  

A l eading question is a type of survey question that nudges the respondent towards an already-determined answer. It is highly suggestive in nature and typically consists of biases and unverified assumptions that point toward its premeditated responses. 

Examples of Leading Questions

• If you enjoyed this service, would you be willing to try out our other packages?
• Our product met your needs, didn’t it?

Read More: Leading Questions: Definition, Types, and Examples

How to Use Formplus as Online Research Questionnaire Tool  

With Formplus, you can create and administer your online research questionnaire easily. In the form builder, you can add different form fields to your questionnaire and edit these fields to reflect specific research questions for your systematic investigation. 

Here is a step-by-step guide on how to create an online research questionnaire with Formplus: 

• Sign in to your Formplus accoun t, then click on the “create new form” button in your dashboard to access the Form builder.

• In the form builder, add preferred form fields to your online research questionnaire by dragging and dropping them into the form. Add a title to your form in the title block. You can edit form fields by clicking on the “pencil” icon on the right corner of each form field.

• Save the form to access the customization section of the builder. Here, you can tweak the appearance of your online research questionnaire by adding background images, changing the form font, and adding your organization’s logo.

• Finally, copy your form link and share it with respondents. You can also use any of the multiple sharing options available.

Conclusion  

The success of your research starts with framing the right questions to help you collect the most valid and objective responses. Be sure to avoid bad research questions like loaded and negative questions that can be misleading and adversely affect your research data and outcomes. 

Your research questions should clearly reflect the aims and objectives of your systematic investigation while laying emphasis on specific contexts. To help you seamlessly gather responses for your research questions, you can create an online research questionnaire on Formplus.  

Connect to Formplus, Get Started Now - It's Free!

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A Qualitative Study of How Patients with Type 2 Diabetes Use an Electronic Stand-Alone Personal Health Record

Kevin t. fuji.

1 Center for Health Services Research and Patient Safety, Creighton University, Omaha, Nebraska.

2 Department of Pharmacy Practice, School of Pharmacy and Health Professions, Creighton University, Omaha, Nebraska.

Amy A. Abbott

3 College of Nursing, Creighton University, Omaha, Nebraska.

Kimberly A. Galt

4 Department of Pharmacy Sciences, Creighton University, Omaha, Nebraska.

5 School of Dentistry, Creighton University, Omaha, Nebraska.

Background: Patient use of personal health records (PHRs) to manage their health information has been proposed to enhance patient knowledge and empower patients to make changes in their self-care behaviors. However, there remains a gap in understanding about patients' actual PHR use behaviors. The purpose of this qualitative study was to explore how patients with type 2 diabetes used a PHR to manage their diabetes-related health information for self-care. Materials and Methods: Fifty-nine patients with type 2 diabetes were interviewed 3–6 months after receiving initial training on a free-of-charge, Web-based PHR. Interviews were audio-recorded, transcribed, and analyzed using an iterative process of in vivo coding, categorization, and theme development. Results: Nine themes emerged, three of which expressed positive experiences: complete and accessible record; increased awareness; and behavioral changes. The remaining six themes expressed negative experiences: out of sight, out of mind; I would have used it if I were sicker; economic, infrastructure, and computer literacy barriers; lack of patient–provider engagement; double tracking; and privacy and security concerns. Conclusions: Despite some potential positive benefits resulting from PHR use, several barriers inhibited sustained and effective use over time. Provider and patient education about the benefits of PHR use and about the potential for filling in information gaps in the provider-based record is key to engage patients and stimulate PHR adoption and use.

Introduction

There are 18.8 million Americans currently diagnosed with diabetes, making the disease the seventh leading cause of death in the United States, as well as the leading cause of kidney failure, nontraumatic lower-limb amputations, and new cases of blindness. 1 By 2021, approximately 40.3 million Americans (15.4% of the population) are projected to have diabetes, with annual healthcare spending for the disease increasing from $206 billion to $512 billion. 1 Despite the established efficacy of various approaches designed to manage diabetes, only 18.8% of patients reach treatment goals for blood glucose, blood pressure, and cholesterol established by the American Diabetes Association. 2

The use of health information technology such as online patient portals and personal health records (PHRs) by patients has been recognized as a strategy to facilitate improvements in diabetes self-management and achieve treatment goals. 3–5 The use of these technologies has been proposed to help patients better manage their medical conditions, enhance patient health knowledge, and empower patients to become partners in decision-making with their providers, ultimately leading to better health outcomes. 6–8

PHRs are a prominent patient-centered health information technology. They have been defined as “an electronic, universally available, lifelong resource of health information needed by individuals to make health decisions. Individuals own and manage the information in the PHR. Health information is generated by the individual owner of the PHR and may also be sourced from the various medical records of the individual's health care providers. The PHR is maintained in a secure and private environment with the individual determining rights of access. The PHR is separate from and does not replace the legal record of any provider.” 9 PHRs can serve as a complete record of health information that is portable and accessible to the patient regardless of geographic location. 7 , 10

The promise of PHRs holds particular value for patients with chronic conditions such as diabetes, who have complex health needs, take multiple medications, and perform a variety of self-care behaviors to manage their condition(s). 7 , 11 However, it is estimated that only 10% of consumers in the United States are using a PHR. 12 To date, five studies have examined the use of a PHR (either alone or in combination with other interventions) and its impact on diabetes clinical outcomes. 13–17 The studies demonstrated mixed results, ranging from no impact of the PHR on glycosylated hemoglobin (HbA1c) levels to statistically significant changes in HbA1c levels; however, there was no way to determine if the PHR component of the intervention was what caused the change.

This early phase of PHR adoption presents an opportunity to better understand the perceived value and challenges of PHR use from actual users. 11 There are few prospective studies designed to identify factors leading to sustained PHR use or barriers that lead to ineffective use or nonuse. 8 , 11 , 18 , 19 To address this current knowledge gap, the purpose of this study was to explore how patients with type 2 diabetes used a PHR to manage their diabetes-related health information for self-care.

Materials and Methods

This was a qualitative study guided by a conventional content analysis approach, a common framework used when knowledge gaps remain about a specific topic. 20 Seventy-two participants received hands-on training for using a PHR to manage their diabetes-related health information and were tracked for 3–6 months, corresponding to typical intervals between diabetes-care visits. 21 This study was reviewed and approved by the university's Institutional Review Board (IRB protocol number 09-15470, approved August 2009).

Participant Recruitment

Patients were recruited from two internal medicine clinics and an endocrinology clinic in a Midwest metropolitan city. All of the clinics were part of the same academic medical practice. Medical record review was used to identify patients meeting the inclusion criteria: a diagnosis of type 2 diabetes with an HbA1c value of ≥6.0%, no concurrent diagnosis of impaired cognitive function (e.g., dementia), English speaking, and self-reported access to a computer and comfort with using a computer. Eligible patients were contacted via telephone a week before their next scheduled appointment and had the study explained to them. Patients who indicated interest in participating were asked to come a half-hour early to their appointment in order to obtain informed consent. At the visit, the study was again explained to patients, and those indicating continued interest were consented. Although all prescribers at each of the clinics were notified of the study, only the researchers and research assistants obtained informed consent.

PHR Selection

Microsoft (Redmond, WA) HealthVault © was used as the study PHR. It is an online stand-alone PHR that is available free of charge and was determined to have the greatest number of features patients desired in a PHR based upon previous published studies about PHR use. These features included the ability to do the following: share health information with others; receive feedback based on the entered health information; have information presented in layman's terms; have health information be private and secure; have e-mail or secure messaging with healthcare providers built-in to the PHR; have interoperability with providers' health records; print out the information in the PHR; create new sections in the PHR for health-related information such as indicating an individual is an organ donor; customize the visual appearance of the PHR; restrict access to specified parts of the PHR; and have personalized support based on individual needs. 22

PHR Training

An instruction manual was created to guide PHR training and was provided to participants post-training. It included PHR screenshots with accompanying written instructions guiding users through the process of signing up for the PHR and using it to maintain diabetes-related health information. During training, the participant controlled a laptop computer while a researcher/research assistant provided instruction on using the PHR. Although the PHR supported data entry for several laboratory values and the creation of additional data fields as needed, participants were only required to demonstrate the ability to enter the following diabetes-related information: birth date, height, weight, medical condition(s), medication(s), blood glucose level, blood pressure, HbA1c, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, and dates of last eye and foot exams. Each of the required pieces of information contained dedicated subfields allowing participants to indicate a date and time (e.g., when a medication was started, when a medical exam was conducted, when a laboratory value was recorded). Additional information such as a high blood glucose value that may have been due to the patient forgetting to take his or her diabetes medications could be recorded via a free-text subfield. During training, field notes were recorded about difficulties participants experienced or comments that provided insight into their attitude and behaviors toward diabetes self-care. Participants were not required to use the PHR in any specific way but were given instructions to use it as needed for self-management. Participants were provided with the study director's office phone number and e-mail address and were directed to contact him if they had any questions or needed any assistance with the PHR.

Data Collection

All participants were interviewed at their follow-up visit 3–6 months after PHR training using an interview protocol designed to explore participants' use of the PHR. This purposeful sampling procedure ensured that the researchers would achieve data saturation. 23 , 24 The central question guiding the interview was “How have you used the PHR to manage your diabetes-related health information?” Questions were specifically designed to gain a deeper understanding of the following topics: what the PHR was used for; how it fit into the participant's life; the most useful aspects of the PHR; barriers to PHR use and strategies used to overcome these barriers; how PHR use changed diabetes self-care; how PHR use changed the relationship with their diabetes care provider; and how PHR use changed their tracking and management of health information. Interviews were conducted in-person after the participants' follow-up visit or via telephone if the participant was unavailable immediately after his or her visit. Each interview took approximately 15–20 min. Field notes were taken during each interview to provide clarity of context for participants' comments. Interviews were audio-recorded, transcribed, and reviewed for accuracy by the interviewer. All data were de-identified prior to analysis.

Data Analysis

An iterative approach was used to analyze the data, beginning with multiple readings through each transcript to immerse the researcher in the data and gain an overarching perspective of participants' responses. 20 Data immersion allowed the researchers to engage in a reflexive process: reflecting on their own backgrounds and beliefs that could potentially bias interpretation of participant interviews and to gain awareness of these biases during the data analysis and interpretation. 25 This was followed by individual coding of each transcript to identify key concepts. Memoing and in vivo coding procedures were used to maintain the integrity of the participants' own words and experiences. 26 During this coding process each researcher referred to field notes from both the PHR training and the participant's interview to gain additional context beyond the information available solely in the transcripts. Researchers' thoughts and insights were captured in notes made in the transcript margins next to each code and used for further refinement. Once coding was complete, codes capturing similar ideas were grouped together to develop categories centered on participants' use of the PHR to manage their diabetes-related health information. The researchers met to compare categories and resolve differences in interpretation of coding leading to category formation. The researchers examined and discussed the relationships between the different categories using the central research question as a guiding framework for discussion. This discussion resulted in the emergence of themes, identification of meaningful quotes representative of each theme, and the confirmation that data saturation was achieved.

Fifty-nine of 72 participants completed interviews. Six participants did not return for a follow-up visit with their diabetes care provider during the study period and could not be reached. Seven participants asked to be excluded from the study. The remaining 59 participants were on average 59 years old (range, 28–80 years), had their initial diagnosis of diabetes 13 years ago (range, 1–38 years), were 61% female ( n =36), and were 71% white/Caucasian ( n =42), and all were at least high school graduates (37% had a bachelor's degree or higher levels of education). Twenty-three of the 59 participants (39%) were still using the PHR at follow-up. Overall, participants reported mixed experiences with the PHR. Although participants acknowledged that the PHR can be a useful tool, many practical aspects of use outweighed potential benefits. Nine themes emerged from the data analysis, organized according to participants' positive and negative experiences with the PHR.

Positive Experiences

Complete and accessible record.

Participants valued the PHR as a self-maintained, self-controlled complete record of their health information. Participants described using the PHR as a “personal data vault” and a “general overall record of my health.” This was helpful for participants who were not previously tracking their health information or for those only using their memory to remember their health information. Even for individuals already using other tracking tools, the PHR facilitated tracking additional types of health information, for example, maintaining use of their glucometer for daily blood glucose readings and using the PHR for yearly laboratory tests (e.g., lipids).

Participants also valued having their health information in one location accessible anywhere with Internet connectivity, both for emergency situations and being able to share it with their healthcare providers. As one participant stated, “if something happens and I needed medical records, now they can get it,” and another noted that “if I come in and they want to see what my history is then it's easy to get into a computer and bring it up.”

Increased awareness

PHR use increased participants' awareness of changes in their blood glucose readings. The ability to graph blood glucose readings within the PHR allowed participants to see long-term cause and effect better than on paper or a glucometer, illustrated by one participant sharing, “I like that I can track my glucose level and I can see what I've been doing and if food is what was causing me to have highs or lows.”

Behavioral changes

PHR use highlighted areas for self-care improvement, which led some participants to make behavioral changes. One participant shared that “it allowed me to adjust my insulin because if it [blood glucose levels] was too low then I wouldn't take as much.” Using the PHR led several participants to exercise more and lose weight, led one participant to begin monitoring her blood pressure, and another to “check my sugars more like I'm supposed to.”

Negative Experiences

Out of sight, out of mind.

Participants shared a wide range of issues that limited opportunities to engage with the PHR, including personal illness, family and work responsibilities, temporary residential displacement, and traveling. These issues were major barriers to PHR use, resulting in participants forgetting their usernames or passwords and leading to nonuse. For most participants the PHR was not viewed as a crucial tool in their daily self-management of diabetes; as one participant expressed, “I never got into the habit of doing it. It was out of sight, out of mind.”

I would have used it if I were sicker

Some participants who were adequately managing their diabetes care believed the PHR was not needed because of their positive health status. As one person shared, “my A1c has been steady. So I didn't feel like I really needed to use it as often…that wasn't particularly useful for me.” Another participant believed he would have used the PHR if he was uncontrolled and/or needed to check his blood sugars more frequently: “I could see if I was trying to see trend lines, like if I did glucose daily or multiple times during the day.”

Economic, infrastructure, and computer literacy barriers

Economic barriers inhibited PHR use, including cost of Internet access and computer hardware problems. One participant shared that he “got rid of my computer service [Internet access] because I couldn't afford it.” Other participants had their computer break down and did not have the financial resources to fix or replace it. Participants also lacked alternate means of computer access if their primary access was unavailable (e.g., if their home computer broke, they could not use a work computer for personal use). Even for participants with consistent access to a working computer, unstable Internet connectivity or slow speeds were barriers to PHR use. One participant faced unreliable Internet connections at the public library, whereas another participant lived in a rural area with only a dial-up connection. Finally, despite asking participants to self-identify being comfortable using a computer, issues related to computer literacy were expressed, exemplified by the comment, “I'm not a computer person so for me to get on to it, it took a while.”

Lack of patient–provider engagement with the PHR

Most participants did not share the PHR with their physician. Participants perceived that the “doctor already has all my information.” Additionally, although all clinic providers were informed of their patients' participation in the study, no participant discussed his or her provider asking to see the PHR or wanting to view it when asked by the participant.

Double tracking

Participants still used other mechanisms for tracking health information, including their memory, printouts, handwritten records, a Microsoft Excel™ spreadsheet, and their glucometer. Participants were comfortable with their existing mechanisms, so what was typical for the patient did not change with the introduction of the PHR. For example, one patient used the PHR but maintained use of his Excel file because “being able to average and get my blood sugars in Excel is what I am used to.” Participants noted that using the PHR takes an “additional step” (i.e., logging in) and contrasted it negatively with other record-keeping mechanisms, illustrated by a participant who stated, “just give me a piece of paper and I can write it down.”

Privacy and security concerns

Few participants voiced concerns about the privacy and security of information maintained in the PHR. For those who did, concerns ranged from personal fears to technical questions. One participant shared, “I'm a private person and dislike my entire life being recorded on some electronic device.” Another participant wondered if the PHR “is adequately secure enough, because it's in the cloud and I'm always a little worried. Are the insurance companies watching or how secure is it? Those are part of my concerns.”

Three primary benefits of PHR use emerged in this study: developing a complete and accessible record of health information, enhancing awareness of patients' diabetes management, and stimulating behavioral changes, thus achieving some of the promise inherent in PHR use. The PHR also helped patients at different levels of self-care engagement, from those who previously had not tracked their health information to patients who did so regularly. The PHR did not replace existing record-keeping tools, as some participants either double-tracked their information or used the PHR as a supplementary record (e.g., to track yearly laboratory values while using other mechanisms to track daily blood glucose levels).

However, many barriers continue to inhibit sustained and effective PHR use. Several barriers cannot be easily addressed (e.g., personal illness or temporary residential displacement), nor can infrastructure issues such as slow public Internet speeds or lack of high-speed Internet access in rural areas. Instead, focus should be placed on addressing barriers that can be overcome. There is a clear need for the PHR to be integrated into patients' typical self-care routines in order to sustain use over time. A strong patient–provider relationship has been associated with PHR adoption, and provider support may also help patients integrate PHR use into their self-care behaviors. 27 Yet the PHR has not engaged providers to a great degree. Prior research has revealed that 25% of physicians did not know about PHRs, and 60% did not know if their patients used a PHR. 28 Patients in this study indicated that their providers did not show interest in viewing the PHR. This is consistent with prior research indicating only 42% of physicians were willing to use a PHR in their practice. 29

For the PHR to add value to care delivery, providers must become more educated about the PHR and promote its use as a tool in patients' diabetes self-care. Providers should consider integrating the set-up of a PHR into diabetes education programs. Having a complete and accessible record and increasing awareness of the impact of self-care on clinical outcomes are valuable not only for patients who are uncontrolled and not achieving their diabetes goals, but also for patients who are adequately controlled or perceive not needing an additional care tool. Providers should also help patients understand that use of the PHR can yield a more complete picture of a patient and allow for more fully informed medical decision-making. 30 , 31 Given the fact that not all electronic health record systems are interoperable, providers still possess an incomplete picture of the patient; these are information gaps that the PHR can help fill. 32

Increased provider engagement can also address economic barriers for patients. Using strategies such as providing access to computers in physician offices for patients to use can help lower these economic barriers to PHR use and allow patients who may otherwise be affected by the digital divide to engage with this tool.

Security and privacy concerns were rarely discussed by participants despite being identified in the literature as a potentially large barrier to PHR use. 11 , 33 , 34 Although the following is unlikely because of participants' high educational levels, participants in this study may not have expressed concern owing to a lack of knowledge about the potential for security and privacy issues with a stand-alone PHR. Alternatively, participants may simply be willing to accept security and privacy risks for the potential positive gains resulting from PHR use. Further exploration is needed to better understand what prompts security and privacy concerns by patients and how these concerns can be addressed.

Understanding the potential PHRs have for facilitating patient knowledge gains and engagement in self-care, addressing accessibility issues inherent in technology use, and educating providers about the benefits of PHR use are crucial for enhancing adoption and effective use of PHRs.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank Ms. Heather Jensen for her assistance in data collection. This project was supported by grant R24HS018625 from the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality.

Disclosure Statement

No competing financial interests exist.

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Types of Research Questions With Examples

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Research papers are source-based explanations of a topic, event, or phenomenon. The two methodologies of research, known as qualitative and quantitative research, explore topics with different objectives. The methodology you choose will determine which types of questions you ask before, during, and after the research process.

Qualitative Research vs. Quantitative Research

When coming up with a question for your next research project, consider what you want to know. If you’re inquiring about meaning and experience, you’re using qualitative research.

If you want to use empirical evidence to explain an occurrence, quantitative research is your process. These types of research are useful in scientific, marketing, historical, and psychological studies.

Qualitative Research Question Types

Because qualitative research is more concerned with understanding an event or phenomenon, its open-ended research questions focus more on a group’s experience than on statistics or numbers.

Qualitative research is primarily used in social sciences and includes surveys, case studies, focus groups, and ethnography studies. Here are the three types of qualitative questions for both research topics and survey questions.

Exploratory Questions

Questions that are designed to understand more about a topic are exploratory questions. The objective of asking an exploratory question is to learn more about a topic without attributing bias or preconceived notions to it.

Research Topic Example #1: What is the effect of personal technology on today’s youth? Survey Question: Do you feel that personal technology has positively or negatively affected you? Research Topic Example #2: How do students at our school spend their weekends? Survey Question: What do you do on a typical weekend?

Predictive Questions

If you’re wondering about the future outcome of an action, you’ll use predictive questions. These types of questions use past information to predict reactions to hypothetical events.

Research Topic Example #1: Are people more likely to buy a product after a celebrity promotes it? Survey Question: Would you ever try a new product because a celebrity you respect said that it worked for them? Research Topic Example #2: Would people in our town enjoy an ice-skating rink? Survey Question: How often would you visit a local ice-skating rink?

Interpretive Questions

Interpretive research studies people in their natural settings. They interpret how a group makes sense of shared experiences and attributes meaning to various phenomena. These studies gather feedback on a group’s behavior without affecting the outcome.

Research Topic Example #1: How do preschoolers in a play-based program handle transitions between activities? Survey Question: How do you feel when it’s time to put your toys away and start the next activity? Research Topic Example #2: What is the historical significance of currency to the Lakota Nation? Survey Question: How do you attribute value to a good or service?

Quantitative Research Question Types

Using measurable data answers a new set of research questions. These types of quantitative research questions prove or disprove a researcher’s hypothesis through descriptions, comparisons, and relationships. Quantitative research questions are beneficial when choosing a research topic or when posing follow-up questions that gather more information.

Descriptive Questions

As the most basic type of quantitative research question, descriptive questions seek to explain when, where, why, or how something occurred. They use data and statistics to describe an event or phenomenon.

Research Topic Example #1: What percentage of college students have felt depressed in the last year? Follow-Up Question: How often do students report their feelings of depression? Research Topic Example #2: How likely is it for mice with dominant traits to have offspring with recessive traits? Follow-Up Question: How many generations of genes influence a future generation?

Comparative Questions

Sometimes it’s beneficial to compare one occurrence with another. Comparative questions are especially helpful when studying groups with dependent variables .

Research Topic Example #1: Why is it easier for men to lose weight than it is for women? Follow-Up Question: Do men and women have comparable metabolisms? Research Topic Example #2: Which painkiller is more effective for headaches? Follow-Up Question: Do Advil and Tylenol target pain in the same way?

Relationship-Based Questions

If you’d like to know how one variable affects or influences another, use a relationship-based question. These questions are common in quasi-experimental and experimental studies .

Research Topic Example #1: How does the number of drought days in a year affect a region’s likelihood for wildfires? Follow-Up Question: What conditions are needed for a wildfire to become uncontrollable? Research Topic Example #2: Do high school grades have an impact on future success? Follow-Up Question: What are the relevant factors that affect one’s grades in high school?

More Research Topics

Still curious about the research process? Learn more about writing a research paper and determine the difference between good and bad research questions . You can also check out a list of research topics that may be better to avoid when writing a paper.

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There are three basic types of questions that research projects can address:

• Descriptive. When a study is designed primarily to describe what is going on or what exists. Public opinion polls that seek only to describe the proportion of people who hold various opinions are primarily descriptive in nature. For instance, if we want to know what percent of the population would vote for a Democratic or a Republican in the next presidential election, we are simply interested in describing something.
• Relational. When a study is designed to look at the relationships between two or more variables. A public opinion poll that compares what proportion of males and females say they would vote for a Democratic or a Republican candidate in the next presidential election is essentially studying the relationship between gender and voting preference.
• Causal. When a study is designed to determine whether one or more variables (e.g. a program or treatment variable) causes or affects one or more outcome variables. If we did a public opinion poll to try to determine whether a recent political advertising campaign changed voter preferences, we would essentially be studying whether the campaign (cause) changed the proportion of voters who would vote Democratic or Republican (effect).

The three question types can be viewed as cumulative. That is, a relational study assumes that you can first describe (by measuring or observing) each of the variables you are trying to relate. And, a causal study assumes that you can describe both the cause and effect variables and that you can show that they are related to each other. Causal studies are probably the most demanding of the three.

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How to Develop a Good Research Question? — Types & Examples

Cecilia is living through a tough situation in her research life. Figuring out where to begin, how to start her research study, and how to pose the right question for her research quest, is driving her insane. Well, questions, if not asked correctly, have a tendency to spiral us!

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Questions lead everyone to answers. Research is a quest to find answers. Not the vague questions that Cecilia means to answer, but definitely more focused questions that define your research. Therefore, asking appropriate question becomes an important matter of discussion.

A well begun research process requires a strong research question. It directs the research investigation and provides a clear goal to focus on. Understanding the characteristics of comprising a good research question will generate new ideas and help you discover new methods in research.

In this article, we are aiming to help researchers understand what is a research question and how to write one with examples.

Table of Contents

What Is a Research Question?

A good research question defines your study and helps you seek an answer to your research. Moreover, a clear research question guides the research paper or thesis to define exactly what you want to find out, giving your work its objective. Learning to write a research question is the beginning to any thesis, dissertation , or research paper. Furthermore, the question addresses issues or problems which is answered through analysis and interpretation of data.

Why Is a Research Question Important?

A strong research question guides the design of a study. Moreover, it helps determine the type of research and identify specific objectives. Research questions state the specific issue you are addressing and focus on outcomes of the research for individuals to learn. Therefore, it helps break up the study into easy steps to complete the objectives and answer the initial question.

Types of Research Questions

Research questions can be categorized into different types, depending on the type of research you want to undergo. Furthermore, knowing the type of research will help a researcher determine the best type of research question to use.

1. Qualitative Research Question

Qualitative questions concern broad areas or more specific areas of research. However, unlike quantitative questions, qualitative research questions are adaptable, non-directional and more flexible. Qualitative research question focus on discovering, explaining, elucidating, and exploring.

i. Exploratory Questions

This form of question looks to understand something without influencing the results. The objective of exploratory questions is to learn more about a topic without attributing bias or preconceived notions to it.

Research Question Example: Asking how a chemical is used or perceptions around a certain topic.

ii. Predictive Questions

Predictive research questions are defined as survey questions that automatically predict the best possible response options based on text of the question. Moreover, these questions seek to understand the intent or future outcome surrounding a topic.

Research Question Example: Asking why a consumer behaves in a certain way or chooses a certain option over other.

iii. Interpretive Questions

This type of research question allows the study of people in the natural setting. The questions help understand how a group makes sense of shared experiences with regards to various phenomena. These studies gather feedback on a group’s behavior without affecting the outcome.

Research Question Example: How do you feel about AI assisting publishing process in your research?

2. Quantitative Research Question

Quantitative questions prove or disprove a researcher’s hypothesis through descriptions, comparisons, and relationships. These questions are beneficial when choosing a research topic or when posing follow-up questions that garner more information.

i. Descriptive Questions

It is the most basic type of quantitative research question and it seeks to explain when, where, why, or how something occurred. Moreover, they use data and statistics to describe an event or phenomenon.

Research Question Example: How many generations of genes influence a future generation?

ii. Comparative Questions

Sometimes it’s beneficial to compare one occurrence with another. Therefore, comparative questions are helpful when studying groups with dependent variables.

Example: Do men and women have comparable metabolisms?

iii. Relationship-Based Questions

This type of research question answers influence of one variable on another. Therefore, experimental studies use this type of research questions are majorly.

Example: How is drought condition affect a region’s probability for wildfires.  

How to Write a Good Research Question?

1. Select a Topic

The first step towards writing a good research question is to choose a broad topic of research. You could choose a research topic that interests you, because the complete research will progress further from the research question. Therefore, make sure to choose a topic that you are passionate about, to make your research study more enjoyable.

2. Conduct Preliminary Research

After finalizing the topic, read and know about what research studies are conducted in the field so far. Furthermore, this will help you find articles that talk about the topics that are yet to be explored. You could explore the topics that the earlier research has not studied.

3. Consider Your Audience

The most important aspect of writing a good research question is to find out if there is audience interested to know the answer to the question you are proposing. Moreover, determining your audience will assist you in refining your research question, and focus on aspects that relate to defined groups.

4. Generate Potential Questions

The best way to generate potential questions is to ask open ended questions. Questioning broader topics will allow you to narrow down to specific questions. Identifying the gaps in literature could also give you topics to write the research question. Moreover, you could also challenge the existing assumptions or use personal experiences to redefine issues in research.

5. Review Your Questions

Once you have listed few of your questions, evaluate them to find out if they are effective research questions. Moreover while reviewing, go through the finer details of the question and its probable outcome, and find out if the question meets the research question criteria.

6. Construct Your Research Question

There are two frameworks to construct your research question. The first one being PICOT framework , which stands for:

• Population or problem
• Intervention or indicator being studied
• Comparison group
• Outcome of interest
• Time frame of the study.

The second framework is PEO , which stands for:

• Population being studied
• Exposure to preexisting conditions
• Outcome of interest.

Research Question Examples

• How might the discovery of a genetic basis for alcoholism impact triage processes in medical facilities?
• How do ecological systems respond to chronic anthropological disturbance?
• What are demographic consequences of ecological interactions?
• What roles do fungi play in wildfire recovery?
• How do feedbacks reinforce patterns of genetic divergence on the landscape?
• What educational strategies help encourage safe driving in young adults?
• What makes a grocery store easy for shoppers to navigate?
• What genetic factors predict if someone will develop hypothyroidism?
• Does contemporary evolution along the gradients of global change alter ecosystems function?

How did you write your first research question ? What were the steps you followed to create a strong research question? Do write to us or comment below.

Frequently Asked Questions

Research questions guide the focus and direction of a research study. Here are common types of research questions: 1. Qualitative research question: Qualitative questions concern broad areas or more specific areas of research. However, unlike quantitative questions, qualitative research questions are adaptable, non-directional and more flexible. Different types of qualitative research questions are: i. Exploratory questions ii. Predictive questions iii. Interpretive questions 2. Quantitative Research Question: Quantitative questions prove or disprove a researcher’s hypothesis through descriptions, comparisons, and relationships. These questions are beneficial when choosing a research topic or when posing follow-up questions that garner more information. Different types of quantitative research questions are: i. Descriptive questions ii. Comparative questions iii. Relationship-based questions

Qualitative research questions aim to explore the richness and depth of participants' experiences and perspectives. They should guide your research and allow for in-depth exploration of the phenomenon under investigation. After identifying the research topic and the purpose of your research: • Begin with Broad Inquiry: Start with a general research question that captures the main focus of your study. This question should be open-ended and allow for exploration. • Break Down the Main Question: Identify specific aspects or dimensions related to the main research question that you want to investigate. • Formulate Sub-questions: Create sub-questions that delve deeper into each specific aspect or dimension identified in the previous step. • Ensure Open-endedness: Make sure your research questions are open-ended and allow for varied responses and perspectives. Avoid questions that can be answered with a simple "yes" or "no." Encourage participants to share their experiences, opinions, and perceptions in their own words. • Refine and Review: Review your research questions to ensure they align with your research purpose, topic, and objectives. Seek feedback from your research advisor or peers to refine and improve your research questions.

Developing research questions requires careful consideration of the research topic, objectives, and the type of study you intend to conduct. Here are the steps to help you develop effective research questions: 1. Select a Topic 2. Conduct Preliminary Research 3. Consider Your Audience 4. Generate Potential Questions 5. Review Your Questions 6. Construct Your Research Question Based on PICOT or PEO Framework

There are two frameworks to construct your research question. The first one being PICOT framework, which stands for: • Population or problem • Intervention or indicator being studied • Comparison group • Outcome of interest • Time frame of the study The second framework is PEO, which stands for: • Population being studied • Exposure to preexisting conditions • Outcome of interest

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Types of Research Questions

At the core of any research or study is the research question. It is essential in defining the scope and limitation of a particular study, as well as in determining the direction of the literature review, deciding the suitable research methodology, and in designing survey questionnaires or discussion guides. However, before formulating a research question, it is also important to understand its different types.

The Major Types of Research Questions

1. descriptive research questions.

A descriptive research question demonstrates an attempt to describe a phenomenon. This type of research question is suitable for almost all types of qualitative research such as ethnography, case studies, phenomenology, narratives, and grounded theory. On the other hand, in quantitative research, note that the aim of a descriptive research question centers on describing the variables the study intends to measure through quantification. Examples include determining the frequency, quantity, or prevalence of variables without any attempt to make a comparison.

2. Comparative Research Questions

In a comparative research question, the aim is to analyze the difference between two or more points of comparison or in other words, between variables or groups. An example of this type of research question as it applies in quantitative research includes comparing variables in terms of frequencies, quantity, or prevalence, among others. However, when applied in qualitative research, a comparative research question can be framed with a descriptive research question.

3. Relationship-Based Research Questions

There are also research questions directed toward identifying the causal relationships, associations, trends, and/or interactions between two or more variables or between variables and one or more groups. These questions are an example of relationship-based or causal research questions. Qualitative research would rarely employ this type of research question because of its inherent limitations. On the other hand, quantitative research pursues a relationship-based question through cause-and-effect experimental study or a correlational study.

A Note on The Types of Research Questions

Most studies such as an undergraduate thesis or master-level dissertation would only attempt to answer one research question based on a single type of research question. However, there are more complex studies such as doctorate-level dissertations, scientific studies, and other industrial research that attempt to integrate the different types of research question into a single research problem. Such is always doable but also requires a high degree of expertise.

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Casey Arnold, who lives in a suburb of Houston, spent years trying to quit smoking. She’d tried nicotine patches. That failed. She tried quitting cold turkey but that made her short tempered. On other occasions the idea of quitting made her so anxious, she smoked more to ease her fears.

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GLP-1, short for glucagon-like peptide 1, is a natural hormone that stimulates the production and release of insulin, slows digestion, curbs appetite, and blunts the brain’s focus on food. GLP-1 agonist drugs, like exanetide, tirzepatide and semaglutide, mimic this hormone. They were originally developed as diabetes treatments, but as more people began taking them, researchers observed these medications are effective for many more conditions than just diabetes and weight loss.

The FDA recently approved semaglutide, the active ingredient of Wegovy, for the treatment of obesity and for reducing the risk of heart attack and stroke in patients with obesity and heart disease . But as the number of people taking these drugs grows, physicians and researchers are learning about unanticipated health benefits for conditions where treatments have been limited, such as addiction, heart failure, and kidney disease.

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“It was totally opposite of when I tried to quit in my previous years,” Arnold says. “I was shocked at how calm I was, compared to how I used to think about quitting.” Instead of anxiety and rage, she felt at peace, and her cravings faded.

“It’s just been an avalanche across the different patient populations,” says Mark Petrie , a cardiologist at the University of Glasgow, whose research focuses on the use of GLP-1 agonists in patients with heart failure. “It’s just good news all around.”

Heart failure with preserved ejection fraction

More than six million Americans are living with heart failure , a condition where the heart progressively loses the ability to pump enough blood to the rest of the body. Of these patients, approximately half have a type known as heart failure with preserved ejection fraction , in which the heart can pump normally but is too stiff to fill up with blood.

In a study published last year , researchers tested semaglutide as a treatment for heart failure with preserved ejection fraction in patients who were not diabetic. The result: patients who received the drug showed fewer symptoms and reported a better quality of life, compared to those who received the placebo. Patients who received the drug had lower levels of C-reactive protein, which is a marker for inflammation.

“This is a big finding,” says James de Lemos, a cardiologist at UT Southwestern Medical Center, in Dallas, Texas, who was not associated with the study. The study was too small to determine if semaglutide can reduce the risk of hospitalization or death but given the stark improvement in patient quality of life, it’s promising.

Although some of these benefits are likely due to weight loss, that’s just part of what makes this treatment effective.

These medications are also cardioprotective and reduce inflammation, which is known to be a driver of heart failure, says Amanda Vest , a cardiologist at the Cleveland Clinic, who specializes in treating patients with heart failure. “We must continue to think more expansively than just about the number on the scale,” Vest says.

For patients with the other major type of heart failure—heart failure with reduced ejection fraction—there is less evidence, so far, that these drugs are effective. More trials are in the works to determine which types of patients will benefit from the use of these medications.

Kidney disease

An estimated 850 million people worldwide are living with chronic kidney disease ,   but there are few effective treatments. Historically, the main strategy has been to stall kidney failure for as long as possible and then move the patient to dialysis or wait for a kidney transplant. But nine out of 10 patients die of complications before reaching that point.

For patients with severe chronic kidney disease, “you are looking at a mortality rate that’s 10 to 20 percent a year,” says Katherine Tuttle , a nephrologist at the University of Washington Medicine. “This is on par with the worst malignancies.”

As a couple of recent studies have shown , the GLP-1 agonist dulaglutide helps patients who suffer from chronic kidney disease and diabetes. In a recent trial looking at the effect of semaglutide on patients with chronic kidney disease and type 2 diabetes, the treatment was so effective at delaying the progression of chronic kidney disease that the clinical trial was stopped early so that all the trial patients could benefit from the drug.

“It’s the only semaglutide trial that was stopped early for efficacy,” says Tuttle, who is on the executive committee for the trial. “To stop a trial early for efficacy, the bar is set really high,” which includes strong enough evidence for its efficacy that it would be no longer considered ethical to continue giving patients the placebo.

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As Tuttle notes, the effects on the kidneys is only partially due to reductions in risk factors such as blood pressure, blood sugar, and weight. Other benefits are likely to result from reduced inflammation.

“They have a profound anti-inflammatory effect,” Tuttle says. “Our field is really under recognizing the importance of inflammation, particularly in kidney damage caused by diabetes.”

Results from the trial will be published later this year.

Effects on fertility

For a growing number of patients on GLP-1 agonists, such as Ozempic or Mounjaro, one surprising side effect has been unexpected pregnancy, which for some patients, has come after years of struggling with infertility. Although more research is needed to explore the link between GLP-1 agonists and pregnancy, it’s become enough of a phenomenon that ‘Ozempic babies’ has become a trending phrase. Meanwhile, experts think there are several factors responsible.

The first factor is the fact that GLP-1 agonists cause a delayed gastric emptying, which can cause oral contraception pills to be absorbed by the body at a slower rate. “These drugs are altering that particular part of the drug absorption phase,” says Archana Sadhu , an endocrinologist at Houston Methodist Hospital, adding that this effect can be particularly prominent during dosage increases. This means that oral birth control may not be as effective.

The second factor is the link between polycystic ovarian syndrome (PCOS)—the leading cause of infertility in women—and insulin resistance.

“Insulin resistance will dysregulate the ovarian cycle,” Sadhu says. Insulin resistance can lead to infertility by disrupting hormones such as estrogen and testosterone, which are related to fertility; and it can affect the release of eggs from the ovaries. When patients start taking GLP-1 agonists, this reduces their insulin resistance, which boosts fertility.

However, the effects of these drugs on pregnancy are still unknown, which means that it’s important for patients to talk with their doctors about any plans for becoming pregnant, as well as strategies for contraception, which may include adding in a second method to augment oral contraceptive pills, or switching to a different method.

Treating addiction

Since Ozempic and Mounjaro have been become more common, patients have been reporting several unexpected side effects, such as a diminished desire to smoke or drink. Although more research is needed, it’s thought that the part of the brain that is responsible for food cravings overlaps with the part of the brain that is responsible for cravings for substances of abuse, says Luba Yammine, an addiction researcher at UTHealth Houston.

For doctors working in the field, earlier versions of these GLP-1 drugs showed tremendous potential as anti-addiction medications.

“We have far fewer medications available” for treating addiction and many patients report difficulties accessing these, says Christian Hendershot, an addiction researcher at the University of North Carolina School of Medicine. The field also receives less research funding compared with other diseases.

For Yammine, she first became interested in studying the effect of GLP-1 agonists on addiction while working in primary care, where she had several patients who were smokers with diabetes. Yammine would counsel her patients on quitting smoking, prescribing nicotine patches or the medication buproprion, to help them quit. But most of the time these strategies failed.

“It’s hard to quit smoking, period,” Yammine says. “The vast majority of smokers want to quit, but even with the use of these therapies, many of them are not successful.”

To help these smokers with their diabetes she would prescribe GLP-1 agonist medications, only to discover when they returned for a follow-up that they had quit smoking. When she asked them what happened, their answer was that suddenly their cravings vanished. “That was a very interesting finding,” Yammine says.

This happened often enough that Yammine decided to explore the impact of these GLP-1 receptor agonists on addiction through a clinical trial.

Yammine and her collaborators led a pilot study , in which 46 percent of the participants who received exanetide, plus nicotine patches and smoking cessation counseling, were able to quit, compared to 26 percent of participants who received nicotine patches, counseling, and a placebo. Yammine and her collaborators are now following up with a larger trial. They are also planning a separate trial with semaglutide.

For the patients in the study who received exanetide, their post-cessation weight was 5.6 pounds lower than those who received the placebo, a side effect that can help offset the weight gain that is often associated with quitting smoking.  

“This weight gain is very problematic,” Yammine says, adding that many patients are either afraid to quit or relapse due to concerns about weight gain, while it can also put them at heightened risk for developing weight-related conditions, such as type 2 diabetes.

For Arnold, who was enrolled in a follow up trial that Yammine is conducting, the months in which she was participating in the trial was characterized both by a calmness surrounding her efforts to quit, as well as minimal weight gain. Since the trial has ended, she’s been able to maintain her efforts to quit smoking, although she gained a little weight. “I don’t have cravings,” Arnold says. “It’s this weight gain that is bothering me.”

Arnold, who works for an HVAC company, would really like to go back on exanetide, but as is the case with so many other patients who have experienced benefits from GLP-1 receptor agonists, she’s finding that it’s too expensive to do so. Just one month’s supply costs about $1,000, and without FDA approval for its use as an anti-addiction drug, most health insurance companies won’t pay for it.

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Research Gaps Around Type 1 Diabetes

A large body of research on Type 2 diabetes has helped to develop guidance, informing how patients are diagnosed, treated, and manage their lifestyle. In contrast, Type 1 diabetes, often mistakenly associated only with childhood, has received less attention.

In this Q&A, adapted from the  April 17 episode of Public Health On Call , Stephanie Desmon speaks to Johns Hopkins epidemiologists  Elizabeth Selvin , PhD '04, MPH, and  Michael Fang , PhD, professor and assistant professor, respectively, in the Department of Epidemiology, about recent findings that challenge common beliefs about type 1 diabetes. Their conversation touches on the misconception that it’s solely a childhood condition, the rise of adult-onset cases linked to obesity, and the necessity for tailored approaches to diagnosis and care. They also discuss insulin prices and why further research is needed on medications like Ozempic in treating Type 1 diabetes.

I want to hear about some of your research that challenges what we have long understood about Type 1 diabetes, which is no longer called childhood diabetes. 

MF: Type 1 diabetes was called juvenile diabetes for the longest time, and it was thought to be a disease that had a childhood onset. When diabetes occurred in adulthood it would be type 2 diabetes. But it turns out that approximately half of the cases of Type 1 diabetes may occur during adulthood right past the age of 20 or past the age of 30.

The limitations of these initial studies are that they've been in small clinics or one health system. So, it's unclear whether it's just that particular clinic or whether it applies to the general population more broadly. 

We were fortunate because the CDC has collected new data that explores Type 1 diabetes in the U.S. Some of the questions they included in their national data were, “Do you have diabetes? If you do, do you have Type 1 or Type 2? And, at what age were you diagnosed?”

With these pieces of information, we were able to characterize how the age of diagnosis of Type 1 diabetes differs in the entire U.S. population.

Are Type 1 and Type 2 diabetes different diseases?

ES:  They are very different diseases and have a very different burden. My whole career I have been a Type 2 diabetes epidemiologist, and I’ve been very excited to expand work with Type 1 diabetes.

There are about 1.5 million adults with Type 1 diabetes in the U.S., compared to 21 million adults with Type 2 diabetes. In terms of the total cases of diabetes, only 5 to 10 percent have Type 1 diabetes. Even in our largest epidemiologic cohorts, only a small percentage of people have Type 1 diabetes. So, we just don't have the same national data, the same epidemiologic evidence for Type 1 diabetes that we have for Type 2. The focus of our research has been trying to understand and characterize the general epidemiology and the population burden of Type 1 diabetes.

What is it about Type 1 that makes it so hard to diagnose?

MF: The presentation of symptoms varies by age of diagnosis. When it occurs in children, it tends to have a very acute presentation and the diagnosis is easier to make. When it happens in adulthood, the symptoms are often milder and it’s often misconstrued as Type 2 diabetes. 

Some studies have suggested that when Type 1 diabetes occurs in adulthood, about 40% of those cases are misdiagnosed initially as Type 2 cases. Understanding how often people get diagnosed later in life is important to correctly diagnose and treat patients. 

Can you talk about the different treatments?

MF:  Patients with Type 1 diabetes are going to require insulin. Type 2 diabetes patients can require insulin, but that often occurs later in the disease, as oral medications become less and less effective.

ES: Because of the epidemic of overweight and obese in the general population, we’re seeing a lot of people with Type 1 diabetes who are overweight and have obesity. This can contribute to issues around misdiagnosis because people with Type 1 diabetes will have signs and will present similarly to Type 2 diabetes. They'll have insulin resistance potentially as a result of weight gain metabolic syndrome. Some people call it double diabetes—I don't like that term—but it’s this idea that if you have Type 1 diabetes, you can also have characteristics of Type 2 diabetes as well.

I understand that Type 1 used to be considered a thin person's disease, but that’s not the case anymore.  MF:  In a separate paper, we also explored the issue of overweight and obesity in persons with Type 1 diabetes. We found that approximately 62% of adults with Type 1 diabetes were either overweight or obese, which is comparable to the general U.S. population.

But an important disclaimer is that weight management in this population [with Type 1 diabetes] is very different. They can't just decide to go on a diet, start jogging, or engage in rigorous exercise. It can be a very, very dangerous thing to do.

Everybody's talking about Ozempic and Mounjaro—the GLP-1 drugs—for diabetes or people who are overweight to lose weight and to solve their diabetes. Where does that fit in with this population?

ES: These medications are used to treat Type 2 diabetes in the setting of obesity. Ozempic and Mounjaro are incretin hormones. They mediate satiation, reduce appetite, slow gastric emptying, and lower energy intake. They're really powerful drugs that may be helpful in Type 1 diabetes, but they're  not approved for the management of obesity and Type 1 diabetes. At the moment, there aren't data to help guide their use in people with Type 1 diabetes, but I suspect they're going to be increasingly used in people with Type 1 diabetes.

MF:   The other piece of managing weight—and it's thought to be foundational for Type 1 or Type 2—is dieting and exercising. However, there isn’t good guidance on how to do this in persons with Type 1 diabetes, whereas there are large and rigorous trials in Type 2 patients. We’re really just starting to figure out how to safely and effectively manage weight with lifestyle changes for Type 1 diabetics, and I think that's an important area of research that should continue moving forward.

ES: Weight management in Type 1 diabetes is complicated by insulin use and the risk of hypoglycemia, or your glucose going too low, which can be an acute complication of exercise. In people with Type 2 diabetes, we have a strong evidence base for what works. We know modest weight loss can help prevent the progression and development of Type 2 diabetes, as well as weight gain. In Type 1, we just don't have that evidence base.

Is there a concern about misdiagnosis and mistreatment? Is it possible to think a patient has Type 2 but they actually have Type 1? 

MF: I think so. Insulin is the overriding concern. In the obesity paper, we looked at the percentage of people who said their doctors recommended engaging in more exercise and dieting. We found that people with Type 1 diabetes were less likely to receive the same guidance from their doctor. I think providers may be hesitant to say, “Look, just go engage in an active lifestyle.”

This is why it's important to have those studies and have that guidance so that patients and providers can be comfortable in improving lifestyle management.

Where is this research going next?

ES:  What's clear from these studies is that the burden of overweight and obesity is substantial in people with Type 1 diabetes and it's not adequately managed. Going forward, I think we're going to need clinical trials, clear clinical guidelines, and patient education that addresses how best to tackle obesity in the setting of Type 1 diabetes.

It must be confusing for people with Type 1 diabetes who are   hearing about people losing all this weight on these drugs, but they go to their doctor who says, “Yeah, but that's not for you.”

ES: I hope it's being handled more sensitively. These drugs are being used by all sorts of people for whom they are not indicated, and I'm sure that people with Type 1 diabetes are accessing these drugs. I think the question is, are there real safety issues? We need thoughtful discussion about this and some real evidence to make sure that we're doing more good than harm.

MF:  Dr. Selvin’s group has published a paper, estimating that about 15% of people with Type 1 diabetes are on a GLP-1. But we don't have great data on what potentially can happen to individuals.

The other big part of diabetes that we hear a lot about is insulin and its price. Can you talk about your research on this topic?

MF:  There was a survey that asked, “Has there been a point during the year when you were not using insulin because you couldn’t afford it?” About 20% of adults under the age of 65 said that at some point during the year, they couldn't afford their insulin and that they did engage in what sometimes is called “cost-saving rationing” [of insulin].

Medicare is now covering cheaper insulin for those over 65, but there are a lot of people for whom affordability is an issue. Can you talk more about that? 

MF:  The fight is not over. Just because there are national and state policies, and now manufacturers have been implementing price caps, doesn't necessarily mean that the people who need insulin the most are now able to afford it. 

A recent study in the  Annals of Internal Medicine looked at states that adopted or implemented out-of-pocket cost caps for insulin versus those that didn't and how that affected insulin use over time. They found that people were paying less for insulin, but the use of insulin didn't change over time. The $35 cap is an improvement, but we need to do more.

ES: There are still a lot of formulations of insulin that are very expensive. $35 a month is not cheap for someone who is on insulin for the rest of their lives.

• Overweight and Obesity in People With Type 1 Diabetes Nearly Same as General Population
• The Impacts of COVID-19 on Diabetes and Insulin
• Why Eli Lilly’s Insulin Price Cap Announcement Matters

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How Pew Research Center will report on generations moving forward

Journalists, researchers and the public often look at society through the lens of generation, using terms like Millennial or Gen Z to describe groups of similarly aged people. This approach can help readers see themselves in the data and assess where we are and where we’re headed as a country.

Pew Research Center has been at the forefront of generational research over the years, telling the story of Millennials as they came of age politically and as they moved more firmly into adult life . In recent years, we’ve also been eager to learn about Gen Z as the leading edge of this generation moves into adulthood.

But generational research has become a crowded arena. The field has been flooded with content that’s often sold as research but is more like clickbait or marketing mythology. There’s also been a growing chorus of criticism about generational research and generational labels in particular.

Recently, as we were preparing to embark on a major research project related to Gen Z, we decided to take a step back and consider how we can study generations in a way that aligns with our values of accuracy, rigor and providing a foundation of facts that enriches the public dialogue.

A typical generation spans 15 to 18 years. As many critics of generational research point out, there is great diversity of thought, experience and behavior within generations.

We set out on a yearlong process of assessing the landscape of generational research. We spoke with experts from outside Pew Research Center, including those who have been publicly critical of our generational analysis, to get their take on the pros and cons of this type of work. We invested in methodological testing to determine whether we could compare findings from our earlier telephone surveys to the online ones we’re conducting now. And we experimented with higher-level statistical analyses that would allow us to isolate the effect of generation.

What emerged from this process was a set of clear guidelines that will help frame our approach going forward. Many of these are principles we’ve always adhered to , but others will require us to change the way we’ve been doing things in recent years.

Here’s a short overview of how we’ll approach generational research in the future:

We’ll only do generational analysis when we have historical data that allows us to compare generations at similar stages of life. When comparing generations, it’s crucial to control for age. In other words, researchers need to look at each generation or age cohort at a similar point in the life cycle. (“Age cohort” is a fancy way of referring to a group of people who were born around the same time.)

When doing this kind of research, the question isn’t whether young adults today are different from middle-aged or older adults today. The question is whether young adults today are different from young adults at some specific point in the past.

To answer this question, it’s necessary to have data that’s been collected over a considerable amount of time – think decades. Standard surveys don’t allow for this type of analysis. We can look at differences across age groups, but we can’t compare age groups over time.

Another complication is that the surveys we conducted 20 or 30 years ago aren’t usually comparable enough to the surveys we’re doing today. Our earlier surveys were done over the phone, and we’ve since transitioned to our nationally representative online survey panel , the American Trends Panel . Our internal testing showed that on many topics, respondents answer questions differently depending on the way they’re being interviewed. So we can’t use most of our surveys from the late 1980s and early 2000s to compare Gen Z with Millennials and Gen Xers at a similar stage of life.

This means that most generational analysis we do will use datasets that have employed similar methodologies over a long period of time, such as surveys from the U.S. Census Bureau. A good example is our 2020 report on Millennial families , which used census data going back to the late 1960s. The report showed that Millennials are marrying and forming families at a much different pace than the generations that came before them.

Even when we have historical data, we will attempt to control for other factors beyond age in making generational comparisons. If we accept that there are real differences across generations, we’re basically saying that people who were born around the same time share certain attitudes or beliefs – and that their views have been influenced by external forces that uniquely shaped them during their formative years. Those forces may have been social changes, economic circumstances, technological advances or political movements.

When we see that younger adults have different views than their older counterparts, it may be driven by their demographic traits rather than the fact that they belong to a particular generation.

The tricky part is isolating those forces from events or circumstances that have affected all age groups, not just one generation. These are often called “period effects.” An example of a period effect is the Watergate scandal, which drove down trust in government among all age groups. Differences in trust across age groups in the wake of Watergate shouldn’t be attributed to the outsize impact that event had on one age group or another, because the change occurred across the board.

Changing demographics also may play a role in patterns that might at first seem like generational differences. We know that the United States has become more racially and ethnically diverse in recent decades, and that race and ethnicity are linked with certain key social and political views. When we see that younger adults have different views than their older counterparts, it may be driven by their demographic traits rather than the fact that they belong to a particular generation.

Controlling for these factors can involve complicated statistical analysis that helps determine whether the differences we see across age groups are indeed due to generation or not. This additional step adds rigor to the process. Unfortunately, it’s often absent from current discussions about Gen Z, Millennials and other generations.

When we can’t do generational analysis, we still see value in looking at differences by age and will do so where it makes sense. Age is one of the most common predictors of differences in attitudes and behaviors. And even if age gaps aren’t rooted in generational differences, they can still be illuminating. They help us understand how people across the age spectrum are responding to key trends, technological breakthroughs and historical events.

Each stage of life comes with a unique set of experiences. Young adults are often at the leading edge of changing attitudes on emerging social trends. Take views on same-sex marriage , for example, or attitudes about gender identity .

Many middle-aged adults, in turn, face the challenge of raising children while also providing care and support to their aging parents. And older adults have their own obstacles and opportunities. All of these stories – rooted in the life cycle, not in generations – are important and compelling, and we can tell them by analyzing our surveys at any given point in time.

When we do have the data to study groups of similarly aged people over time, we won’t always default to using the standard generational definitions and labels. While generational labels are simple and catchy, there are other ways to analyze age cohorts. For example, some observers have suggested grouping people by the decade in which they were born. This would create narrower cohorts in which the members may share more in common. People could also be grouped relative to their age during key historical events (such as the Great Recession or the COVID-19 pandemic) or technological innovations (like the invention of the iPhone).

By choosing not to use the standard generational labels when they’re not appropriate, we can avoid reinforcing harmful stereotypes or oversimplifying people’s complex lived experiences.

Existing generational definitions also may be too broad and arbitrary to capture differences that exist among narrower cohorts. A typical generation spans 15 to 18 years. As many critics of generational research point out, there is great diversity of thought, experience and behavior within generations. The key is to pick a lens that’s most appropriate for the research question that’s being studied. If we’re looking at political views and how they’ve shifted over time, for example, we might group people together according to the first presidential election in which they were eligible to vote.

With these considerations in mind, our audiences should not expect to see a lot of new research coming out of Pew Research Center that uses the generational lens. We’ll only talk about generations when it adds value, advances important national debates and highlights meaningful societal trends.

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Kim Parker is director of social trends research at Pew Research Center

How Teens and Parents Approach Screen Time

Who are you the art and science of measuring identity, u.s. centenarian population is projected to quadruple over the next 30 years, older workers are growing in number and earning higher wages, teens, social media and technology 2023, most popular.

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