why do we need to study cultural diversity of literature essay

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Multicultural Literature: Reflecting Diversity in Literature for Youth

Diversity in literature goes beyond ethnicity. Diversity may include the various facets of sexuality and gender, cultural, and societal groups. Whether characters in the books we read reflect others or ourselves, what is most important is connecting with them in ways that help us understand who we are today. Sometimes learning about our history through the eyes of diverse characters can be unsettling or even painful, but it also can be an awakening to the unknown. In this collection, I focus on books that reflect multiple cultures in the text or illustrations, sometimes subtle, other times more direct. I believe these books reflect the mosaic beauty of our world.

Ages 4–8

Ada Twist, Scientist . Andrea Beaty. Ill. David Roberts. 2016. Abrams.

The Airport Book. Lisa Brown. 2016. Neal Porter/Roaring Book.

Emma and Julia Love Ballet. Barbara McClintock. 2016. Scholastic.

A Piece of Home. Jeri Watts. Ill. Hyewon Yum. 2016. Candlewick.

Who We Are!: All About Being the Same and Being Different (Let’s Talk About You and Me series) . Robie H. Harris. Ill. Nadine Bernard Westcott. 2016. Candlewick.

Ages 9–11

Children Just Like Me: A New Celebration of Children Around the World . DK. 2016. DK/Penguin Random House.

Elizabeth Started All the Trouble. Doreen Rappaport. Ill. Matt Faulkner. 2016. Disney/Hyperion .

Miss Mary Reporting: The True Story of Sportswriter Mary Garber. Sue Macy. Ill. C.F. Payne. 2016. Simon & Schuster.

What Is a Veteran, Anyway? Robert C. Snyder. Ill. Ron Himler. 2016. Blue Marlin.

Ages 12–14

I, Humanity. Jeffrey Bennett. 2016. Big Kid Science.

The Inquisitor’s Tale: Or, The Three Magical Children and Their Holy Dog. Adam Gidwitz. Ill. Hatem Aly. 2016. Dutton/Penguin.

Women Who Changed the World: 50 Amazing Americans. Laurie Calkhoven. Ill. Patricia Castelao. 2016. Scholastic.

Pride: Celebrating Diversity & Community. Robin Stevenson. 2016. Orca.

Stan Steiner teaches Children’s/Young Adult Literature at Boise State University. He has had a long relationship with bringing awareness to multicultural literature through his teaching and publications.

These reviews are submitted by members of the  International Literacy Association's Children's Literature and Reading Special Interest Group (CL/R SIG)  and are published weekly on  Literacy Daily .

Diverse Books Means Literature for All

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Indigenous literature and why it’s important

A post by Canadian Art shares that less than four per cent of art found in galleries are created by Indigenous artists, and this underrepresentation is carried into the world of literature. Reading literature by Indigenous authors is a significant way for anyone to learn about Indigenous culture and history, and being students or faculty at a Canadian university, it’s important to do so.

Geoffrey MacDonald, a course director in the English department who teaches Caribbean literature and postcolonial writing, explains that Indigenous literatures provide an essential component of how literary texts expand and enrich our views of the world. 

“Indigenous writers, who draw upon the long tradition of oral storytelling, have intervened in so many public debates, provided stunning and affective depictions of human existence, and yet remain marginalized in the popular understanding of literary voice and authority. 

“Indigenous literature is underrepresented in the field of literature because literary structures — both scholarly and popular — are embedded in colonial knowledge systems,” says MacDonald. “Honouring Indigenous literature is an important part of decolonization and reconciliation — in their substantive, transformational forms.

“Uncovering the joys of Indigenous literature is to learn that there is a vast and diverse literary tradition on this continent. Why Indigenous Literatures Matter by Daniel Heath Justice is a brilliant introduction that cannot be shared widely enough, and The Black Shoals by Tiffany Lethabo King connects Black and Indigenous studies in revolutionary ways,” says MacDonald as they share their favourite pieces of Indigenous literature. They also note that This Wound is a World by Billy-Ray Belcourt, Jonny Appleseed by Joshua Whitehead, and Island of Decolonial Love by Leanne Betasamosake Simpson among many others stand out to them.

Dr. Craig Santos Perez is an Indigenous Chamoru (Chamorro) from the Pacific Island of Guåhan (Guam). He is currently a poet and professor in the English department at the University of Hawai’i, Mānoa. His poetry focuses on ecological, political, historical, and cultural issues related to his homeland of Guam and the larger Pacific. 

“To me, being an Indigenous poet means honouring my homeland, ancestors, and stories, as well as critiquing colonialism and advocating for a thriving and sustainable future,” says Perez. “Literature should be a space where we can read and learn about the diversity of human experiences, so it is important to have Indigenous representation to more fully understand and appreciate the culture, history, and humanity of native peoples.”

Perez explains that some Indigenous writings come with specific ethics and politics. Readers, Indigenous or non-Indigenous, carry a certain responsibility when reading these works.

“Many Indigenous writers draw our attention to ongoing political issues, such as militarism, resource extraction, dispossession, etc. As readers, we enter into an ethical space where we can either ignore these issues in the real world or we can stand in support of Indigenous struggles,” says Perez. 

“Indigenous literature needs to be read with care by non-Indigenous people,” continues MacDonald. “Let the stories be told. These writers show us a world that could have been— one defined by justice, fairness, and connection, and will help us get to the better one that can be.”

About the Author

By Sydney Ewert

Arts editor.

[email protected]

Sydney is in her third year at York University studying Dance. She loves to travel and explore new places. When Sydney is not editing, working, or studying for her classes, she is likely going for walks or learning new recipes.

That is exactly what indigenous literature across the world presented, but there is something missed up which it is the role of this literature to change the future, especially in the ongoing conflicting matters such as (Black and white, orient and occident).

Cultural Diversity Essay & Community Essay Examples

If you’ve started to research college application requirements for the schools on your list, you might have come across the “cultural diversity essay.” In this guide, we’ll explore the cultural diversity essay in depth. We will compare the cultural diversity essay to the community essay and discuss how to approach these kinds of supplements. We’ll also provide examples of diversity essays and community essay examples. But first, let’s discuss exactly what a cultural diversity essay is. 

The purpose of the cultural diversity essay in college applications is to show the admissions committee what makes you unique. The cultural diversity essay also lets you describe what type of “ diversity ” you would bring to campus.

We’ll also highlight a diversity essay sample for three college applications. These include the Georgetown application essay , Rice application essay , and Williams application essay . We’ll provide examples of diversity essays for each college. Then, for each of these college essays that worked, we will analyze their strengths to help you craft your own essays. 

Finally, we’ll give you some tips on how to write a cultural diversity essay that will make your applications shine. 

But first, let’s explore the types of college essays you might encounter on your college applications. 

Types of College Essays

College application requirements will differ among schools. However, you’ll submit one piece of writing to nearly every school on your list—the personal statement . A strong personal statement can help you stand out in the admissions process. 

So, how do you know what to write about? That depends on the type of college essay included in your college application requirements. 

There are a few main types of college essays that you might encounter in the college admissions process. Theese include the “Why School ” essay, the “Why Major ” essay, and the extracurricular activity essay. This also includes the type of essay we will focus on in this guide—the cultural diversity essay. 

“Why School” essay

The “Why School ” essay is exactly what it sounds like. For this type of college essay, you’ll need to underscore why you want to go to this particular school. 

However, don’t make the mistake of just listing off what you like about the school. Additionally, don’t just reiterate information you can find on their admissions website. Instead, you’ll want to make connections between what the school offers and how you are a great fit for that college community. 

“Why Major” essay

The idea behind the “Why Major ” essay is similar to that of the “Why School ” essay above. However, instead of writing about the school at large, this essay should highlight why you plan to study your chosen major.

There are plenty of directions you could take with this type of essay. For instance, you might describe how you chose this major, what career you plan to pursue upon graduation, or other details.

Extracurricular Activity essay

The extracurricular activity essay asks you to elaborate on one of the activities that you participated in outside of the classroom. 

For this type of college essay, you’ll need to select an extracurricular activity that you pursued while you were in high school. Bonus points if you can tie your extracurricular activity into your future major, career goals, or other extracurricular activities for college. Overall, your extracurricular activity essay should go beyond your activities list. In doing so, it should highlight why your chosen activity matters to you.

Cultural Diversity essay

The cultural diversity essay is your chance to expound upon diversity in all its forms. Before you write your cultural diversity essay, you should ask yourself some key questions. These questions can include: How will you bring diversity to your future college campus? What unique perspective do you bring to the table? 

Another sub-category of the cultural diversity essay is the gender diversity essay. As its name suggests, this essay would center around the author’s gender. This essay would highlight how gender shapes the way the writer understands the world around them. 

Later, we’ll look at examples of diversity essays and other college essays that worked. But before we do, let’s figure out how to identify a cultural diversity essay in the first place. 

How to identify a ‘cultural diversity’ essay

So, you’re wondering how you’ll be able to identify a cultural diversity essay as you review your college application requirements. 

Aside from the major giveaway of having the word “diversity” in the prompt, a cultural diversity essay will ask you to describe what makes you different from other applicants. In other words, what aspects of your unique culture(s) have influenced your perspective and shaped you into who you are today?

Diversity can refer to race, ethnicity, first-generation status, gender, or anything in between. You can write about a myriad of things in a cultural diversity essay. For instance, you might discuss your personal background, identity, values, experiences, or how you’ve overcome challenges in your life. 

However, don’t feel limited in what you can address in a cultural diversity essay. The words “culture” and “diversity” mean different things to different people. Above all, you’ll want your diversity essays for college to be personal and sincere. 

How is a ‘community’ essay different? 

A community essay can also be considered a cultural diversity essay. In fact, you can think of the community essay as a subcategory of the cultural diversity essay. However, there is a key difference between a community essay and a cultural diversity essay, which we will illustrate below. 

You might have already seen some community essay examples while you were researching college application requirements. But how exactly is a community essay different from a cultural diversity essay?

One way to tell the difference between community essay examples and cultural diversity essay examples is by the prompt. A community essay will highlight, well, community . This means it will focus on how your identity will shape your interactions on campus—not just how it informs your own experiences.

Two common forms to look out for

Community essay examples can take two forms. First, you’ll find community essay examples about your past experiences. These let you show the admissions team how you have positively influenced your own community. 

Other community essay examples, however, will focus on the future. These community essay examples will ask you to detail how you will contribute to your future college community. We refer to these as college community essay examples.

In college community essay examples, you’ll see applicants detail how they might interact with their fellow students. These essays may also discuss how students plan to positively contribute to the campus community. 

As we mentioned above, the community essay, along with community essay examples and college community essay examples, fit into the larger category of the cultural diversity essay. Although we do not have specific community essay examples or college community essay examples in this guide, we will continue to highlight the subtle differences between the two. 

Before we continue the discussion of community essay examples and college community essay examples, let’s start with some examples of cultural diversity essay prompts. For each of the cultural diversity essay prompts, we’ll name the institutions that include these diversity essays for college as part of their college application requirements. 

What are some examples of ‘cultural diversity’ essays? 

Now, you have a better understanding of the similarities and differences between the cultural diversity essay and the community essay. So, next, let’s look at some examples of cultural diversity essay prompts.

The prompts below are from the Georgetown application, Rice application, and Williams application, respectively. As we discuss the similarities and differences between prompts, remember the framework we provided above for what constitutes a cultural diversity essay and a community essay. 

Later in this guide, we’ll provide real examples of diversity essays, including Georgetown essay examples, Rice University essay examples, and Williams supplemental essays examples. These are all considered college essays that worked—meaning that the author was accepted into that particular institution. 

Georgetown Supplementals Essays

Later, we’ll look at Georgetown supplemental essay examples. Diversity essays for Georgetown are a product of this prompt: 

As Georgetown is a diverse community, the Admissions Committee would like to know more about you in your own words. Please submit a brief essay, either personal or creative, which you feel best describes you. 

You might have noticed two keywords in this prompt right away: “diverse” and “community.” These buzzwords indicate that this prompt is a cultural diversity essay. You could even argue that responses to this prompt would result in college community essay examples. After all, the prompt refers to the Georgetown community. 

For this prompt, you’ll want to produce a diversity essay sample that highlights who you are. In order to do that successfully, you’ll need to self-reflect before putting pen to paper. What aspects of your background, personality, or values best describe who you are? How might your presence at Georgetown influence or contribute to their diverse community? 

Additionally, this cultural diversity essay can be personal or creative. So, you have more flexibility with the Georgetown supplemental essays than with other similar diversity essay prompts. Depending on the direction you go, your response to this prompt could be considered a cultural diversity essay, gender diversity essay, or a college community essay. 

Rice University Essays

The current Rice acceptance rate is just 9% , making it a highly selective school. Because the Rice acceptance rate is so low, your personal statement and supplemental essays can make a huge difference. 

The Rice University essay examples we’ll provide below are based on this prompt: 

The quality of Rice’s academic life and the Residential College System are heavily influenced by the unique life experiences and cultural traditions each student brings. What personal perspective would you contribute to life at Rice? 

Breaking down the prompt.

Like the prompt above, this cultural diversity essay asks about your “life experiences,” “cultural traditions,” and personal “perspectives.” These phrases indicate a cultural diversity essay. Keep in mind this may not be the exact prompt you’ll have to answer in your own Rice application. However, future Rice prompts will likely follow a similar framework as this diversity essay sample.

Although this prompt is not as flexible as the Georgetown prompt, it does let you discuss aspects of Rice’s academic life and Residential College System that appeal to you. You can also highlight how your experiences have influenced your personal perspective. 

The prompt also asks about how you would contribute to life at Rice. So, your response could also fall in line with college community essay examples. Remember, college community essay examples are another sub-category of community essay examples. Successful college community essay examples will illustrate the ways in which students would contribute to their future campus community. 

Williams Supplemental Essays

Like the Rice acceptance rate, the Williams acceptance rate is also 9% . Because the Williams acceptance rate is so low, you’ll want to pay close attention to the Williams supplemental essays examples as you begin the writing process. 

The Williams supplemental essays examples below are based on this prompt: 

Every first-year student at Williams lives in an Entry – a thoughtfully constructed microcosm of the student community that’s a defining part of the Williams experience. From the moment they arrive, students find themselves in what’s likely the most diverse collection of backgrounds, perspectives, and interests they’ve ever encountered. What might differentiate you from the 19 other first-year students in an Entry? What perspective would you add to the conversation with your peer(s)?

Reflecting on the prompt.

Immediately, words like “diverse,” “backgrounds,” “perspectives,” “interests,” and “differentiate” should stand out to you. These keywords highlight the fact that this is a cultural diversity essay. Similar to the Rice essay, this may not be the exact prompt you’ll face on your Williams application. However, we can still learn from it.

Like the Georgetown essay, this prompt requires you to put in some self-reflection before you start writing. What aspects of your background differentiate you from other people? How would these differences impact your interactions with peers? 

This prompt also touches on the “student community” and how you would “add to the conversation with your peer(s).” By extension, any strong responses to this prompt could also be considered as college community essay examples. 

Community Essays

All of the prompts above mention campus community. So, you could argue that they are also examples of community essays. 

Like we mentioned above, you can think of community essays as a subcategory of the cultural diversity essay. If the prompt alludes to the campus community, or if your response is centered on how you would interact within that community, your essay likely falls into the world of college community essay examples. 

Regardless of what you would classify the essay as, all successful essays will be thoughtful, personal, and rich with details. We’ll show you examples of this in our “college essays that worked” section below. 

Which schools require a cultural diversity or community essay? 

Besides Georgetown, Rice, and Williams, many other college applications require a cultural diversity essay or community essay. In fact, from the Ivy League to HBCUs and state schools, the cultural diversity essay is a staple across college applications. 

Although we will not provide a diversity essay sample for each of the colleges below, it is helpful to read the prompts. This will build your familiarity with other college applications that require a cultural diversity essay or community essay. Some schools that require a cultural diversity essay or community essay include New York University , Duke University , Harvard University , Johns Hopkins University , and University of Michigan . 

New York University

NYU listed a cultural diversity essay as part of its 2022-2023 college application requirements. Here is the prompt:

NYU was founded on the belief that a student’s identity should not dictate the ability for them to access higher education. That sense of opportunity for all students, of all backgrounds, remains a part of who we are today and a critical part of what makes us a world class university. Our community embraces diversity, in all its forms, as a cornerstone of the NYU experience. We would like to better understand how your experiences would help us to shape and grow our diverse community.

Duke university.

Duke is well-known for its community essay: 

What is your sense of Duke as a university and a community, and why do you consider it a good match for you? If there’s something in particular about our offerings that attracts you, feel free to share that as well.

A top-ranked Ivy League institution, Harvard University also has a cultural diversity essay as part of its college application requirements: 

Harvard has long recognized the importance of student body diversity of all kinds. We welcome you to write about distinctive aspects of your background, personal development, or the intellectual interests you might bring to your Harvard classmates.

Johns hopkins university.

The Johns Hopkins supplement is another example of a cultural diversity essay: 

Founded in the spirit of exploration and discovery, Johns Hopkins University encourages students to share their perspectives, develop their interests, and pursue new experiences. Use this space to share something you’d like the admissions committee to know about you (your interests, your background, your identity, or your community), and how it has shaped what you want to get out of your college experience at Hopkins. 

University of michigan.

The University of Michigan requires a community essay for its application: 

Everyone belongs to many different communities and/or groups defined by (among other things) shared geography, religion, ethnicity, income, cuisine, interest, race, ideology, or intellectual heritage. Choose one of the communities to which you belong and describe that community and your place within it. 

Community essay examples.

The Duke and Michigan prompts are perfect illustrations of community essay examples. However, they have some critical differences. So, if you apply to both of these schools, you’ll have to change the way you approach either of these community essays. 

The Duke prompt asks you to highlight why you are a good match for the Duke community. You’ll also see this prompt in other community essay examples. To write a successful response to this prompt, you’ll need to reference offerings specific to Duke (or whichever college requires this essay). In order to know what to reference, you’ll need to do your research before you start writing. 

Consider the following questions as you write your diversity essay sample if the prompt is similar to Duke University’s

• What values does this college community have? 
• How do these tie in with what you value? 
• Is there something that this college offers that matches your interests, personality, or background?  

On the other hand, the Michigan essay prompt asks you to describe a community that you belong to as well as your place within that community. This is another variation of the prompt for community essay examples. 

To write a successful response to this prompt, you’ll need to identify a community that you belong to. Then, you’ll need to think critically about how you interact with that community. 

Below are some questions to consider as you write your diversity essay sample for colleges like Michigan: 

• Out of all the communities you belong to, which can you highlight in your response? 
• How have you impacted this community? 
• How has this community impacted you?

Now, in the next few sections, we’ll dive into the Georgetown supplemental essay examples, the Rice university essay examples, and the Williams supplemental essays examples. After each diversity essay sample, we’ll include a breakdown of why these are considered college essays that worked. 

Georgetown Essay Examples

As a reminder, the Georgetown essay examples respond to this prompt: 

As Georgetown is a diverse community, the Admissions Committee would like to know more about you in your own words. Please submit a brief essay, either personal or creative, which you feel best describes you.

Here is the excerpt of the diversity essay sample from our Georgetown essay examples: 

Georgetown University Essay Example

The best thing I ever did was skip eight days of school in a row. Despite the protests of teachers over missed class time, I told them that the world is my classroom. The lessons I remember most are those that took place during my annual family vacation to coastal Maine. That rural world is the most authentic and incredible classroom where learning simply happens and becomes exponential. 

Years ago, as I hunted through the rocks and seaweed for seaglass and mussels, I befriended a Maine local hauling her battered kayak on the shore. Though I didn’t realize it at the time, I had found a kindred spirit in Jeanne. Jeanne is a year-round resident who is more than the hard working, rugged Mainer that meets the eye; reserved and humble in nature, she is a wealth of knowledge and is self-taught through necessity. With thoughtful attention to detail, I engineered a primitive ramp made of driftwood and a pulley system to haul her kayak up the cliff. We diligently figured out complex problems and developed solutions through trial and error.

After running out of conventional materials, I recycled and reimagined items that had washed ashore. We expected to succeed, but were not afraid to fail. Working with Jeanne has been the best classroom in the world; without textbooks or technology, she has made a difference in my life. Whether building a basic irrigation system for her organic garden or installing solar panels to harness the sun’s energy, every project has shown me the value of taking action and making an impact. Each year brings a different project with new excitement and unique challenges. My resourcefulness, problem solving ability, and innovative thinking have advanced under her tutelage. 

While exploring the rocky coast of Maine, I embrace every experience as an unparalleled educational opportunity that transcends any classroom environment. I discovered that firsthand experience and real-world application of science are my best teachers. In school, applications of complex calculations and abstract theories are sometimes obscured by grades and structure. In Maine, I expand my love of science and renourish my curious spirit. I am a highly independent, frugal, resilient Mainer living as a southern girl in NC. 

Why this essay worked

This is one of the Georgetown supplemental essay examples that works, and here’s why. The author starts the essay with an interesting hook, which makes the reader want to learn more about this person and their perspective. 

Throughout the essay, the author illustrates their intellectual curiosity. From befriending Jeanne and creating a pulley system to engineering other projects on the rocky coast of Maine, the author demonstrates how they welcome challenges and work to solve problems. 

Further, the author mentions values that matter to them—taking action and making an impact. Both facets are also part of Georgetown’s core values . By making these connections in their essay, the author shows the admissions committee exactly how they would be a great fit for the Georgetown community. 

Finally, the author uses their experience in Maine to showcase their love of science, which is likely the field they will study at Georgetown. Like this writer, you should try to include most important parts of your identity into your essay. This includes things like life experiences, passions, majors, extracurricular activities for college, and more. 

Rice University Essay Examples

The Rice University essay examples are from this prompt: 

The quality of Rice’s academic life and the Residential College System are heavily influenced by the unique life experiences and cultural traditions each student brings. What personal perspective would you contribute to life at Rice? (500-word limit)

Rice university essay example.

Like every applicant, I also have a story to share. A story that makes me who I am and consists of chapters about my life experiences and adventures. Having been born in a different country, my journey to America was one of the most difficult things I had ever experienced. Everything felt different. The atmosphere, the places, the food, and especially the people. Everywhere I looked, I saw something new. Although it was a bit overwhelming, one thing had not changed.

The caring nature of the people was still prevalent in everyday interactions. I was overwhelmed by how supportive and understanding people were of one another. Whether it is race, religion, or culture, everyone was accepted and appreciated. I knew that I could be whoever I wanted to be and that the only limitation was my imagination. Through hard work and persistence I put my all in everything that I did. I get this work ethic from my father since he is living proof that anything can be accomplished with continued determination. Listening to the childhood stories he told me, my dad would reminisce about how he was born in an impoverished area in a third world country during a turbulent and unpredictable time.

Even with a passion for learning, he had to work a laborious job in an attempt to help his parents make ends meet. He talked about how he would study under the street lights when the power went out at home. His parents wanted something better for him, as did he. Not living in America changed nothing about their work ethic. His parents continued to work hard daily, in an attempt to provide for their son. My dad worked and studied countless hours, paying his way through school with jobs and scholarships. His efforts paid off when he finally moved to America and opened his own business. None of it would have been possible without tremendous effort and dedication needed for a better life, values that are instilled within me as well, and this is the perspective that I wish to bring to Rice. 

This diversity essay sample references the author’s unique life experiences and personal perspective, which makes it one example of college essays that worked. The author begins the essay by alluding to their unique story—they were born in a different country and then came to America. Instead of facing this change as a challenge, the author shows how this new experience helped them to feel comfortable with all kinds of people. They also highlight how their diversity was accepted and appreciated. 

Additionally, the author incorporates information about their father’s story, which helps to frame their own values and where those values came from. The values that they chose to highlight also fall in line with the values of the Rice community. 

Williams Supplemental Essay Examples

Let’s read the prompt that inspired so many strong Williams supplemental essays examples again: 

Every first-year student at Williams lives in an Entry—a thoughtfully constructed microcosm of the student community that’s a defining part of the Williams experience. From the moment they arrive, students find themselves in what’s likely the most diverse collection of backgrounds, perspectives and interests they’ve ever encountered. What might differentiate you from the 19 other first-year students in an entry? What perspective(s) would you add to the conversation with your peers?

Williams college essay example.

Through the flow in my head

See you clad in red

But not just the clothes

It’s your whole being

Covering in this sickening blanket

Of heat and pain

Are you in agony, I wonder?

Is this the hell they told me about?

Have we been condemned?

Reduced to nothing but pain

At least we have each other

In our envelopes of crimson

I try in vain

“Take my hands” I shriek

“Let’s protect each other, 

You and me, through this hell”

My body contorts

And deforms into nothingness

You remain the same

Clad in red

With faraway eyes

You, like a statue

Your eyes fixed somewhere else

You never see me

Just the red briefcase in your heart

We aren’t together

It’s always been me alone

While you stand there, aloof, with the briefcase in your heart.

I wrote this poem the day my prayer request for the Uighur Muslims got denied at school. At the time, I was stunned. I was taught to have empathy for those around me. Yet, that empathy disappears when told to extend it to someone different. I can’t comprehend this contradiction and I refuse to. 

At Williams, I hope to become a Community Engagement Fellow at the Davis Center. I hope to use Williams’ support for social justice and advocacy to educate my fellow classmates on social issues around the world. Williams students are not just scholars but also leaders and changemakers. Together, we can strive to better the world through advocacy.

Human’s capability for love is endless. We just need to open our hearts to everyone. 

It’s time to let the briefcase go and look at those around us with our real human eyes.

We see you now. Please forgive us.

As we mentioned above, the Williams acceptance rate is incredibly low. This makes the supplemental essay that much more important. 

This diversity essay sample works because it is personal and memorable. The author chooses to start the essay off with a poem. Which, if done right, will immediately grab the reader’s attention. 

Further, the author contextualizes the poem by explaining the circumstances surrounding it—they wrote it in response to a prayer request that was denied at school. In doing so, they also highlight their own values of empathy and embracing diversity. 

Finally, the author ends their cultural diversity essay by describing what excites them about Williams. They also discuss how they see themselves interacting within the Williams community. This is a key piece of the essay, as it helps the reader understand how the author would be a good fit for Williams. 

The examples provided within this essay also touch on issues that are important to the author, which provides a glimpse into the type of student the author would be on campus. Additionally, this response shows what potential extracurricular activities for college the author might be interested in pursuing while at Williams. 

How to Write a Cultural Diversity Essay

You want your diversity essay to stand out from any other diversity essay sample. But how do you write a successful cultural diversity essay? 

First, consider what pieces of your identity you want to highlight in your essay. Of course, race and ethnicity are important facets of diversity. However, there are plenty of other factors to consider. 

As you brainstorm, think outside the box to figure out what aspects of your identity help make up who you are. Because identity and diversity fall on a spectrum, there is no right or wrong answer here. 

Fit your ideas to the specific school

Once you’ve decided on what you want to represent in your cultural diversity essay, think about how that fits into the college of your choice. Use your cultural diversity essay to make connections to the school. If your college has specific values or programs that align with your identity, then include them in your cultural diversity essay! 

Above all, you should write about something that is important to you. Your cultural diversity essay, gender diversity essay, or community essay will succeed if you are passionate about your topic and willing to get personal. 

Additional Tips for Community & Cultural Diversity Essays

1. start early.

In order to create the strongest diversity essay possible, you’ll want to start early. Filling out college applications is already a time-consuming process. So, you can cut back on additional stress and anxiety by writing your cultural diversity essay as early as possible. 

2. Brainstorm

Writing a cultural diversity essay or community essay is a personal process. To set yourself up for success, take time to brainstorm and reflect on your topic. Overall, you want your cultural diversity essay to be a good indication of who you are and what makes you a unique applicant. 

3. Proofread

We can’t stress this final tip enough. Be sure to proofread your cultural diversity essay before you hit the submit button. Additionally, you can read your essay aloud to hear how it flows. You can also can ask someone you trust, like your college advisor or a teacher, to help proofread your essay as well.

Other CollegeAdvisor Essay Resources to Explore

Looking for additional resources on supplemental essays for the colleges we mentioned above? Do you need help with incorporating extracurricular activities for college into your essays or crafting a strong diversity essay sample? We’ve got you covered. 

Our how to get into Georgetown guide covers additional tips on how to approach the supplemental diversity essay. If you’re wondering how to write about community in your essay, check out our campus community article for an insider’s perspective on Williams College.

Want to learn strategies for writing compelling cultural diversity essays? Check out this Q&A webinar, featuring a former Georgetown admissions officer. And, if you’re still unsure of what to highlight in your community essay, try getting inspiration from a virtual college tour . 

Cultural Diversity Essay & Community Essay Examples – Final Thoughts

Your supplemental essays are an important piece of the college application puzzle. With colleges becoming more competitive than ever, you’ll want to do everything you can to create a strong candidate profile. This includes writing well-crafted responses for a cultural diversity essay, gender diversity essay, or community essay. 

We hope our cultural diversity essay guide helped you learn more about this common type of supplemental essay. As you are writing your own cultural diversity essay or community essay, use the essay examples from Georgetown, Rice, and Williams above as your guide. 

Getting into top schools takes a lot more than a strong resume. Writing specific, thoughtful, and personal responses for a cultural diversity essay, gender diversity essay, or community essay will put you one step closer to maximizing your chances of admission. Good luck!

CollegeAdvisor.com is here to help you with every aspect of the college admissions process. From taking a gap year to completing enrollment , we’re here to help. Register today to receive one-on-one support from an admissions expert as you begin your college application journey.

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Hooked on Classics

• Posted August 28, 2019
• By Jill Anderson

With every new book English teacher Jabari Sellars , Ed.M.’18, introduced to his eighth graders, Shawn had something to say:

“This is lame.”

“This is wrong.”

“Are you serious?”

At first Sellars dismissed the reaction as 13-year-old Shawn just not liking to read.

After all, the book selection for Sellars’ Washington, D.C., class resembled the lists used in a lot of American schools. The Iliad . Romeo & Juliet . The Book Thief . Lord of the Flies . So when Shawn suggested alternative titles — demonstrating how well-read and interested he truly was — Sellars realized he had a different problem: All we’re reading are books about white people.

In a quick attempt to offer something different, Sellars turned to another genre rarely used in schools — a comic book — only to fail again when students identified in the Astonishing X-Men another white male protagonist. Having grown up cherishing the classics, like many English teachers, Sellars hadn’t strayed too far from the influential and often very “white” literary canon — the books and texts considered to be the most important.

It’s been more than 50 years since literacy experts first stressed the need for more diverse books in the classroom, and yet reading lists look surprisingly the same as they did in 1970.

“People teach what they’re comfortable with, so the choices become this narrow realm of what you liked and what you’re familiar with,” says Senior Lecturer Pamela Mason , M.A.T.’70, Ed.D.’75, who directs the Ed School’s Language and Literacy Program. Moving away from the classics toward more diverse books can stretch “people’s imaginations and pedagogy,” she says, but it can also reveal how educators aren’t equipped for that change.

The canon has long been revered in public education as representing the “depth and breadth of our national common experience,” Mason says, the books that many believe all high school students should be studying. The problem is that what was once defined as “common” — middle class, white, cisgender people — is no longer the reality in our country. Unfortunately, Mason says, “making a case for new literature by different authors of color, authors who are not cisgendered, or even just female authors” is a challenge.

Liz Phipps Soeiro, Ed.M.’19, an elementary school librarian in Cambridge, realized the canon’s power after returning to the White House 10 Dr. Seuss books donated by First Lady Melania Trump in 2017. In a now viral blog post explaining her reasons, she wrote about disappearing school libraries, policies that work against underprivileged communities, and how although considered a classic, Dr. Seuss was “steeped in racism and harmful stereotypes.” People responded harshly through personal attacks and threats on Soeiro and her family.

“It’s more complex than ‘I want to throw Dr. Seuss away,’” she says, disputing the charge that she hates Dr. Seuss. While attending a children’s book conference 10 years ago, she saw no diverse books being highlighted and asked the book vendor why, only for the question to be dismissed. It forced Soeiro to think more deeply about inequities, realizing that books — even the most beloved — are part of systemic issues. “Knowing the history of this country and the history of our educational system really puts into sharp focus just how urgent it is to have representation in our books, stories, narratives, and media that we share with children,” she says.

Literacy experts have long called for more representation in children’s literature. In 1965, literacy champion Nancy Larrick’s Saturday Review article, “The All-White World of Children’s Books,” noted how millions of children of color were learning from books that completely omitted them.

Then, nearly 25 years later, children’s literary expert Rudine Sims Bishop reiterated children’s need for mirrors, windows, and sliding glass doors in books to “understand each other better” and “change our attitudes toward difference.” As she wrote in the 1990 publication Perspectives: Choosing and Using Books for the Classroom , “When there are enough books available that can act as both mirrors and windows for all our children, they will see that we can celebrate both our difference and our similarities, because together they are what makes us all human.”

Yet, in the past 24 years, multicultural content, according to book publisher Lee & Low, represents only 13% of children’s literature. Despite national movements like We Need Diverse Books and DisruptTexts, and despite a growing number of diverse books, only 7% are written by people of color.

Considering that the American student population is now 50% nonwhite, the need for that mirror — for opportunities for children to see themselves and navigate a more diverse world — seems more pressing. Much like Sellars’ students, children notice the lack of representation surrounding them. English teachers interviewed for this story, particularly at middle and high school levels, described how students complain about representation, cultural relevance, and boredom in text. Those complaints, especially boredom, signal to Mason a greater need for variety in the classroom.

The solution seems obvious: Add more books that represent LGBTQ issues, gender diversity, people of color, people with disabilities, and ethnic, cultural, and religious minorities. But even as teachers appear aware of a need to diversify the curriculum, there can be roadblocks to making it happen. For example, there’s a diversity gap in the book publishing industry regarding who gets published (mostly white authors), who gets awarded (mostly white authors), and which books make it onto school vendor booklists (mostly white creators). Add in the fact that new books are typically more expensive than classics, says Christina Dobbs, Ed.M.’06, Ed.D.’13, an assistant professor of English at Boston University, and it can be hard to make a case for change.

Even when teachers have the support of school administrators, funding, and autonomy over book selection, they still might feel lost.

“Some teachers might think, ‘I want to diversify the literature,’ but don’t know what to do with it,” says Lecturer Vicki Jacobs , C.A.S.’80, Ed.D.’86, a former English teacher who retired this summer as director of the Ed School’s Teacher Education Program. “They need to understand the multiple contexts — including background knowledge and lived experiences — that both they and their students bring to their reading and interpretations of those texts.”

This lack of understanding could explain why an elementary teacher of color from Virginia who attended a literature institute last year at the Ed School reported that she had discovered that other teachers in the school, who were predominantly white, weren’t using the more representative books she pushed for in the school library.

“It’s a mistake to think having the books gives people the tools to teach the books,” Dobbs says. In her role training teachers, she sees that many want to have conversations about diverse books but don’t know how. “We don’t have evidence that teachers can close that gap independently.”

Mason noticed similar apprehensions among educators, prompting her to create two professional learning experiences — an online module called Culturally Responsive Literature Instruction and its companion workshop on campus, Advancing Culturally Responsive Literature . Both programs, offered through the Ed School’s Professional Education program, focus on instructional literary practices that support and value the many identities present in the 21st-century classroom.

Last fall 51 educators, mostly teachers from the United States, gathered on the Ed School campus for a weekend spent learning how to bring new texts into their classrooms. There was plenty to discuss, like how to vet new books and develop a diverse curriculum to more predictable topics about meeting standards. (Common Core doesn’t identify required reading or tell you how to teach.)

Rachel Schubert, an 11th and 12th grade English teacher at Martha’s Vineyard High School in Massachusetts, attended the workshop to learn from other educators who are prioritizing this work. In her diverse classroom, she aims to strike a balance between the “classics” and multicultural texts like Ta-Nehisi Coates’ Between the World and Me and Jhumpa Lahiri’s The Namesake . Still, she knows many teachers who stick to a classics-only approach, insisting there are ways to teach old books with a different lens too.

Schubert finds new books and methods helpful in creating space for students to grapple with tough issues and questions about identity. “The kids I teach are extremely hungry for these experiences. Diversifying the curriculum is one way to reach them,” she says. “Once you start doing it, it’s not that scary anymore.”

Fear can be a powerful deterrent to making change in the classroom. When adding diverse books and readings, Schubert and Sellars already know the tricky scenarios — how to address stereotypes or not being able to answer a student’s question — that might keep teachers away from the work.

In a lot of ways, learning how to understand and discuss difference with students connects back to the need for diverse books in the first place.

“In our nation, we haven’t been good at learning how to talk across differences in a respectful way,” Mason says. “And that is supposed to be the fabric of our democracy.” When you add in the fact that teacher training hasn’t always included work about race and identity, or even about addressing cultural assumptions, it becomes easy to see how adding diverse books to the curriculum can seem like treacherous territory.

New books come under scrutiny even though they often contain similar elements as classics. For instance, consider the racialized language in Huckleberry Finn , or the treatment of disabilities in Of Mice and Men , or even the sexual content in Romeo & Juliet . But those books still maintain a place in classrooms around the country, whereas new books like The Hate U Give get challenged as “anti-cop” and for profanity, drug use, and sexual references, according to the American Library Association’s Office for Intellectual Freedom. The book also happens to deal with racial injustices and police brutality, and is written by a black female.

“It’s kind of odd that we don’t have a problem giving students of color books written by dead white men, but we get a little queasy when we give white students literature written by African American authors, Latinx authors, transgender authors, Asian American authors,” Mason says. She suggests that, rather than banning books, we instead lead students through a balanced analysis of literature.

As educators try to diversify texts in their classrooms, they need thoughtful intent when choosing which books are appropriate or in determining the methods to teach material. Without that clear purpose, Jacobs fears teachers get lost, along with students, in the text. That purpose also helps safeguard against backlash when you know why you’ve selected certain work.

“A lot of people will see a brown child on the cover of a book and think that’s enough,” Soeiro says. But it’s not. “We have to look critically at the agency of that child, who wrote the book, the dominant narrative in the book. It takes a lot of work.”

It’s work, say educators like Soeiro and Dobbs, that teachers need to do.

“If all you read is one book by an author of color and five books a year by dead white guys, how does that shape your ideas about how stories get told, who they’re about?” Dobbs says.

In some ways, we already know. Today’s educators and students still exist in a canonized world, where prized books both teach and constrain us.

“An inherent part of developing culturally responsive instruction is coming to terms with our narrow view of literature,” Sellars says. “Making our classes culturally responsive may mean bringing in new texts and media, which means teachers will relinquish their position as experts. Many teachers are reluctant to introduce a new text, or even teach an old text from a different perspective, because doing so doesn’t allow them to rely solely on previous lesson plans and teaching strategies.”

After Sellars’ student made him see his “blind spots,” he could have kept everything the same. It would have been easier. But he spent the summer rethinking the reading list. The following year his eighth graders read newer, less canonized books: Ultimate X-Men , Persepolis , Black Boy White School , and excerpts from The Song of Achilles . The experience moved Sellars from what he describes as just talking about being culturally relevant to actually doing the work.

Mason believes a new culture of teaching literature will emerge, one classroom success at at a time, as long as we chip away at the lingering notion that diverse books aren’t worthy of teachers’ time and attention.

“When teachers learn about the cultural assumptions that made them leery about including new, multicultural literature, then learn how to teach the books, that sets them off in a stance of strength and knowledge. Then they have a couple of successes in the classroom,” Mason says. Describing the potential for that success to then snowball among fellow teachers, she adds, “Another teacher tries with their support, and they get successful too, and the new book starts to become part of a larger repertoire of literature to share.” When confronted with a book from the canon, it becomes, ‘Do we have to teach that book again on this theme?’ Well, here are some other options that might be worth a try.’”

Jill Anderson is a senior digital content creator at the Ed School and host of the Harvard EdCast .

Reloading the Canon

Ed. Magazine

The magazine of the Harvard Graduate School of Education

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Diversity in Literature

Aframer 180z. freedom writers: race and literary form.

Instructor: Jesse McCarthy Monday & Wednesday, 10:30-11:45 am | Location: Emerson 104

What does freedom have to do with our ability to read and write? How have writers addressed the conflicting and contradictory concept of race by writing about it? This course will investigate the history and practice of writing about the vexed relationship between race and freedom, the role of writing in political struggles for civil rights and the abolition of slavery, and the quest for a meaningful life and artistic freedom under conditions that deny that opportunity. We will read widely, primarily—though not exclusively—texts from (and about) the African diaspora from the 16th century to the present. Authors will include Ottabah Cugoano, Phillis Wheatley, Bartolomé de Las Casas, Sylvia Wynter, C.L.R. James, David Walker, Frederick Douglass, Anna Julia Cooper, Ida B. Wells, W. E. B. Du Bois, Langston Hughes, Zora Neale Hurston, Ralph Ellison, James Baldwin, Audre Lorde, Toni Morrison, Hilton Als and Rachel Kaadzi Ghansah. The final assignment will involve using the resources of the course to produce an original essay on a topic of your choice related to our themes. This course satisfies the English Concentration "Diversity in Literature" requirement for students on the “Common Ground” curriculum.

This course satisfies the “1700-1900 Guided Elective" requirement for English concentrators and Secondary Field students.

English 90rc. Re-mediating Colonialism

Instructor: Pamela Klassen Tuesday, 12:00-2:00pm | Location: Barker 269 Enrollment: Limited to 15 students

This seminar focuses on the public memory of settler colonialism and Indigenous dispossession in North America and Turtle Island, with a focus on stories told within museums. We will be oriented by remediation in two senses: telling a story in a new medium and efforts of remedy and repair. In addition to readings and class discussions, we will have multiple class visits with curators and staff at three Harvard museums: the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology, the Harvard Art Museum, and the Harvard Natural History Museum. Students will have the opportunity to engage directly with museum collections for their assignments, which will include reading reflections, cultural item biographies and labels, and a summative project in the form of a reflexive podcast, digital project, essay, or another genre of remediation.  

Registration information: This course has no prerequisites—I welcome students from any concentration. We will be discussing narratives and systems of colonialism that shape all of us, and various disciplinary perspectives will enrich our conversation. To gain access to the course, you will need to submit a petition via my.harvard.edu. One or two sentences telling me about your interests is enough.

If you have questions about the seminar, you can email me anytime or come to Zoom office hours on January 17, 12-2. Here's my email and Zoom room:

[email protected]

https://harvard.zoom.us/my/pamelaklassen

This course satisfies the English Concentration "Diversity in Literature" requirement for students on the “Common Ground” curriculum. This course satisfies the “1900-2000 Guided Elective" requirement for English concentrators and Secondary Field students.

English 90ah. Asian American Theater and Performance

Instructor: Ju Yon Kim Tuesday, 12:45-2:45pm | Location: Barker 024 Enrollment: Limited to 15 students Course Site

This seminar will explore Asian American theater and performance. We will examine how Asian American theater and performance artists have responded to popular images of Asian immigrants and cultures; how Asian American theater companies have cultivated and expanded our understanding of American theater and Asian American identity; and how artists and productions have experimented with conceptions of racial and gender performance.  This course satisfies the “1900-2000 Guided Elective" requirement for English concentrators and Secondary Field students.

English 90rv. Empire and Revolution, Sex and Gender, Race, Slavery, and Abolition

Instructor: James Engell Wednesday, 12:45-2:45pm | Location: Barker 269 Enrollment: Limited to 15 students Course site

The literatures of race and slavery, gender, empire, democracy, and revolution that shaped our modern world.  Excerpts from Dryden, Astell, Behn, Pope, Swift, Montagu, Johnson, Equiano, Gibbon, Paine, Burke, Wollstonecraft, Blake, and Shelley.  Some fiction as well. This course satisfies the English Concentration "Diversity in Literature" requirement for students on the “Common Ground” curriculum.

This course satisfies the English Concentration "Migrations" requirement for students on the “Common Ground” curriculum. This course satisfies the “1700-1900 Guided Elective" requirement for English concentrators and Secondary Field students.

English 90dr. Digital Race Studies: Storytelling, Power, Community

Instructor: Maria Dikcis Thursday, 12:45-2:45pm | Location: Lamont Library 401 Enrollment: Limited to 15 students Course site

This course will introduce students to critical race approaches to digital culture, primarily through Asian American, Black, Indigenous, and Latinx perspectives on and experiences with settler colonialism, racial capitalism, state violence, war, and empire. Together, we will explore how racial formations in the U.S. have shaped and been shaped by the infrastructures and interfaces of our digital world, as well as how communities of color give voice to their histories, desires, and creativity through digital cultural production. To guide our explorations, each week we will examine several projects that foreground the intersection between race, politics, and culture, including curated digital archives, mapping projects, database storytelling, network visualizations, born-digital literature, and longform, media-rich journalism. Additionally, this course is designed to be very hands-on and oriented toward digital humanistic research (also known as Digital Humanities) as an applied field of knowledge. Students will therefore have the opportunity to experiment with and engineer their own digital tools that center communities of color. (No prior technical knowledge is required.) This course satisfies the English Concentration "Diversity in Literature" requirement for students on the “Common Ground” curriculum.

English CVLP. Plundering the Americas: Histories of Extractive Violence and Creative Resistance in the Americas

Instructor: Valeria Luiselli Wednesday, 12:45-2:45pm | Location: Lamont 401 Enrollment: Limited to 12 students

This course focuses on the histories of extractivism and violence against land and bodies in the Americas, centering on ways in which writing, art and activism have responded to systemic violence across the region.

We will be considering works from across different languages, cultures and disciplines –such as literature, sound art, visual art and performance–  and will be grounding our discussions in the history of global commodities, such as gold, silver, coffee, cotton, sugar, bananas, avocados and bodies. Students will write weekly responses to readings, and work on their own hybrid forms of prose, which will be read in class and workshopped collectively.

Authors include: José Martí, Aimé Césaire, Natalie Díaz, Dolores Dorantes, Gabriela Wiener, Audra Simpson, Rita Segato, and Yasnaya Elena Aguilar.  This course satisfies the English Concentration "Diversity in Literature" requirement for students on the “Common Ground” curriculum.

Apply via Submittable  (deadline: 11:59pm EDT on Sunday, August 21)

English CQN. “Queer Stories, Queer Lives”: A Fiction Workshop on Queer Narratives

Instructor: Nick White Thursday, 12:00-2:45 pm | Location: Lamont 401 Enrollment: Limited to 12 students Is there a queer aesthetic? Or is there a particularly queer way to tell a story? Do our lived experiences as queer folk affect the kinds of stories we tell? In this workshop, we will explore how queer writers have endeavored to tell their stories, and then we will craft and workshop our own. Readings to include excerpts or full texts from: Alexander Chee’s Edinburgh, Garth Greenwell’s Cleanness, Jewelle Gómez’s The Gilda Stories, Randall Kenan’s A Visitation of Spirits, Andrea Lawlor’s Paul Takes the Form of a Mortal Girl, Morgan Thomas’s Manywhere, as well as others. You will write one flash piece and one short story/novel chapter (around 5k words). Your final project will be a substantial revision of the short story/novel chapter.  This course satisfies the English Concentration "Diversity in Literature" requirement for students on the “Common Ground” curriculum.

Supplemental Application Information:  Prior experience writing fiction is helpful but not required. Please submit a writing sample of 3-5 pages of fiction, along with an application letter explaining your interest in this course, any writing experience you feel is relevant, and listing examples of work that moves and/or influences you, explaining why it does.

English 90ni. The Novel in India

Instructor: Tara Menon Monday, 12:45-2:45pm | Location: TBA Enrollment: Limited to 15 students

This course examines a range of realist novels set in India. We will read novels set during British colonial rule by British writers (Kipling, Forster, Orwell); early examples of anglophone novels by Indian writers (Mulk Raj Anand, R.K. Narayan); novels in English by writers who came to global attention after winning the Booker Prize (Salman Rushdie, Arundhati Roy, Aravind Adiga); and works in translation by contemporary novelists who write in Tamil, Kannada, and Malayalam (Perumal Murugan, Vivek Shanbhag, K.R. Meera). As we read, we will consider issues of identity, religion, caste, gender, politics, the nation, the family. We will also pay careful attention to style and literary form as well as audience, publication context, and reception. 

English 90cp. Contemporary American Plays

Instructor: Derek Miller Tuesday, 9:45-11:45am   Location: Barker 269 Enrollment: Limited to 15 students.

This course examines recent scripted theater by American playwrights. We will consider the shape of the American theater, contemporary theatrical styles, thematic interests in contemporary issues of identity and politics, and more. Readings may include plays by Annie Baker, Clare Barron, Jackie Sibblies Drury, Michael R. Jackson, Branden Jacobs-Jenkins, Lucas Hnath, James Ijames, and Sanaz Toossi. This course satisfies the English Concentration "Diversity in Literature" requirement for students on the “Common Ground” curriculum.

English CJK. Poetry Workshop: BIPOC Context and Craft

Instructor:  Joan Naviyuk Kane Day & Time: Thursday 12-2:45pm Course Website This poetry workshop centers the work of BIPOC writers through intensive study of poetry writing and the writing process, focusing on craft techniques of imagery, rhythm, and poetic structure. This workshop will initially focus on the generation of new work but will move toward revision-based instruction and discussion. Each student will have their poems workshopped at least twice per semester. Students are responsible for reading assigned texts, submitting required work for workshop, reading and writing critiques of fellow students’ work, accessing (livestreamed or archived) readings, reading and (writing about) one poem closely each week, and memorizing and recording two poems.

Supplemental Application Information:  Applicants are requested to submit a maximum of 10 pages of poetry (not more than one poem to a page), and a 2-3 page cover letter in which they may address how long they’ve been writing seriously, what previous study they have done in literary arts, any additional experiences that seem relevant to their application, what type of direct criticism and revision they are seeking from the workshop, craft approaches they would like to know more about, and discussion of any other writers in which the writers’ craft and/or ways in which the writers’ work has served as a model for the applicant’s own literary ambitions.

Applications due by 11:59 PM ET on 8/19. Apply via Submittable

English 195ec. Growth, Technology, Inequality, and Education

Instructor: James Engell  and Benjamin Friedman Tuesdays & Thursdays, 1:30-2:45 pm | Location: Harvard Hall 101 Course site An economist and a humanist, together with professors from the natural sciences, analyze familiar conceptual and policy-relevant issues from viewpoints of their respective disciplines. For example, how do we measure inequality, and at what point does it become problematic (and how do we know)? How then should it be addressed (e.g., tax code, minimum wage)? What are the best policies to confront job losses from technology? What does sustainable growth mean? The goal is not merely to examine four intertwined issues “growth, technology, inequality, and education” but also to understand the distinct concerns and methods of the humanities, social sciences, and natural sciences.

 Sections will separately accommodate concentrators in English/Humanities and Economics/Social/Natural Sciences/SEAS. Jointly offered as Econ 1000a/b This course satisfies the English Concentration "Diversity in Literature" requirement for students on the “Common Ground” curriculum.

English 182. Science Fiction

Instructor: Stephanie Burt Monday & Wednesday, 12:00-1:15 pm | Location: Harvard Hall 202  Course site

Utopias, dystopias, artificial intelligence, life on new planets, and much, much more-- from the late 19th century to the present, *mostly in novels and short stories but also in comics, poetry, games, film and TV.* Likely readings include Mark Twain, H. G. Wells, Charlotte Perkins Gilman, Robert A. Heinlein, James Tiptree, Jr. (Alice Sheldon), Octavia Butler, William Gibson, Nalo Hopkinson, Ted Chiang, Tillie Walden, Charlie Jane Anders, N. K. Jemisin…. We will also be playing a tabletop role playing game as part of the class. This course satisfies the English Concentration "Diversity in Literature" requirement for students on the “Common Ground” curriculum. This course satisfies the “1900-2000 Guided Elective" requirement for English concentrators and Secondary Field students.

English 181a. Introduction to Asian American Literature: What Is Asian American Literature?

Instructor: Ju Yon Kim Tuesday & Thursday, 1:30-2:45pm | Location: CGIS South S020 Course site

Aiiieeeee! An Anthology of Asian-American Writers  (1974) was one of the earliest attempts to collect writings that were, to quote the editors, “exclusively Asian-American.” Yet as their lengthy—and controversial—explanation of the selection process makes clear, Asian American literature defies neat categorization. This course is both a survey of Asian American literature and an introduction to ongoing debates about what constitutes Asian American literature. We will study a variety of literary genres and ask how formal and stylistic conventions, as well as shifting sociohistorical circumstances, have shaped conceptions of Asian American literature.

This course satisfies the English Concentration "Migrations" requirement for students on the “Common Ground” curriculum. This course satisfies the English Concentration "Diversity in Literature" requirement for students on the “Common Ground” curriculum. This course satisfies the “1900-2000 Guided Elective" requirement for English concentrators and Secondary Field students.

English 10. Literature Today

Instructor: Stephanie Burt Tuesday & Thursday, 12:00-1:15pm | Location: TBD Course Site

All literature was contemporary at some point, but the literature that is contemporary now provides special opportunities for enjoying, questioning, and understanding the world. Literature Today focuses on works written since 2000—since most of you were born. It explores how writers from around the world speak to and from their personal and cultural situations, addressing current problems of economic inequality, technological change, structural prejudice, and divisive politics. We will encounter a range of genres, media, and histories to study contemporary literature as a living, evolving system. The course uniquely blends literary study and creative writing—students will analyze literature and make literature. The conviction that these practices are complementary will inform our approach to readings and course assignments.

Note: English 10 is one of the required Common Courses for the English concentrators. The course  is designed as a “gateway” course for first and second year students, but it is open to all undergraduates.

• Open Elective (2)
• Literary Forms (3)
• Common Courses (8)
• Guided Elective: pre-1700 (21)
• Guided Elective: 1700-1900 (17)
• Guided Elective: 1900-2000 (34)
• Diversity in Literature (14)
• Arrivals (1)
• Migrations (2)
• Shakespeare (2)

A Guide to Selecting Multicultural Literature

Separating the wheat from the chaff, introduction.

The language arts curriculum presents an extraordinary opportunity for sharing powerful multicultural perspectives. Multicultural literature opens up the world, allowing all students to hear voices both different from and similar to their own, both from within their own community and beyond. Powerful literature can transport students into a world where they can feel the joys and struggles of others and where they can inhabit the cultural landscape the characters live in. Our ability to take students on these journeys has been greatly enhanced in recent years by an explosion of multicultural literature for children and young adults.

Our challenge today is to prepare ourselves for this journey and, especially, to know what to pack for it. Too often, we pack the old classics without making room for the new. Research suggests that at the secondary level, the choice of authors has remained “remarkably resilient since English coalesced as a school subject at the end of the nineteenth century.” (Appleby, NCTE, 1993). While the elementary level has seen some broadening of selection, standard book lists for selecting literature continue to recommend few multicultural texts.

This guide to selecting multicultural literature is intended to encourage broader use of this literature by offering guidelines for selecting titles. Guidelines are unfortunately still necessary, because culturally biased books continue to be published and even to to receive awards. Moreover, it is difficult for any one teacher to evaluate books from so many different cultures both within the United States and around the globe. In addition to the selection guidelines, this essay will recommend ways to become self-reliant in evaluating titles, so that long after the bibliography becomes dated, educators can continue to make their own assessments.

What do we mean by multicultural literature? The general meaning refers to literature which embraces many cultures and where culture itself is an integral part of the story. Such a definition has implications beyond its dictionary-type appearance. For example, if we use “multicultural” as a shorthand for works about people of color, then we continue, even if only unconsciously, to place this community into the category of “other.” Thus, we continue with the old paradigm of “literature” (white/European) and “multicultural literature.” Such usage assumes that white/European is the universal culture, because it is simply “literature,” while all other literature come with a special cultural designation. Multicultural literature should embrace all literature–the Greek epic, The Iliad , as well as Sundiata , the great epic from ancient Mali. At the elementary level, multicultural literature includes both Cinderella and Mufaro’s Beautiful Daughters . However, our challenge today lies in insuring the inclusion of cultures which have been historically marginalized. Thus, for the purposes of theses guidelines, we will focus on the literature about people of color in the U.S. and abroad. However, we should also keep in mind the need for works about other underrepresented groups, such as the working class.

General Considerations

Three general comments are in order before turning to the main criteria for evaluating multicultural literature. First, any literature selection should be able to stand on its own in terms of quality of characterization, language, illustration and the other standards of good writing. Secondly, accurate and perceptive writing on a culture is a key element in choosing a work. While authors who are members of a given culture generally offer this, non-members also can. Writers such as Vera Williams, Katherine Paterson, and Rush Jhabvala have all succeeded at this leap of imagination. Thirdly, while copyright dates can sometimes aid in reviewing a book, they are not a sure indicator. Some new titles do still contain stereotypes. Moreover, some old titles are and should remain classics, such as Richard Wright’s Native Son and Langston Hughes’ Dream Keeper . Finally, while there are still some publishing gaps in multicultural titles at the elementary reading level, students at the adult level can choose from the enormous treasury of U.S. and world literature.

Criteria for Selecting Culturally Inclusive Works

Works chosen must meet two broad, overlapping criteria: the works must have cultural integrity and must avoid exoticising the culture.

Cultural Integrity Literary works should be specific to a culture, both in the written work and in our use of it. Aspects of the culture should be embedded in the text and the illustrations. In picture books, the illustrations should enhance our understanding of the locale and the characters. We need to keep the “cultural” in multicultural. If there is no cultural context, the work may represent only a token effort at diversity. Thus, a folktale described in the text or preface as “African” is dubious, as all folktales are indigenous to a country or area. A reading of a folktale such as Bringing the Rain to Kapiti Plain gives us the opportunity to explore the cultural landscape of Kenya which bears little resemblance to, say, Ghana’s. Similarly, readings from Puerto Rico cannot represent the “Latin American experience,” as this enormous region is too diverse for such an effort.

Illustrations should be evaluated not only for their general cultural embedding, but specifically for their accuracy in portrayal of people. Caricatures of Arabs and Blacks continue to surface. For example, Arabs may be portrayed as dark-skinned, menacing men. Drawings of African-Americans should show individuality of character and should neither exaggerate nor minimize physical characteristics. Likewise, the diversity of color among Latin Americans should be reflected in the illustrations.

U.S. ethnic groups should not be confused with their overseas counterparts. Thus, Asian-American life and literature differ substantially from Asian life. Further, the Asian-American experience differs significantly along both national and generational lines. In addition, the experience of recent immigrants differs from those who arrived much earlier, even from the same countries. A novel such as The Joy Luck Club , with its theme of inter-generational differences, illuminates this point well.

Dialect should be appropriate to the situation and the time period. For example, African-American dialect differs across time and place. Moreover, its usage varies according to circumstance and person. Thus, choosing only books on African-American life written in dialect (or written with no dialect at all) misrepresents African-American life.

Avoidance of Exoticism

Literary selections should be chosen for their representative character, especially as our students often are not able to distinguish between the typical and the unrepresentative. Stereotyping comes in two main forms: 1) focusing on atypical cultures and situations and 2) allowing a typical situation represent all situations of a given culture. Careful selection is especially important, given that our students are not generally familiar with a wide range of cultural groups and may take a single work of literature to be representative of a whole group.

The first form of stereotyping comes from stories focusing on an atypical cultural group, such as the tiny Maasai population in Kenya. The second form of stereotyping can occur when only a single piece of literature is used to represent a whole culture, especially a culture with which students are unfamiliar. For example, literary selections which focus exclusively on traditional Native American tales can reinforce preexisting student notions of Native Americans as a people living in the past and without a presence today. Again, stories which place Chinese-Americans only in Chinatown can be misleading.

No single piece of literature can represent a culture. Because of this reality, we face a conundrum: our students need a variety of texts, yet we have time for only a limited number. There are a number of ways to resolve this problem, among them:

• choosing additional works, perhaps short ones, to give variety in viewpoints;
• looking for variety in what students read over a period of years rather than focusing just on what they read in a single year;
• supplementing the reading of the work with a study of that culture, thus offering an opportunity for interdisciplinary learning.

Fundamental to any literature program is the goal of creating lifelong readers. Our sharing of multicultural literature can open new vistas for students, making way for new explorations not possible within the time constraints of the school calendar.

We need to be mindful of our audience and the preconceptions they bring to a reading. Thus, a novel of horrors set in Africa, such as Heart of Darkness , reinforces student notions about Africa being mysterious and dangerous. Similarly, stories focusing on violence in African-American characters may reinforce notions about violence in this community.

Folktales can be a powerful entry point to a culture unfamiliar to our students and to its values. Folktales also offer a wonderful entree to oral literature. (We are facing an publishers’ explosion in folktales, because they promise cultural accuracy and they are inexpensive to produce, as the tales have already been told and are in the public domain.) However, there are certain pitfalls we need to avoid to use this literature well. The main one is balance. In particular, folktales abound from Asia and Africa, yet our students need exposure to other cultural experiences and genres of these peoples. Young students (and often older ones), unfamiliar with a culture, may not be able to differentiate between the world of the folktale and the world of today. Thus, students may hold on to the impression that Chinese life has not changed for two hundred years or that wild animals are found everywhere in Africa. (Most Africans today have today have never seen any wildlife.) Such misrepresentations are often reinforced by T.V. and movies.

Offensive and inappropriate language is not the problem it once was. We should remain alert, however, to two problems. The first is where language encodes stereotypical views such as a “noble people,” or “a typically meek Chinese girl.” Illustrations can also encode stereotypes, such as an overabundance of Asian-Americans wearing eyeglasses. The second problem arises when authors use non-parallel language. Non-parallel language occurs when an author uses different words for another culture to describe the same things which exist in mainstream U.S. life. Thus, works like “hut” for house or home, “a native” for a person, and “superstition” for a religious belief are offensive.

Racially charged remarks are acceptable if they are for the purpose of exposing a character and if they are used in a context which will easily be understood by the readers as defining that character.

• For Africa: www.africaaccessreview.org
• For the Middle East: www.meoc.us
• For Latin America: http://claspprograms.org/teaching_outreach.htm
• For South Asia: http://www.poojamakhijani.com/sakidlit.html

Becoming Self-Reliant Reviewers of Multicultural Literature: READ, READ, READ

Any bibliography quickly becomes dated. Thus, we need to develop habits of mind for finding, evaluating and enjoying quality multicultural literature.

Of first importance is the need to model engagement with literature from a variety of cultures. Reading such literature brings joy and power form new perspectives and powerful language. For example, a short Senegalese novel, So Long a Letter , struck such a cord among teachers that it spread out from a Boston summer institute to a number of reading groups. It has been quoted at an award ceremony for an outstanding teacher and has given one woman a fresh perspective on her impending divorce. As we know, reading one amazing book often whets our appetite to explore further. Establishing a teacher reading group is one effective way to foster such engagement with new works. Choosing writings by recent recipients of the Nobel Prize in Literature gives us an opportunity to read from a wide range of writers: playwrights from Nigeria and the West Indies, or novelists from Japan, Britain or the United States.

The more we read, the more we learn about cultures and become attuned to cultural accuracy. We can in turn engage our students in developing criteria for quality multicultural literature, guiding them to be critical readers. As we read critically, we should also evaluate what is currently on our shelves and consider moving some books, such as Travels with Babar , to a special section for the study of stereotypes.

We all rely on outside resources in selecting good books. There are several such resources focusing on literature about peoples of color. The periodical, Multicultural Review , and publications from the Cooperative Children’s Book Center at the University of Wisconsin, including Multicultural Literature for Children and Young Adults , v.1 and v. 2 are terrific resources.

For highly recommended books on Africa, Latin America, the Middle East, and South Asia, visit these websites, which list award-winning books published in the United States on these regions:

Finally, we must continue to look for new titles to read, particularly in areas currently underrepresented. While there has been an explosion in children’s literature in recent years, large gaps remain. Some of the most critical gaps are: literature on Hispanic and Latin American life, Asian-American children’s literature which is culturally embedded, Arab literature for children, and African literature beyond picture books and rural environments.

Barbara B. Brown, Ph.D. Director, Outreach Program African Studies Center, Boston University http://www.bu.edu/africa/outreach Email: [email protected] Phone: 617-353-7303

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3 Understanding Diversity as Culture

Eduardo Salas, Department of Psychological Sciences, Rice University

Maritza R. Salazar, School of Behavioral and Organizational Sciences, Claremont Graduate University

Michele J. Gelfand, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland

• Published: 01 October 2013
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Cultural diversity—the degree to which there are differences within and between individuals based on both subjective and objective components of culture—can affect individual and group processes. However, much is still unclear about the effects of cultural diversity. We review the literature on cultural diversity to assess the state of the art and to identify key issues for future research. This review emphasizes the importance of understanding different types of cultural diversity and their independent and combined effect on team performance. We identify key contributions to the study of cultural diversity and discuss frontiers for future research.

Introduction

One of the most significant changes taking place in today’s work environment is globalization (Arnett, 2002 ). Given the proliferation of multicultural corporations and the globalization of business, understanding the impact of cultural diversity on individual and team functioning in the work force is critical. Cross-cultural research addresses this need with a focus on the study of similarities and differences in processes and behaviors across cultures (Gelfand, Erez, & Aycan, 2007 ). Differences across cultures have been found to predict variation in key individual, team, and organizational processes and outcomes such as decision making, negotiation, conflict management, organizational citizenship behaviors, and innovation (Gelfand & Dyer, 2000 ; Gelfand, Erez, & Aycan, 2007 ; Kirkman, Lowe, & Gibson, 2006 ). In contrast, relatively little work has focused on the impact of diversity in multicultural interactions that occurs within multinational corporations and teams. Challenges to accessing multicultural teams and conceptualizations about how to measure culturally diverse teams may be some of the reason for the sparse research focused on multicultural interactions. In this chapter, we draw on organizational diversity research, cross-cultural comparative studies, and a few studies that examine multicultural teams to provide directions for the study of cultural diversity at multiple levels of analysis.

We provide an overview of the theoretical frameworks that tend to be used by diversity researchers. We do so to explore whether and how these frameworks can be leveraged to explain the effects of cultural diversity across and within people and teams. Throughout this chapter the relationship between cultural diversity and outcomes at the individual and team level will also be explored. We conclude with suggestions for future research. It is our aim to provoke diversity researchers to consider and conceptualize how culture affects perceptions and responses to diversity at multiple levels, the effects of cultural diversity on organizational behavior processes, and the contextual and social psychological condition under which cultural diversity may most affect key organizational outcomes.

Culture defined

Culture is a way of perceiving, thinking, and deciding that has endured over time and has become institutionalized by a social entity, such as a team or nation, guiding everyday behavior and practices (Gelfand, Erez, & Aycan, 2007 ). According to Triandis ( 1972 ), culture consists of two types of elements: (1) objective elements, which consist of visible aspects of culture such as language, religion, demography, social structures, and other political and social systems, and (2) subjective elements, which constitute more covert aspects such as values, beliefs, norms, and roles that characterize a culture and the way people experience their social world. Additionally, culture is considered to be a human part of the environment (Herskovits, 1955 ) that is transmitted across time and generations (Triandis, 1994 ).

Culture has also been defined as collective programming of the mind (Hofstede, 1991 ) that is shared among members (Shweder & LeVine, 1984 ). Following this logic, it is assumed that members of different cultures, who do not share a common meaning system, are more likely to respond to the same external stimuli in distinct ways. However, more recent advances challenge this notion of culture and suggest that it is also malleable and fragmented across individuals within the same culture (D’Andrade, 2001 ). For instance, Rohner ( 1984 ) suggests that many subcultures exist within a nation and that national culture may not be completely shared among fellow countrymen. Hofstede ( 1991 ) similarly described individuals as carrying several layers of culture within themselves.

Understanding the complexity of cultural diversity and measuring it appropriately is critically important for cross-cultural researchers who seek to understand how variation among people and societies affects a variety of social phenomenon. This chapter draws upon a generally accepted definition of diversity, which refers to the differences between individuals based on attributes that elicit the perception that another person is different from the self (Jackson, 1992 ; Triandis, Kurowski, & Gelfand, 1994 ; van Knippenberg, De Dreu & Homan, 2004 ; Williams & O’Reilly, 1998 ). From a cross-cultural perspective, individuals can answer the question “Who am I?” and teams can answer “Who are we?” based on a variety of both surface- and deep-level attributes that make them similar or different from others given their cultural heritage.

The next sections aim to identify various dimensions of cultural diversity that can exist within and across individuals and collections of individuals, ranging from small groups to societies. Scholars suggest that the culture exists at multiple levels of analysis (e.g., individual, team, organizational, and national levels) and that these different levels reciprocally influence one another (Erez & Gati, 2004 ). Empirical and theoretical research has focused on the cultural values and attitudes of individuals and on measuring these individual attributes using self-report measures (Hofstede, 1980 ; Schwartz, 1999 ). Culture has also been conceptualized and measured as a property of a team or larger collection of individuals, such as an organization or nation (Enz, 1988 ; Hofstede & Hofstede, 2005 ; Martin & Siehl, 1983 ; Schein, 1985 ; Weiner, 1988 ).Through repeated social interaction, culture emerges within the collective and is believed to consist of “sets of rules and actions, work capability expectations, and members’ perceptions that individuals develop, share and enact” after interaction together (Earley & Mosakowski, 2000 , p. 27). Cultural differences across collectives tend to be measured by comparing similarities and differences among individuals within one collective and comparing them to members of others using aggregation techniques. Within collectives, culture emerges around a shared system of values and assumptions that tend to guide behavior, norms, rituals, and other cultural activities of members. Hence, variation in perceptions, attitudes, and behaviors across individuals and collections of individuals can often be attributed to their cultural differences.

In the remaining sections we talk about different sources of cultural diversity, when these differences affect behavior, measurement approaches, and implications for key organizational behavior outcomes at the individual and team level. This chapter focuses on understanding cultural diversity within and across individuals in teams. We conclude with recommendations for future directions.

Types of cultural diversity

The taxonomy of diversity as deep and surface level developed by Harrison, Price, and Bell ( 1998 ) is a useful starting point for classifying cultural differences, and we extend this classification system to introduce two ways of conceptualizing and measuring cultural diversity. First, we elaborate upon a type of deep-level diversity, subjective cultural diversity, which refers to the distribution of attributes that reflect culturally shaped values, attitudes, norms, roles, and beliefs that are not easily observed. Second, we discuss objective cultural diversity, which refers to the surface-level attributes of cultural difference that are readily detectable and easily perceived by individuals, such as one’s age, gender, or ethnicity. Using this classification system, we outline and define various types of cultural diversity in the following section and also provide insight into how they are related. In doing so, we present connections to empirically supported findings linking these types of diversity to various individual- and team-level outcomes.

Objective attributes of cultural diversity

To differentiate one culture from another based on objective and subjective components, this chapter provides key insights into the means by which cultures of individuals and collections of individuals conduct everyday social processes. The degree to which cultures, either at the individual or collective level, are diverse can depend on how much variation there is based on the subjective and objective components of culture. Although not always the case, objective components of culture are used as a proxy for more deep-level differences that are associated with these visible features. In turn, subjective cultural components shape the way aspects of objective components of culture are perceived. The following elaborates on the connection between objective cultural components and subjective cultural components.

The focus on the relationship between objective and subjective components stems from a long tradition in psychology. Whiting and Whiting ( 1975 ) examined the effects of institutional differences on behavior by focusing on how children learn across societies. They characterized the institutional environment, and its effect on social processes, with the following categories: physical environment (e.g., climate and terrain), history (e.g., migrations), and maintenance systems (e.g., social structure). Previously, Berry ( 1966 ) explored the link between the different ecologic environments and their effect on social processes. His research demonstrated that individuals living in tightly structured agricultural settings displayed lower psychological differentiation and greater compliance in their childrearing practices than individuals from hunting and fishing communities. Extending this research further and connecting it to the field of modern cross-cultural psychology, Triandis ( 1972 ) further delineated a theoretical and methodologic framework for understanding how the subjective psychological experience of individuals is shaped by the objective human-made and physical, cultural components of their environment. Triandis’ book, Analysis of Subjective Culture , catalyzed research that focused on understanding the association among deep-level, subjective culture (e.g., values, beliefs, expectations, norms, attitudes) across environments characterized by different objective components of culture.

In this chapter, we differentiate objective culture into two broad categories: (1) institutions at the macro level and (2) sociodemographic characteristics at the individual level. Characteristics of macro institutions include features such as language, political systems, physical setting, history, and social structure. Sociodemographic characteristics, such as race and ethnicity, are physical features of individuals within a collective that can differ across cultures due to different ancestry. Gender is also included as a biologic indicator because subjective experience of sex can vary across cultures. We elaborate on these classifications below.

Macro components of objective culture

Language Systems. One of the greatest barriers to cross-cultural collaboration is differences in the languages used to communicate. Drawing on the metaphor of a family tree, linguists have clustered languages around the world into families based on common sounds, syntax, and lexicon. Languages that are more similar are believed to stem from and be closely linked to a common ancestry, whereas distant languages may not have a common genealogy. They may be so far removed that comparison would demonstrate few similarities. Regardless, linguistic distance between two cultures can be discerned by locating the distance between these cultures on a map of these linguistic clusters. Strategies for communication can also vary cross-culturally, increasingly the likelihood of performance losses. This dimension of cultural diversity has also been explored in a study of multicultural teams. In particular, Ayoko, Hartel, and Callan ( 2002 ) found that discourse management strategies helped teams to avoid unproductive conflict and improve task performance in teams composed of people from different national cultures. In particular, discourse strategies that facilitated the use of explanation and mutual understanding were a major feature of productive conflict, whereas interrupting one another resulted in destructive conflict. Culturally diverse teams were also most effective when leaders assisted teams when communication breakdowns occurred and when all cultural subgroups were included in the discussion (Ayoko, Hartel, & Callan, 2002 )

Social Structures. Social structures also distinguish nations and cultures from one another. Of particular interest are the patterns of social interaction that vary among people across cultures. Morris, Podolny, and Sullivan ( 2008 ) examined how social interactions among individuals are shaped by national culture and norms. These researchers examined informal ties among coworkers within American, Chinese, German, and Spanish cultures. Results suggest that employees’ interaction with coworkers vary in terms of content and structure based on national norms. For instance, these researchers found evidence that the influence of a market transaction orientation in the United States led to less tie overlap among coworkers and to rather short-term connections. Chinese norms on filial responsibility, focused on the relationship between son and father, led to a greater tendency for instrumental exchanges to focus on subordinates, whereas an emphasis on formality in Germany led to more instrumental job-related connections at work compared to affective ties. Finally, Morris and colleagues ( 2008 ) found that norms of sociability tended to be associated with expressive content of communication, rather than on task-related topics, among the Spanish. This research provides evidence of how national culture and norms shape social structure in the form of interaction between people embedded within different countries.

Political Systems, Political scientists have identified various characteristics that differentiate one political regime from another and the factors that may lead to the use of various political systems around the globe (Bueno de Mesquita & Siverson, 1995 ). Forms of government across cultures are numerous, but political scientists have identified eight broad types of government, including full presidential republics, parliamentary republics, absolute monarchies, and single-party states. These political states vary in the extent to which participation of the population in developing policy is encouraged and allowed. Predictors of political structure and political decision making have been linked to differences in collectivist versus individualist orientation and to orientations regarding power (Schmitter, 1981 ). Research also demonstrates how the procedures used within one’s national government can also shape everyday decision making. Specifically, Earley ( 1999 ) provides initial qualitative evidence of how American teams opt to use more democratic techniques, such as polling, whereas other countries leverage more authoritarian techniques, such as discussing the views of the leader, to reach collective consensus.

Physical Terrain and Climate. The physical features of the location where one once lived or currently lives have been found to have a strong association with cultural values (Berry, 1966 ; Triandis, 1972 ; Whiting & Whiting, 1975 ). Features of the physical environment can include climate, temperature, urban versus rural, region or country, latitude, or distance from water. Vliert, Huang, and Parker ( 2004 ) compared people in locations distinguished by their climate (hotter vs. colder) and found that people who have more wealth in cold climates tend to be less altruistic than those who are poor; the reverse is found to be true in hot climates. Examining geographic location, Little ( 1968 ) found that Mediterranean people prefer shorter distances for social interaction than do northern Europeans. Finally, societies that are more rural and rely on agriculture have been found to be more collectivist compared to industrial, urban societies, which are more individualistic (Kluckhohn & Strodtbeck, 1961 ; Triandis, 2009 ).

Sociodemographic Cultural Components. Similar cultures are likely to arise in a context where members share the same race or ancestry (Triandis, 1995 ). Race is considered to be one of the major divisions among humankind, revolving around physical or biologic features that are shared (Fernando, 1991 ). Ancestry is equated to the national origins of one’s descendents, and these ancestors tend to share common physical features. Both race and ancestry may be considered a form of surface-level diversity, and these visible characteristics enable people to categorize others into social groups such as one’s nation or country. Ethnic group differences have also been shown to be associated with deep-level differences in values and behaviors. For instance, Cox, Lobel, and McLeod ( 1991 ) provided results that suggest that different cultural norms among three distinct ethnic groups led to different behaviors on a group task. At an individual level, these scholars demonstrated that Asian, Black, and Hispanic individuals tend to have a more collectivist/cooperative orientation toward a task than their Anglo counterparts.

Gender is also tied to cross-cultural differences. Gender is a multidimensional phenomenon that not only is a sociodemographic characteristic, but also consists of other psychological aspects such as gender-role traits, attitudes, and values (Bem, 1993 ). Schwartz and Rubel ( 2005 ) suggested that men and women differ from one another across cultures in the degree to which they place importance on particular values. For instance, their study suggests that there are smaller sex differences for self-direction values across countries that are more autonomous (compared to embedded) and more individualistic (rather than collectivistic).Similar findings were found related to differences in the value of power and benevolence across nations depending on the degree to which there was gender equality within the country. These studies provide evidence of how gender, an objective component of culture, can affect differences in values across cultures.

Subjective attributes of cultural diversity

The subjective aspects of culture include one’s beliefs, identities, values, norms, and attitudes that can be derived from the groups with which one is associated (Triandis, 1972 ). Specifically, individuals develop a sense of identity from the groups to which they belong (Tajfel & Turner, 1986 ). Individuals can belong to several groups, such as their families, religious organizations, political parties, or social clubs. From a social identity perspective, the answer to “Who am I?” is informed by a person’s knowledge of the memberships he or she has in social groups and the value and emotional significance attached to those memberships (Tajfel, 1981 ). Identification with these associations can define the way people categorize others as in-group or out-group members and the values, norms, beliefs, and attitudes they hold (Deaux, 1996 ; Hogg & Abrams, 1988 ). For instance, defining oneself as a member of an organization has been shown to predict positive attitudes about the organization and the willingness to act in the organization’s best interest (Mael & Ashforth, 1992 ).

One type of social identity is a cultural identity, which arises among individuals based on the deep tacit knowledge that is shared among members stemming from interpersonal interaction over time (Chao & Moon, 2005 ). Research has shown that people who identify strongly with their culture tend to endorse the culture’s core values (e.g., Feather, 1994 ; Jetten, Postmes, & McAuliffe, 2002 ). A value has high perceived cultural importance when participants as a group believe that the average member in the group would strongly endorse it (Wan, Chiu, Tam, Lee, Lau, & Peng, 2007 ). Association with groups related to one’s religion, family, profession, political interest, or avocation shapes and reinforces the values that members of these groups possess.

Data collected from different national groups provide evidence of how differences in values can distinguish people from different nations around the globe (Hofstede, 1980 ; Schwartz & Bilsky, 1987 ; Triandis, 1995 ). These national cultural value differences have been found to be associated with workplace behaviors, attitudes, and other organizational outcomes (e.g., Kluckhohn & Strodtbeck, 1961 ; Hall, 1976 ; Hofstede, 1980 ; Ronen & Shenkar, 1985 ; Schwartz, 1994 ; Trompenaars, 1993 ). Hofstede’s ( 1980 ) extensive work classifying over 40 countries along four different dimensions of culture has strongly influenced cross-cultural research focused on investigating the effects of these national differences on individuals, teams, and organizational outcomes. Individualism versus collectivism, power distance, uncertainty avoidance, and masculinity versus femininity were the dimensions of culture that were found to distinguish one nation from another. Although Hofstede’s ( 1980 ) research has been criticized for being oversimplified and ignoring cultural heterogeneity within countries (Sivakumar & Nakata, 2003 ), studies of cultural diversity tend to rely on the national value differences he outlined several decades ago to delineate the effects of cultural values on outcomes across countries (Taras, Kirkman, & Steel, 2010 ).

Values are not the only internalized aspect of the self that can be derived from group memberships. When a social identity is activated and made salient, it can induce conformity to in-group norms (Reicher, 1984 ; Spears, Lea, & Lee, 1990 ; Wilder & Shapiro, 1989 ). A recent study by Adarves-Yorno, Postmes, and Haslam ( 2006 ) found that the behavior of individuals on creativity tasks was informed by the normative context when their group identity was activated. Specifically, when operating as a member of a group, identification and belonging were found to be associated with adhering to the norms of the group when engaging in their work. Research elucidates that norms of tightness and looseness vary across countries, differentiating societies from one another (Gelfand, Nishi, & Raver, 2006 ; Pelto, 1968 ; Triandis, 1972 ). In particular, some can be characterized as “tight,” imposing a high degree of constraint on behavior, whereas others evolve to be “loose,” affording a high degree of freedom to determine one’s own behavior (Gelfand, Nishii, & Raver, 2006 ). We suggest that the identification one has to one’s culture or society can determine the extent to which one is likely to conform to the norms or deviate from them. The adherence or deviance from cultural norms will shape the predictability or the consistency of an individual’s actions.

Individual-level cultural diversity

The construct of culture at the individual level is one that is evolving. Although individuals within the same nation or group continue to be lumped together as one homogeneous population in cross-cultural studies, research and theory advance the notion that a single individual can have various cultural influences within himself or herself (Sackmann, 1997 ). This point is best exemplified by research on bicultural individuals in the way that they are able to alter cultural frames depending on situational factors through the use of primes (Hong, Morris, Chiu, & Benet Martinez, 2000 ). Given the importance of culture as an antecedent to behavior, the knowledge that multiple cultural values can be simultaneously present within an individual requires new conceptualization and measurement techniques for the study of cultural diversity.

Chao and Moon ( 2005 ) classify the several cultural identities that exist within a single individual as being shaped by associative, demographic, and geographic factors from one’s heritage and background. These authors draw on the metaphor of a mosaic and consider these three factors as different cultural “tiles” that make up an individual’s cultural mosaic. They define demographic tiles of the cultural mosaic within a person as being physical in nature or inherited from one’s parents, such as age, gender, race, and ethnicity. Geographic tiles can be connected to the notion of surface-level diversity because geography has to do with the natural or human-made physical features of a region that can shape an identity. Finally, associative tiles refer to the formal and informal groups that individuals choose to be a part of and with which they identify. We propose that associations with one group can be classified as deep-level diversity, as feelings of social identification, and as surface-level diversity, when people display their associations with groups through clothing or artifacts. Differences in core values across the many groups to which a person belongs can result in a variety of cultural identities that coexist within a person. In the following section, we expand on Chao and Moon’s ( 2005 ) theoretical paper and explore how the structure and salience of cultural diversity can shape the cultural identity and behavior of individuals.

Configuration of cultural identities within individuals

To identify which cultural aspects of diversity will or will not be invoked, we suggest that the content of an individual’s cultural identity; the importance of his or her cultural identities, values, and norms; and the broader context must be taken into account. As individuals move between the groups to which they belong to at home, school, and the workplace, different and multiple cultural values may coexist and have the potential to become simultaneously activated. These identities can merge in concordance or discordance with one another to affect the cohesiveness and strength of an individual’s value set (Chao & Moon, 2005 ). If these identities are not in harmony, it can be a source of stress because conflicting values may be guiding behavior. Discordant cultural identities can enhance the salience of conflicting cultural identities. Drawing on social dissonance theory, dissonance may be aroused when people believe that there are discrepancies between their beliefs and behaviors, which can cause anxiety (Festinger & Carlsmith, 1959 ). Without coherence among values, behavior is likely to be less consistent, whereas harmonious cultural identities will be less salient to an individual and may more consistently shape behaviors.

The degree to which values drive behavior may depend on the importance or self-relevance one places on values. Values are conceptions of what is preferable, desirable, and important in a culture. Behaviors, preferences, and judgments can be justified or guided by values and they can also shape the affective evaluation of life experiences (Feather, 1996 : Kluckhold, 1951 ; Rokeach, 1973 ; Schwartz & Bilsky, 1987 ). A value that is important culturally can be one that most members of that group consider to be important to the self or to their culture (Wan et al., 2007 ). The degree to which a cultural value is important to a particular person can vary across people (Schwartz & Sagie, 2000 ; Triandis & Gelfand, 1998 ). When cultural values have great self-importance and a person has high identification with his or her cultural identity, the accessibility of the practices, norms, meanings systems, and mental responses associated with this identity may be higher. With the use of the mosaic metaphor of Chao and Moon ( 2005 ), particular tiles of the mosaic may be activated more when particular cultural identities are highly self-relevant and there is great identification with a cultural group.

Through membership in a collective, individuals garner knowledge about the beliefs and behaviors of the groups to which they belong (for a review, see Cialdini & Trost, 1998 ). Descriptive norms about how to behave tend to be regarded as cognitions that individuals possess (Cialdini &Trost, 1998 ), but they can also be conceived of as a society-level construct as well (Durkheim, 1985 ; Pelto, 1968 ). Descriptive norms about what is socially acceptable behavior can vary across nations and can be an expression of culture (cf., Tett & Burnett, 2003 ). Recent research suggests that differences in the perceptions of these norms can also affect psychological processes and behavior across cultures (Shteynberg, Gelfand, & Kim, 2009 ; Wan, Chiu, Tam, Lee, Lau, & Peng, 2007 ). Shteynberg, Gelfand, and Kim ( 2009 ) provide evidence that individuals with lower collectivist descriptive norms perceived a greater harm after rights violations than individuals with higher collectivistic descriptive norms. This research emphasizes the importance of considering norms as a subjective component of culture that can shape the way individuals perceive their environment.

The degree to which cultural identities affect behavior may be associated with the degree to which they are activated. The salience of cultural diversity categories or attributes is likely to depend on the degree to which the identity is meaningful and the extent to which the cultural identity is perceived depending on the social situation. We explore when cultural identities are made salient within individuals and the implications for predictable and normative behavioral outcomes.

Situational triggers of cultural identity salience

Cultural identities, or the tiles of the cultural mosaic, may also be activated by the triggers in the situational context. Much like social identities, cultural identities are malleable and can be activated when contextual conditions make a particular identity salient. For instance, Hong, Morris, Chiu, and Benet-Martinez ( 2000 ) demonstrate how situational attributions are activated through the use of cultural symbols (e.g., Chinese dragon and Statue of Liberty) across American and Chinese samples. They find that the activation of cultural knowledge through stimuli in the external environment depends on the extent to which it is cognitively accessible. They also demonstrate how cultural knowledge, when activated, can be a potent driver of behavior. Along related lines, Kitayama, Markus, Matsumoto, and Norasakkunkit ( 1997 ) elucidate how social situations, such as those that increase or decrease self-esteem, can elicit different cultural identities and responses across American and Japanese samples. These two studies underscore the importance of examining how the salience of cultural knowledge, identities, norms, and values can be sensitive to features of the sociocultural context, such as social artifacts, and shape behavior.

The activation of cultural identities can also be facilitated based on the extent to which similarities and differences between people are perceived. Perceived surface-level dissimilarity is an individual’s perceptions of the differences between himself and herself and others in terms of overt, physically observable characteristics, whereas deep-level similarity perceptions are based on differences in terms of nonvisible characteristics such as personality, values, beliefs, norms, and attitudes. Drawing on the similarity-attraction paradigm (Byrne, 1971 ), similarities and differences between people can form the basis for interpersonal attraction. Research suggests that the degree to which one’s cultural identity is made salient can affect subsequent team interaction. For instance, research by Randel ( 2003 ) finds that cultural identity salience can be triggered based on contextual conditions, such as whether team members share the same country of origin of a few or very many fellow team members, and that the dispersion of team members’ cultural salience assessments are positively associated with team citizenship behavior. Van der Zee, Atsma, and Brodbeck ( 2004 ) provide further evidence that when one’s cultural identity is salient in diverse teams, well-being and commitment to the team are both enhanced.

The social organization of different societies can affect systems of thought and how people from different cultures see aspects of the social world (Nisbett, Peng, Choi, & Norenzayan, 2001 ). For instance, Nisbett, Peng, Choi, and Norenzayan ( 2001 ) suggest that individuals from contexts characterized as being collectivist and holistic tend to be more tolerant of contradiction. Hence, when individuals from these contexts experience identity discordance, it may be the case that this conflict may not be perceived or attended to. It is possible that individuals who live in more culturally diverse environments may be less affected by the simultaneous presence of different cultural identities. We anticipate that these past experiences will also attenuate the effect of dissimilarity perceptions related both to deep- and surface-level cultural differences when interacting with culturally diverse others.

Contextual elements can also activate the salience of culturally derived norms and values. For instance, Gelfand and Realo ( 1999 ) found that the degree of accountability in the task environment can make descriptive norms salient. Specifically, accountability to constituents was found to enhance the propensity of collectivists to be cooperative and for individualists to be competitive in negotiation (Gelfand & Realo, 1999 ). Along related lines, other research demonstrates that when the individuals are held responsible to an in-group audience for their behavioral choices (Briley et al., 2000 ), their behavior is more culturally normative. Time pressure and need for closure, or the desire to reduce ambiguity in a social context, are additional contextual conditions that have been found to motivate individuals to use cultural knowledge to guide information processing. Researchers also provide evidence that cultural differences tend to be amplified when there is a high need for closure (Fu et al., 2007 , Morris & Fu, 2001 ). Finally, cultural norms and values can also be brought to the surface in situations of uncertainty, such as uncertainty about the groups to which one belongs (De Cremer & Van Hiel, 2008 ; Van den Bos, 2005 ).

This section provides evidence that supports the notion that cultural identities are dynamic and subject to activation based on features of the broader social context in which people are embedded (Hong et al., 2000 ). In the section that follows, we explore the impact of the types, structure, and salience of cultural diversity within teams on team processes and performance. Just as cultural diversity can reside within an individual, cultural diversity can also be the characteristic of a social group that reflects the degree to which there are objective or subjective cultural differences between people within the group. Diversity within teams has been found to have a pervasive impact on both collective functioning and performance (e.g., Guzzo & Dickson, 1996 ; van Knippenberg & Schippers, 2007 ). Next, we discuss the complex influence of cultural diversity and the salience of this diversity in teams.

Team cultural diversity

A team refers to three or more individuals who interact for the accomplishment of a common goal (McGrath, 1984 ). Over the past decade, the use of teams across a variety of domains has increased (Wuchty, Jones, & Uzzi, 2007 ). Academicians and practitioners alike have struggled to understand how to improve the performance of teams, especially when they are composed of diverse members. Much of the empirical research on diversity in teams has focused on understanding the conditions that enable some diverse teams to effectively pool and use their differences to achieve optimal performance, while avoiding the dysfunctional processes often associated with heterogeneity.

Comparing national differences across teams

Cross-cultural studies comparing differences across nations elucidate many key insights about how collaboration and teamwork are enacted across nations (Gelfand & Dyer, 2000 ; Gelfand, Erez, & Aycan, 2007 ; Kirkman, Lowe, & Gibson, 2006 ). For instance, studies of teams with more collectivist orientation were found to view groups as having greater agency than teams composed of more individualist individuals (e.g., Chiu et al., 2000 ; Kashima et al., 2005 ; Morris et al., 2008 ). Team members’ evaluations of their collective efficacy were also found to vary across teams where high-status members were present, depending on the mean level of power distance of members (Earley, 1999 ).

Differences with regard to the culture-specific meanings ascribed to interpersonal work styles across teams have also been found across nationalities. In particular, Sanchez-Burks, Nisbett, and Ybarra ( 2000 ) found that Mexicans attend closely to the interpersonal atmosphere of work relations whereas mainstream Americans tend to focus on task-specific concerns. For instance, Probst, Carneval, and Triandis ( 1999 ) found that individualists tended to be least cooperative in a single-group dilemma and more cooperative in an intergroup dilemma in which personal outcomes were improved through group cooperation. In contrast, collectivists were found to be most cooperative in the single-group dilemma and less cooperative in the intergroup condition in which group outcomes were positively affected. Research also suggests that groups of decision makers from Japan were found to expect that others would share their similar orientations to collaboration and behave cooperatively much more than were Americans (Wade-Benzoni, Okumura, Brett, Moore, Tenbrunsel, & Bazerman, 2002 ).

Rewards motivating cooperation in culturally diverse teams also require consideration of cross-cultural differences given findings that suggest that collectives find personal credit embarrassing (Triandis, 1988 ; 1990 ), whereas individual recognition is highly desirable in achievement-oriented individualist cultures. Rewarding work that is interesting and opportunities for promotion are most attractive to American students, whereas rewards in the form of pay and bonuses were the preference among Chinese and Chilean students (Corney & Richards, 2005 ; King & Bu, 2005 ). These examples of the distinct motivations, expectations, and rewards for collaboration of culturally diverse members are examples of the differences and similarities between members that can cause them to clash during team interaction.

Culture also influences team processes associated with motivation. Collectivist samples in Israel were found to experience fewer performance losses when given a group goal compared to individualist samples that were told to do their best for the team (Erez & Somech, 1996 ). Earley ( 1989 ) found that the relationship between accountability and shared responsibility and performance in a team was moderated by collectivism. In particular, Earley ( 1999 ) found that individualist people performed worse when under conditions of shared responsibility and low personal accountability. In contrast, highly collectivistic people performed best under conditions of shared responsibility, regardless of the accountability.

Drawing upon foundational models of collective cognition theory (Gibson, 2001 ; Hinsz, Tindale, & Vollrath, 1997 ), cross-cultural research has elucidated how collective cognition can vary across cultures. For instance, Gibson and Zellmer-Bruhn ( 2001 ) found that metaphors about teamwork varied across four different nations. The divergent cognitive construal of teamwork across France, Puerto Rico, the Philippines, and the United States resulted in different expectations regarding team roles, membership, scope, and objectives. Likewise, the cognitive schemas for what constitutes a “successful” team can also vary across cultures. Sanchez-Burks, Nisbett, and Ybarra ( 2000 ) found that Mexicans perceived behaviors oriented toward interpersonal needs and harmony to be more important for success than Anglos, who perceived success to depend on the team’s focus on the task. Taken together, these studies demonstrate that collective cognitions about work conducted in collectives can also vary across cultures.

Few scholars have addressed the special concerns that face multicultural teams (Gibson & McDaniel, 2010 ). However, working collaboratively in these culturally diverse teams can be quite a challenge. Differences in values, norms of behavior, cognitions about collaboration, and communication styles are frequent sources of irritation, conflict, and misunderstanding in teams composed of representatives from different nations (Brett, Behfar, & Kern, 2006 ). In fact, many multicultural teams can be characterized as having high levels of ethnocentrism (Cramton & Hinds, 2005 ) and task and/or emotional conflict (Elron, 1997 ; Von Glinow et al., 2004 ). Understanding how to leverage the cultural diversity within multicultural teams is critically important, especially considering the extent to which these teams are being leveraged within corporations across the globe. We explore these ideas in the following section.

Cultural differences within teams: multinational teams and cultural diversity salience

Within cultures, research has elucidated how collaboration within teams is shaped by largely similar cultural values, attitudes, norms, and cognitions. When individuals from different cultures come together to work within multicultural teams, both deep-level, subjective cultural differences and visible, surface-level features across cultures often hinder collaborative processes and outcomes. Drawing on social categorization and information-processing theories, we elaborate on how cultural differences that are both overt and concealed affect collaboration in multinational teams.

Multicultural teams can be leveraged to accomplish a broad variety of tasks, including execution, decision-making, and creativity tasks. Although individual team members may have the knowledge, skills, and ability to accomplish their shared goal, social processes can inhibit their ability to combine their collective resources and achieve their mission. When working in cross-cultural settings where objective components of cultural diversity are salient, anxiety and threat can arise and can narrow the focus of attention (Kahneman, 1973 ; Stephan & Stephan, 1985 , 1996 ), restricting information processing (Staw, Sandelands, & Dutton, 1981 ). More recently, it has been argued that it is important to consider the salience of diversity when trying to understand the effect of diversity on team performance (van Knippenberg, DeDreu, & Homan, 2004 ). Along these lines, the salience of diversity in multinational teams is also likely to play a significant role in explaining the social identification and information processes that occur within these teams.

Various factors may influence when cultural differences become salient in multinational teams. Due to the overt nature of surface-level diversity, cultural diversity characteristics that are visible are more salient and activate social dynamics and information processing much sooner than deep-level characteristics. However, both time and the nature of the work may change the effects of diversity over time. For example, Pelled, Eisenhardt, and Xin ( 1999 ) found that the negative effects of surface-level diversity were weaker in teams with longer tenure. Extended tenure may lead group members to determine that their assumptions about holding similar attitudes and beliefs with like others may have been overestimated or underestimated. In addition, results from a study by Staples and Zhao ( 2006 ) suggest that reducing the salience of surface-level diversity in culturally diverse teams through virtual interaction can improve performance. This finding highlights the potential negative impact of cultural diversity salience on multicultural team processes and outcomes.

When a surface-level cultural characteristic is salient and individuals have this attribute in common, they are likely to assume that they hold more similar attitudes with one another compared to people who are different (e.g., Allen & Wilder, 1975 , 1978 , 1979 ; Chen & Kenrick, 2002 ; Holtz & Miller, 1985 ; Phillips, 2003 ; Tajfel, 1969 ; Wilder, 1984 ). The similarities and differences between team members can form the basis for categorizing oneself and others into in-groups and out-groups. From a social categorization perspective (Brewer & Brown, 1998 ), “we–they” distinctions are likely to arise in multicultural teams because people with the same cultural backgrounds tend to group together. However, the degree to which diverse groups experience subgroup categorization depends on the salience of these subgroups.

The salience of cultural diversity within a multinational team may not always trigger the same intensity of social categorization and social identity processes. The perceived social distance, or the degree to which two cultural groups are viewed to be similar or different, can vary (Triandis & Triandis, 1960). Determinants of perceived social distance include several factors such as in-group importance (Urban & Miller, 1998 ), personality (Liao, Chuang, & Joshi, 2008 ), or previous intergroup contact (Allport, 1954 ; Amir, 1969 ). In culturally diverse teams, history of war between nations, cultural orientation, and ethnocentrism (Triandis, 1992 ) may also predict social distance perceptions. These determinants are important to investigate because they can affect the magnitude of social distance perceptions, which could exacerbate subgroup tension, making the divide between cultural subgroups appear insurmountable. The degree to which diversity becomes salient and has an effect on team interaction processes and outcomes is likely to be determined by situational characteristics, including spatial arrangements, task requirements, and reward structure (Van der Vegt & Van de Vliert, 2005 ).

In contrast to the social categorization and social identity perspective, the information processing perspective emphasizes that the diversity of the team can enhance the elaboration of information and perspectives of the group to improve task performance (van Knippenberg, DeDreu, & Homan, 2004 ). Information-diverse teams are likely to possess a breadth and depth of task–relevant knowledge, skills, abilities, and perspectives that may be brought to bear on a task involving decision making, problem solving, or creativity. Research suggests that error detection (Davis, 1969 ), brainstorming (Paulus & Nijstad, 2003 ), and overall higher performance (Bantel & Jackson, 1989 ) tend to be associated with greater information diversity in teams. In culturally diverse teams working on problems related to the global marketplace, deep-level cultural knowledge, attitudes, and perspectives may be particularly relevant and useful to the functioning and performance of multinational teams.

Deep-level cultural components, such as values, norms, and cognitions, may alter social categorization and information processes in teams, and further investigation of these influences in multicultural teams is needed. For example, individualist societies are characterized by having a loose social framework where individuals are more likely to take care of themselves and their immediate families (Hofstede, 1980 ). Collectivist societies, on the other hand, can be described as having tight social frameworks where the distinction between in-groups and out-groups is quite clear and people expect that in-group members will take care of them and be loyal to one another (Hofstede, 1980 ). Research provides evidence that social categorization processes will likely be stronger in collectivist societies (Kirkman & Shapiro, 2001 ), suggesting that efforts to inhibit in-group favoritism and out-group derogation will be much more challenging in multicultural teams composed of both collectivists and individualists because of their different approaches to this collective interaction.

Social norms, cognitions, and values about various aspects of collaboration can vary across cultures (Gibson & Zellmer-Bruhn, 2001 ; Sanchez-Burks et al., 2000 ; Shteynberg, Gelfand, & Kim, 2009 ). These cultural differences can be exacerbated in situations of high ambiguity (Morris et al., 2008 ), such as working with dissimilar others in a multicultural team. Uncertainty, which can arise when in unfamiliar social environments, can lead individuals to be more likely to identify with groups (e.g., cultural groups) and to conform to group norms (Kruglanski, Pierro, Mannetti, & De Grada, 2006 ). In multicultural teams, team members may be more likely to engage in ways that are normative within their own cultures, yet discordant with others. For instance, ethnic groups in the United States have been found to use different conflict styles (Toomey, Yee-Jung, Shapiro, Garcia, Wright, & Oetzel, 2000 ). For instance, Latino-Americans and Asian-Americans were found to use more avoiding and third-party conflict styles than African-Americans. When working together, culturally diverse team members may approach conflict in discordant ways, which may have a negative impact on the quality of team processes and outcomes.

It is also critical to investigate what types of diversity may facilitate these processes within multicultural teams. Research suggests that the diversity will affect social processes and outcomes only to the extent to which the diversity is meaningful to the parties involved (van Knippenberg & Schippers, 2007 ). In multicultural teams, many characteristics of cultural diversity among members may be present, such as ethnicity, language, and race. It is difficult to know which characteristics of diversity will shape group dynamics, especially given that some cultural diversity characteristics may have greater importance in some cultures than others, such as religion or age. Social judgments that vary cross-culturally, and that may influence how cultural differences are perceived and valued, are critically important to consider when studying the effects of social processing in culturally diverse teams.

One factor believed to shape the subjective perceptions of and reactions to particular cultural diversity characteristics within a multinational team is cultural intelligence. Earley and Ang ( 2003 ) identified the cultural intelligence factors that increase an individual’s ability to effectively deal with cultural diversity from a sample of 51 individuals across six teams. These cultural intelligence factors were found to be associated with the integration of members into multinational teams (Flaherty, 2008 ). Other studies demonstrating the effects of personality and cognitive factors, such as openness to diversity and need for closure, also underscore the importance of examining the moderators that can explain the positive and negative effects of diversity on performance (Kearney, Gebert, & Voelpel, 2009 ; Homan, Hellenbeck, Humphrey, van Knippenberg, Ilgen, & van Kleef, 2008 ). Further research examining the moderators of the effect of cultural diversity on team performance is also essential for understanding how the impact of cultural diversity will affect team processes based on team members’ diversity attitudes and personalities.

Contextualizing cultural diversity

The broader organizational context can shape the effect of diversity on behavior (Jackson, Joshi, & Erhart, 2003 ). Cultural diversity in teams may be more or less salient given the broader context in which work is conducted. One feature of the proximal environment that can affect collaboration in a culturally diverse team is its task. The team task is defined in terms of the nature of work performed by the team and can be characterized by a variety of different features, including the task type, task interdependency, and task complexity (McGrath, 1984 ). A complex task is one in which high cognitive demands are placed on the individuals completing a task (Campbell, 1988 , p. 43; Jehn, 1995 ; Kankanhalli et al., 2006 ). The ability of a team to complete a complex task is further challenged by external stressors, such as time pressure or stressful work conditions. On the one hand, stress may activate cultural identities, facilitating in-group bias, and thus making it difficult for culturally diverse teams to work together. On the other hand, facing a stressful situation together might heighten a superordinate identity, facilitating effective collaboration. Drawing on pro-diversity attitude research, it may also be the case that a team climate that values diversity may further stimulate the integration of the members’ heterogeneous information, viewpoints, and perspectives (Chen & Eastman, 1997 ; Ely & Thomas, 2001 ; van Knippenberg & Haslam, 2003 ) in culturally diverse teams. Furthermore, inclusive leaders can also shape the task environment by enhancing social harmony and reducing turnover in diverse teams (Nishii & Mayer, 2009 ). This research suggests that various characteristics of the proximal task environment can influence the performance of culturally diverse teams.

If a multicultural team is collaborating within an organization where diversity is characteristic of the broader workforce, interaction with people who differ along a variety of dimensions will be more frequent. The perceptions of differences may become less salient to individuals in these diverse work environments who become accustomed to interacting with diverse others compared to people who work in more culturally homogeneous organizations. Consequently, studies of multicultural teams must take into account not only factors internal to the team that might affect diversity salience, but the broader contextual environment as well.

Multicultural teams are often embedded in a broader world context. Studies show how the composition of the organization in which teams are embedded can reflect and reinforce power and status based on demographics (Pfeffer, 1983 ). Along these lines, international relations between countries may also influence social dynamics within teams where representatives from these nations are working together. For example, individuals from nations with greater power, resources, and stability may have greater external social capital to leverage. From a network perspective, this external social capital may provide a means to garner resources from groups, such as nationally based organizations, outside of the team to benefit team effectiveness (Ancona & Caldwell, 1992 ).

In multicultural teams, where cultural values, norms, and cognitions vary among team members, leaders may have the potential to shape team functioning and performance. Recent research by Klein, Knight, Ziegert, Lim, and Saltz ( 2011 ) demonstrates how leaders attenuated the effect of value diversity on team conflict when they engaged in task-focused leadership compared to person-focused leadership. Drawing on social identity theory (Brown, 2000 ; Tajfel, 1972 ; Hewstone, Rubin & Willis, 2002 ), team leaders may also be able to harness the benefits of cultural diversity in teams by shaping contextual conditions to make both superordinate (e.g., we are all on one team, we are all citizens of the same world) and subgroup (e.g., ethnic or national groups) identities salient. In doing so, members’ need for distinctiveness will be satisfied (Brewer, 1991; 1993 ) and in-group favoritism will not be limited to those members contained within subgroup boundaries, but rather will be extended to out-group members from other cultural groups as well. We encourage future research to further explore how leaders may enable multicultural teams to leverage the virtues of their diversity to improve functioning and performance.

The association with a high- or low-status nation can also affect interaction. Drawing on social dominance theory, people with a higher social dominance orientation are likely to support and seek to maintain the hierarchical relationship between groups. Evidence suggests that racism and attitudes towards race-conscious policies are associated with people who have a greater social dominance orientation (Haley & Sidanus, 2006 ). In a team composed of individuals with high- and low-status cultural and country identities, it is important to examine how this orientation may trigger power and status dynamics between members affecting team processes and outcomes. Readers interested in the intersection of culture, status, and power should also see Chapter 9, which discusses these topics at length.

It is also critically important to take into account the role of social status and dominance when considering the effects of cultural subgroups on the outcomes of multicultural teams. Status is attributed to particular characteristics and associations (age, gender, education level). These status attributes are shaped by the broader sociocultural context and the meaning associated with or given to these characteristics. For instance, in the real world, groups often hold either majority or minority positions vis-à-vis each other (Farley, 1982 ; Tajfel, 1981 ). Across nations and within different cultures, particular parties enjoy higher status than others, and this can lead to variation in the ways that people from different societies may confer status. Earley ( 1999 ) found evidence of this variation in status hierarchies across societies when he asked managers from different countries to list the characteristics that would define someone of status within their country. This finding underlies the point that attributes of diversity will be perceived and interpreted differently across culturally diverse team members given their cultural backgrounds and the meaning attributed to various demographic characteristics.

Although cultural diversity can be composed of characteristics that are both objective and subjective, a considerable amount of research on the effects of diversity at the individual and team level has focused on cultural values, with a particular focus on the individualism and collectivist dimensions (Kirkman, Lowe & Gibson, 2006 ). Research on cultural values has demonstrated that it is valuable and important to examine each cultural value separately (see reviews of work in Gelfand, Erez, & Aycan, 2007 ; Kirkman, Lowe & Gibson, 2006 ; ; Tsui, Nifadkar, & Ou, 2007 ). Research that extends beyond the use of a single measure of deep-level culture is needed, as well as the consideration of other sociocontextual factors. In the following section, we discuss these issues in more depth and provide ideas about how research on cultural diversity can be advanced.

Key frontiers of cultural diversity research

The goal of this chapter was to provide a snapshot view of the trends, advances, and methodologic developments in the study of cultural diversity over the years. It is clear from this review that the study of cultural differences has been done at the individual and team level of analysis and is increasingly capturing the complexities and adaptable nature of culture. The overview of research also illustrates that cultural diversity research has focused primarily on comparative country analysis and that research on cultural diversity in multicultural teams is much more scarce. In the section that follows, our aim is to provide a summary of the areas and key themes that were discussed above and that may be fruitful for future research focused on cultural diversity.

Reviews of workplace diversity suggest that research has largely originated from the United States, using mostly North American samples (Tsui, Nifadkar, & Ou, 2007 ). Could the effects of different types of diversity of individual and team behaviors be biased by a reliance on a narrow, largely American sample? Might diversity types be perceived and responded to differently across societies with different social histories, economic structures, and political regimes? Cross-cultural studies examining the effects of diversity on key organizational behavioral outcomes, using both objective and subjective measures of diversity and perceived social distance, would provide a great deal of insight and narrow this research gap. Although great strides have been made over the years to resolve this dilemma, much of the literature on diversity has been primarily concerned with contemporary American society (Wise & Tschirhardt, 2000 ). Important questions about the effects of cultural diversity in teams remain to be explored and answered, especially given that some research on the effects of diversity conducted in the United States could not be replicated in other societies (Wiersema & Bird, 1993 ).

Researchers of organizational diversity have increasingly begun to examine context as a potential moderator of diversity effects (Joshi & Roh, 2009 ). A recent meta-analysis revealed the importance of considering the moderating effect of context on the relationship between diversity and a variety of performance outcomes, and further information about the effect of context can be found in Chapter 12 (Joshi & Roh, 2009 ). It is also desirable to consider some aspects of the contextual environment that may alter the effects of cultural diversity on key outcomes. Specifically, contextual features such as the composition of diversity within the social system where the unit of focus is embedded, the climate, the task environment, temporal conditions, and task characteristics may be important to examine as moderators in future research. Exploring this line of inquiry opens up interesting and unanswered questions, such as “What is the effect of perceptions of democracy on explaining cultural diversity in teams?” and “How might fatalism or psychological experiences tied to experiences of war or severe poverty shape interaction within multicultural teams?”

We speculate that certain dimensions of diversity will affect processes and outcomes differently depending on the broader national cultural context. This, in turn, may expand diversity research that has been conducted from a largely Western perspective. For example, status diversity might have different implications in high- versus low-power-distance cultures, and this question merits further investigation. Earlier in this chapter we also discussed the idea that discordant identities are problematic, but we encourage researchers to investigate whether this might be the case across all national contexts. Further motivating this question is research that suggests that individuals from societies that are more collectivistic and holistic might not be affected by this internal conflict due to their high tolerance for contradiction (Nisbett et al., 2001 ). Additional research is needed to explore this and other links that consider the relationship between national culture and diversity dynamics on individual, team, and organizational outcomes. Doing so creates the opportunity for discovering a new theoretical territory and advances our understanding about the contextual conditions under which diversity affects important processes and outcomes.

Studies of cultural diversity tend to be limited to a single level of analysis in their research design. If we draw from the view that cultures are nested or embedded (Erez & Gati, 2004 ), it is critical to consider the effects of cultural diversity across many different levels of analysis. Almost all multicultural interactions will possess features and aspects that cross the levels of analysis between individuals, work groups, organizations, and nations. Understanding the effects of cultural diversity at one level of analysis may be incomplete if characteristics of other levels of analysis are not taken into consideration (Kozlowski & Klein, 2000 ). For example, how might cultural diversity within an organization shape interaction processes and outcomes for individuals and teams nested within this organization? Furthermore, it would be particularly valuable to study whether the relationships between cultural diversity and outcomes at one level of analysis can be generalized to other levels of analysis. This multilevel approach would be useful for identifying the boundary conditions under which particular theoretical perspectives will be most predictive when examining the effects of cultural diversity.

In addition, national origin is often used as a proxy for the cultural values in cross-cultural research (Tsui, Nifadkar, & Ou, 2007 ). This approach can be problematic because national and deep-level culture do not completely overlap (Au, 1997 ). For this reason, it is important to better understand the psychological dimensions that demographic or proxy differences are associated with, if applicable (Beyer et al., 1997 ; Chattopadhyay et al., 1999 ; Cox et al., 1991 ). For example, variation in math performance on aptitude tests between boys and girls may not be directly caused by gender differences, but rather by the gender socialization practices employed by people in their surroundings that may expose them to different experiences and education, which ultimately affects performance outcomes (Eccles & Jacobs, 1986 ). Different socialization experiences among people who lived before or after World War II have also been shown to predict distinct values and attitudes about work among these groups (Fertig & Schmidt, 2001 ; Smola & Sutton, 2002 ). Given that societies change over time due to world events and modernization, relying on characterizations of national culture that were drawn from research conducted decades ago may be problematic and not generalizable today.

Much of the research done within cross-cultural teams is also focused on only one characteristic of diversity at a time, such as nationality. One downside of this approach is that we cannot explain how a combination of cultural characteristics influences teams simultaneously. To date, little research has investigated the interaction effects of cultural variables. The rarity of the interaction effects of culture is particularly striking given that there are no compelling theoretical reasons to suspect that cultural values operate independently to influence outcomes. One notable exception is the interest in conceptualizing collectivism and individualism in combination with other cultural variables, such as orientations to power (Chen et al, 1997 ; Singelis, Triandis, Bhawuk, & Gelfand, 1995 ). Research that conceptualizes the effects of cultural variables in combination with one another on team outcomes is both warranted and welcomed.

Recent advances in research suggest that nations differ in many aspects beyond cultural values, suggesting that differences in processes and outcomes in cross-cultural studies could stem from other sociocultural and situational factors (Busenitz, Gomez, & Spencer, 2000 ; Erez & Earley, 1993 ). We encourage scholars interested in understanding the effects of cultural diversity to broaden their studies to include aspects of the historical, political, social, geographic, and economic context of nations in order to identify how these factors affect perceptions and reactions to objective and subjective dimensions of diversity. Examining the effects of diversity across a variety of social situations will also provide insight about the conditions under which cultural variation in responses to diversity affect outcomes. For instance, what psychological factors may be driving the main effects of cultural differences identified in studies of rural location and climate? How might psychological factors and past societal history explain differences associated with ethnicity and race across different societies and the way that these differences are perceived and responded to?

Measurement of cultural diversity in teams may benefit from recent advances in that examines multiple dimensions of diversity in combination through the use of composite measures. Research on the diversity of organizations often relies on faultline measures that analyze the effects of many characteristics of diversity in combination with rather than in isolation from each other (Lau & Murninghan, 1998 ). Creating cultural profiles for each individual in a team based on demographic characteristics, as well as culturally relevant knowledge, values, and beliefs, would provide an opportunity to assess the alignment of multiple attributes of cultural diversity among team members. The outcome of using this method may be a better understanding of the complex relationship between diversity and performance in multicultural teams. Readers interested in this approach should also read Chapter 4 in this book.

Studies comparing teams across cultures also tend to use the mean score on cultural values scales, and this metric is considered to be a shared property of the group. Considering the within-country variation of cultural values that has been identified by cross-cultural scholars, it may be valuable to recognize the cultural differences among team members even when they share a common nationality. Recent advances in the measurement of diversity in organizations suggest the theoretical and empirical importance of examining difference as variation, separation, and disparity (Harrison & Klein, 2007 ). Drawing on this perspective, conceptualizations and assessments of cultural diversity must be updated to advance our empirical investigation of culturally diverse teams from the same nation or different nations.

Just as cultural differences among people within nations have been identified, the structure of cultural diversity within individuals and teams has also been conceptualized in more complex ways over recent years (Chao & Moon, 2005 ). The cultural profiles of individuals have attributes that reflect both objective and subjective aspects of their cultural backgrounds. When interacting with culturally diverse others, efforts to capture the interaction of this cultural diversity within and among individuals is particularly scarce. In sum, most research continues to focus on one particular type of diversity, such as nationality or collectivism and individualism, rather than using a multidimensional approach to assessing cultural diversity. Faultline theory, latent cluster analysis, and social network theory all provide new ideas about how to capture the multidimensionality of cultural diversity. To address the reliance on a unidimensional assessment of culture, research on cultural diversity at the various levels of analysis would benefit from the use of these methodologic tools.

This chapter aimed to motivate scholars to hypothesize about how various types and configurations of cultural diversity trigger and shape individual and team processes and outcomes. We posit that the social categorization and information processing at the individual and team level are mediated by psychological mechanisms, including cultural diversity and cultural identity salience, that are facilitated from the context and the cultural diversity inputs. We encourage researchers to draw on complex methodologic approaches to consider and test how and when various aspects of the contextual environment, such as social, physical, and political features, affect the relationship between cultural diversity and behavior at the individual and team level.

Much of this chapter has focused on the challenges that can arise in teams composed of culturally diverse individuals. However, we also encourage research that elucidates the factors that enable multicultural teams to leverage the benefits of their diversity. In particular, we hope that cultural researchers will engage in research aligned with the field of positive psychology, which is focused on studying the “conditions and processes that contribute to the flourishing or optimal flourishing or people, groups, and institutions” (Gable & Haidt, 2005 , p. 104). For instance, multicultural teams have the potential to far surpass culturally homogeneous teams in their ability to prevent, detect, and manage errors because of their cultural diversity (Gelfand, Frese, & Salmon, 2011 ). Also, Mauro, Pierro, Mannetti, Higgins, and Kruglanski ( 2009 ) compared the performance of three groups composed of locomotors (individuals oriented toward action), assessors (individuals oriented toward evaluation) or both locomotors and assessors. These researchers found that groups containing a mix of locomotors and assessors were as fast and accurate as the teams composed only of locomotors or assessors. This finding motivates future studies that explore how the cultural diversity of team members within multicultural teams may generate outcomes that could counter the negative consequences of diversity to achieve outcomes that could not be attained by unicultural teams.

The focus on culture as values, beliefs, and attitudes has resulted in advancing our understanding of the perspectives, orientations, and assumptions that shape behavior across cultures. Although the values approach to understanding culture has made quite a contribution to cross-cultural research across nations, little attention has been paid to the factors that shape values and the relationship between multiple sources of values that coexist within a person or social unit. The variety of cultural values that coexist within an individual presents an opportunity to examine the conditions under which particular cultural values are invoked and shape cognition, affect, and behavior either individually or in combination with one another. Moreover, when several individuals, each with a multiplicity of cultural influences, or values, interact within a team, it is critically important to better understand the implications of cultural diversity structure and salience on individual and team outcomes.

This work was partially supported by funding from the Army Research Office MURI Grant to Dr. Michele Gelfand, Principal Investigator, UMD (W911NF-08-1-014), subcontracted to UCF (Z885903). The views expressed in this work are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the organizations with which they are affiliated, their sponsoring institutions or agencies, or their grant partners.

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Literature and Culture

• First Online: 11 April 2019

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• Jeneen Naji 4 ,
• Ganakumaran Subramaniam 5 &
• Goodith White 6  

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Many theoretical approaches to literary studies assume that the relationship between literature and culture is an important one, in the sense that literature both reflects and is a means of reflecting on the culture in which it is produced. In defining culture, the writers describe the effects of global culture on what is read, and the notion that any literary text cannot help being a partial and biased representation of the culture it portrays. Students need to be supported in questioning the cultural assumptions made in texts and questioning stereotypes. The components of cultural awareness are explored and illustrated, and the chapter ends with a discussion of high and low culture as they apply to the texts students read.

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Jeneen Naji

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Ganakumaran Subramaniam

Goodith White

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Naji, J., Subramaniam, G., White, G. (2019). Literature and Culture. In: New Approaches to Literature for Language Learning. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-15256-7_4

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1 What Is Literature and Why Do We Study It?

In this book created for my English 211 Literary Analysis introductory course for English literature and creative writing majors at the College of Western Idaho, I’ll introduce several different critical approaches that literary scholars may use to answer these questions.  The critical method we apply to a text can provide us with different perspectives as we learn to interpret a text and appreciate its meaning and beauty.

The existence of literature, however we define it, implies that we study literature. While people have been “studying” literature as long as literature has existed, the formal study of literature as we know it in college English literature courses began in the 1940s with the advent of New Criticism. The New Critics were formalists with a vested interest in defining literature–they were, after all, both creating and teaching about literary works. For them, literary criticism was, in fact, as John Crowe Ransom wrote in his 1942 essay “ Criticism, Inc., ” nothing less than “the business of literature.”

Responding to the concern that the study of literature at the university level was often more concerned with the history and life of the author than with the text itself, Ransom responded, “the students of the future must be permitted to study literature, and not merely about literature. But I think this is what the good students have always wanted to do. The wonder is that they have allowed themselves so long to be denied.”

We’ll learn more about New Criticism in Section Three. For now, let’s return to the two questions I posed earlier.

What is literature?

First, what is literature ? I know your high school teacher told you never to look up things on Wikipedia, but for the purposes of literary studies, Wikipedia can actually be an effective resource. You’ll notice that I link to Wikipedia articles occasionally in this book. Here’s how Wikipedia defines literature :

“ Literature  is any collection of  written  work, but it is also used more narrowly for writings specifically considered to be an  art  form, especially  prose   fiction ,  drama , and  poetry . [1]  In recent centuries, the definition has expanded to include  oral literature , much of which has been transcribed. [2] Literature is a method of recording, preserving, and transmitting knowledge and entertainment, and can also have a social, psychological, spiritual, or political role.”

This definition is well-suited for our purposes here because throughout this course, we will be considering several types of literary texts in a variety of contexts.

I’m a Classicist—a student of Greece and Rome and everything they touched—so I am always interested in words with Latin roots. The Latin root of our modern word literature  is  litera , or “letter.” Literature, then, is inextricably intertwined with the act of writing. But what kind of writing?

Who decides which texts are “literature”?

The second question is at least as important as the first one. If we agree that literature is somehow special and different from ordinary writing, then who decides which writings count as literature? Are English professors the only people who get to decide? What qualifications and training does someone need to determine whether or not a text is literature? What role do you as the reader play in this decision about a text?

Let’s consider a few examples of things that we would all probably classify as literature. I think we can all (probably) agree that the works of William Shakespeare are literature. We can look at Toni Morrison’s outstanding ouvre of work and conclude, along with the Nobel Prize Committee, that books such as Beloved   and  Song of Solomon   are literature. And if you’re taking a creative writing course and have been assigned the short stories of Raymond Carver or the poems of Joy Harjo , you’re probably convinced that these texts are literature too.

In each of these three cases, a different “deciding” mechanism is at play. First, with Shakespeare, there’s history and tradition. These plays that were written 500 years ago are still performed around the world and taught in high school and college English classes today. It seems we have consensus about the tragedies, histories, comedies, and sonnets of the Bard of Avon (or whoever wrote the plays).

In the second case, if you haven’t heard of Toni Morrison (and I am very sorry if you haven’t), you probably have heard of the Nobel Prize. This is one of the most prestigious awards given in literature, and since she’s a winner, we can safely assume that Toni Morrison’s works are literature.

Finally, your creative writing professor is an expert in their field. You know they have an MFA (and worked hard for it), so when they share their favorite short stories or poems with you, you trust that they are sharing works considered to be literature, even if you haven’t heard of Raymond Carver or Joy Harjo before taking their class.

(Aside: What about fanfiction? Is fanfiction literature?)

We may have to save the debate about fan fiction for another day, though I introduced it because there’s some fascinating and even literary award-winning fan fiction out there.

Returning to our question, what role do we as readers play in deciding whether something is literature? Like John Crowe Ransom quoted above, I think that the definition of literature should depend on more than the opinions of literary critics and literature professors.

I also want to note that contrary to some opinions, plenty of so-called genre fiction can also be classified as literature. The Nobel Prize winning author Kazuo Ishiguro has written both science fiction and historical fiction. Iain Banks , the British author of the critically acclaimed novel The Wasp Factory , published popular science fiction novels under the name Iain M. Banks. In other words, genre alone can’t tell us whether something is literature or not.

In this book, I want to give you the tools to decide for yourself. We’ll do this by exploring several different critical approaches that we can take to determine how a text functions and whether it is literature. These lenses can reveal different truths about the text, about our culture, and about ourselves as readers and scholars.

“Turf Wars”: Literary criticism vs. authors

It’s important to keep in mind that literature and literary theory have existed in conversation with each other since Aristotle used Sophocles’s play Oedipus Rex to define tragedy. We’ll look at how critical theory and literature complement and disagree with each other throughout this book. For most of literary history, the conversation was largely a friendly one.

But in the twenty-first century, there’s a rising tension between literature and criticism. In his 2016 book Literature Against Criticism: University English and Contemporary Fiction in Conflict, literary scholar Martin Paul Eve argues that twenty-first century authors have developed

a series of novelistic techniques that, whether deliberate or not on the part of the author, function to outmanoeuvre, contain, and determine academic reading practices. This desire to discipline university English through the manipulation and restriction of possible hermeneutic paths is, I contend, a result firstly of the fact that the metafictional paradigm of the high-postmodern era has pitched critical and creative discourses into a type of productive competition with one another. Such tensions and overlaps (or ‘turf wars’) have only increased in light of the ongoing breakdown of coherent theoretical definitions of ‘literature’ as distinct from ‘criticism’ (15).

One of Eve’s points is that by narrowly and rigidly defining the boundaries of literature, university English professors have inadvertently created a situation where the market increasingly defines what “literature” is, despite the protestations of the academy. In other words, the gatekeeper role that literary criticism once played is no longer as important to authors. For example, (almost) no one would call 50 Shades of Grey literature—but the salacious E.L James novel was the bestselling book of the decade from 2010-2019, with more than 35 million copies sold worldwide.

If anyone with a blog can get a six-figure publishing deal , does it still matter that students know how to recognize and analyze literature? I think so, for a few reasons.

• First, the practice of reading critically helps you to become a better reader and writer, which will help you to succeed not only in college English courses but throughout your academic and professional career.
• Second, analysis is a highly sought after and transferable skill. By learning to analyze literature, you’ll practice the same skills you would use to analyze anything important. “Data analyst” is one of the most sought after job positions in the New Economy—and if you can analyze Shakespeare, you can analyze data. Indeed.com’s list of top 10 transferable skills includes analytical skills , which they define as “the traits and abilities that allow you to observe, research and interpret a subject in order to develop complex ideas and solutions.”
• Finally, and for me personally, most importantly, reading and understanding literature makes life make sense. As we read literature, we expand our sense of what is possible for ourselves and for humanity. In the challenges we collectively face today, understanding the world and our place in it will be important for imagining new futures.

A note about using generative artificial intelligence

As I was working on creating this textbook, ChatGPT exploded into academic consciousness. Excited about the possibilities of this new tool, I immediately began incorporating it into my classroom teaching. In this book, I have used ChatGPT to help me with outlining content in chapters. I also used ChatGPT to create sample essays for each critical lens we will study in the course. These essays are dry and rather soulless, but they do a good job of modeling how to apply a specific theory to a literary text. I chose John Donne’s poem “The Canonization” as the text for these essays so that you can see how the different theories illuminate different aspects of the text.

I encourage students in my courses to use ChatGPT in the following ways:

• To generate ideas about an approach to a text.
• To better understand basic concepts.
• To assist with outlining an essay.
• To check grammar, punctuation, spelling, paragraphing, and other grammar/syntax issues.

If you choose to use Chat GPT, please include a brief acknowledgment statement as an appendix to your paper after your Works Cited page explaining how you have used the tool in your work. Here is an example of how to do this from Monash University’s “ Acknowledging the Use of Generative Artificial Intelligence .”

I acknowledge the use of [insert AI system(s) and link] to [specific use of generative artificial intelligence]. The prompts used include [list of prompts]. The output from these prompts was used to [explain use].

Here is more information about how to cite the use of generative AI like ChatGPT in your work. The information below was adapted from “Acknowledging and Citing Generative AI in Academic Work” by Liza Long (CC BY 4.0).

The Modern Language Association (MLA) uses a template of core elements to create citations for a Works Cited page. MLA  asks students to apply this approach when citing any type of generative AI in their work. They provide the following guidelines:

Cite a generative AI tool whenever you paraphrase, quote, or incorporate into your own work any content (whether text, image, data, or other) that was created by it. Acknowledge all functional uses of the tool (like editing your prose or translating words) in a note, your text, or another suitable location. Take care to vet the secondary sources it cites. (MLA)

Here are some examples of how to use and cite generative AI with MLA style:

Example One: Paraphrasing Text

Let’s say that I am trying to generate ideas for a paper on Charlotte Perkins Gilman’s short story “The Yellow Wallpaper.” I ask ChatGPT to provide me with a summary and identify the story’s main themes. Here’s a  link to the chat . I decide that I will explore the problem of identity and self-expression in my paper.

My Paraphrase of ChatGPT with In-Text Citation

The problem of identity and self expression, especially for nineteenth-century women, is a major theme in “The Yellow Wallpaper” by Charlotte Perkins Gilman (“Summarize the short story”).

Works Cited Entry

“Summarize the short story “The Yellow Wallpaper” by Charlotte Perkins Gilman. Include a breakdown of the main themes” prompt.  ChatGPT.  24 May Version, OpenAI, 20 Jul. 2023,  https://chat.openai.com/share/d1526b95-920c-48fc-a9be-83cd7dfa4be5 

Example Two: Quoting Text

In the same chat, I continue to ask ChatGPT about the theme of identity and self expression. Here’s an example of how I could quote the response in the body of my paper:

When I asked  ChatGPT  to describe the theme of identity and self expression, it noted that the eponymous yellow wallpaper acts as a symbol of the narrator’s self-repression. However, when prompted to share the scholarly sources that formed the basis of this observation,  ChatGPT  responded, “As an AI language model, I don’t have access to my training data, but I was trained on a mixture of licensed data, data created by human trainers, and publicly available data. OpenAI, the organization behind my development, has not publicly disclosed the specifics of the individual datasets used, including whether scholarly sources were specifically used” (“Summarize the short story”).

It’s worth noting here that ChatGPT can “ hallucinate ” fake sources. As a Microsoft training manual notes, these chatbots are “built to be persuasive, not truthful” (Weiss &Metz, 2023). The May 24, 2023 version will no longer respond to direct requests for references; however, I was able to get around this restriction fairly easily by asking for “resources” instead.

When I ask for resources to learn more about “The Yellow Wallpaper,” here is one source it recommends:

“Charlotte Perkins Gilman’s The Yellow Wallpaper: A Symptomatic Reading” by Elaine R. Hedges: This scholarly article delves into the psychological and feminist themes of the story, analyzing the narrator’s experience and the implications of the yellow wallpaper on her mental state. It’s available in the journal “Studies in Short Fiction.” (“Summarize the short story”).

Using Google Scholar, I look up this source to see if it’s real. Unsurprisingly, this source is not a real one, but it does lead me to another (real) source: Kasmer, Lisa. “Charlotte Perkins Gilman’s’ The Yellow Wallpaper’: A Symptomatic Reading.”  Literature and Psychology  36.3 (1990): 1.

Note: ALWAYS check any sources that ChatGPT or other generative AI tools recommend.

For more information about integrating and citing generative artificial intelligence tools such as ChatGPT, please see this section of  Write What Matters.

I acknowledge that ChatGPT does not respect the individual rights of authors and artists and ignores concerns over copyright and intellectual property in its training; additionally, I acknowledge that the system was trained in part through the exploitation of precarious workers in the global south. In this work I specifically used ChatGPT to assist with outlining chapters, providing background information about critical lenses, and creating “model” essays for the critical lenses we will learn about together. I have included links to my chats in an appendix to this book.

Critical theories: A targeted approach to writing about literature

Ultimately, there’s not one “right” way to read a text. In this book. we will explore a variety of critical theories that scholars use to analyze literature. The book is organized around different targets that are associated with the approach introduced in each chapter. In the introduction, for example, our target is literature. In future chapters you’ll explore these targeted analysis techniques:

• Author: Biographical Criticism
• Text: New Criticism
• Reader: Reader Response Criticism
• Gap: Deconstruction (Post-Structuralism)
• Context: New Historicism and Cultural Studies
• Power: Marxist and Postcolonial Criticism
• Mind: Psychological Criticism
• Gender: Feminist, Post Feminist, and Queer Theory
• Nature: Ecocriticism

Each chapter will feature the target image with the central approach in the center. You’ll read a brief introduction about the theory, explore some primary texts (both critical and literary), watch a video, and apply the theory to a primary text. Each one of these theories could be the subject of its own entire course, so keep in mind that our goal in this book is to introduce these theories and give you a basic familiarity with these tools for literary analysis. For more information and practice, I recommend Steven Lynn’s excellent Texts and Contexts: Writing about Literature with Critical Theory , which provides a similar introductory framework.

I am so excited to share these tools with you and see you grow as a literary scholar. As we explore each of these critical worlds, you’ll likely find that some critical theories feel more natural or logical to you than others. I find myself much more comfortable with deconstruction than with psychological criticism, for example. Pay attention to how these theories work for you because this will help you to expand your approaches to texts and prepare you for more advanced courses in literature.

P.S. If you want to know what my favorite book is, I usually tell people it’s Herman Melville’s Moby Dick . And I do love that book! But I really have no idea what my “favorite” book of all time is, let alone what my favorite book was last year. Every new book that I read is a window into another world and a template for me to make sense out of my own experience and better empathize with others. That’s why I love literature. I hope you’ll love this experience too.

writings in prose or verse, especially :  writings having excellence of form or expression and expressing ideas of permanent or universal interest (Merriam Webster)

Critical Worlds Copyright © 2024 by Liza Long is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Importance of Cultural Diversity Essay

Cultural diversity refers to inclusion of individuals of varying age, gender, race, ethnicity, relationship status, educational achievement, income, and sexual orientation, among other dimensions. The practice is important in development because engaging children in culturally responsive learning experiences help them build critical skills such as self-confidence. Such children become more aware of themselves, learn how to appreciate and respect diverse beliefs and cultures. Approximately 96% of major employers favor employees who can work effectively with colleagues and clients from diverse cultures (Wells et al., 2016). Furthermore, fostering cultural diversity can improve children’s cognitive skills. Wells et al. (2016) reported that exposure to people who are from different cultures helps promote critical and problem-solving skills due to the diversity of ideas and perspectives.

Moreover, it is imperative to be competent when working with children and families of diverse/exceptional backgrounds to design outreach and communication strategies that respond to their unique needs (socioeconomic, cultural, and linguistic). Understanding the values and beliefs of these groups can also foster inclusion and sense of belonging. Cultural competence can help avoid imposing values on others. Racial prejudice occurs in schools partly because people have preexisting notions about people from different backgrounds. Promoting inclusivity in the school setting helps discourage racial discrimination by eliminating the preexisting assumptions and celebrating personal differences. Campaigns such as the Black Lives Matter may be attributed to lack of inclusion and appreciation of different cultures.

Cultural diversity has evolved significantly from what was perceived to be acceptance and belonging in the year 1970. For instance, the discussion of inclusivity in the 1970s focused on primary (race, ethnicity, gender, and disability status) and secondary (.e.g., sexual orientation, educational background, first language, family status, income level, and communication style) dimensions of cultural diversity. Consequently, some of the challenges parents would face addressing an issue of “diversity, acceptance and belonging” with the school administrators that impacted your child’s schooling during this period include racial discrimination, gender bias, prejudice based on sexual orientation, ethnic inequality in access to educational resources and opportunities, and intolerance to different cultures. Today, such a conversation would depict an expanded scope which goes beyond simple demographic variables to include tertiary dimensions such as individual values, beliefs, assumptions, perceptions, attitudes, and feelings.

Wells, A. S., Fox, L., & Cordova-Cobo, D. (2016). How racially diverse schools and classrooms can benefit all students . The Century Foundation. Web.

• Chicago (A-D)
• Chicago (N-B)

IvyPanda. (2023, October 31). Importance of Cultural Diversity. https://ivypanda.com/essays/importance-of-cultural-diversity/

"Importance of Cultural Diversity." IvyPanda , 31 Oct. 2023, ivypanda.com/essays/importance-of-cultural-diversity/.

IvyPanda . (2023) 'Importance of Cultural Diversity'. 31 October.

IvyPanda . 2023. "Importance of Cultural Diversity." October 31, 2023. https://ivypanda.com/essays/importance-of-cultural-diversity/.

1. IvyPanda . "Importance of Cultural Diversity." October 31, 2023. https://ivypanda.com/essays/importance-of-cultural-diversity/.

Bibliography

IvyPanda . "Importance of Cultural Diversity." October 31, 2023. https://ivypanda.com/essays/importance-of-cultural-diversity/.

• Pre-Existing Health Conditions
• Practicing Racial Inclusivity Strategies in Organization
• Types of Secondary and Tertiary Packaging
• Elements in Cross-Cultural Communication Competence
• The Concept of Expectancy Violations Theory
• “The Seven Habits of Highly Effective People” by David Covey
• Leadership: Communication as Important Aspects of Leadership
• The Role of Media in Multicultural Communication

Tips for Online Students , Tips for Students

What Is Cultural Diversity And Why Is It Important?

Updated: December 14, 2023

Published: July 28, 2020

The things you do and the practices you were taught inform who you become. Culture is a broad term that encompasses beliefs, values, norms, behaviors, and overall can be understood as our “way of being.” When you go out into the world, you will come into contact with people from different backgrounds and walks of life. It’s a good rule of thumb to honor cultural diversity with your actions. So, what is cultural diversity and why does it matter?

Let’s get into the details of how cultural diversity can take shape in professional settings, within educational institutions, and overall, in most aspects of life.

Photo by Omar Lopez on Unsplash

Cultural diversity – defined.

Cultural diversity is synonymous with multiculturalism. Multiculturalism is defined by the Encyclopedia Britannica as, “the view that cultures, races, and ethnicities, particularly those of minority groups, deserve special acknowledgment of their differences within a dominant political culture.”

The importance of cultural diversity can be interpreted on the basis of these related actions:

• Recognizing that there is a large amount of cultures that exist
• Respecting each other’s differences
• Acknowledging that all cultural expressions are valid
• Valuing what cultures have to bring to the table
• Empowering diverse groups to contribute
• Celebrating differences, not just tolerating them

So, what are some examples of cultural diversity?

Cultural diversity looks like this:

• In A Workplace: Having a multilingual team, having a diverse range of ages working together, having policies that are vocally against discrimination, etc.
• In A School Setting: Having students from all over the world (like at the University of the People ), being accepting of all religious practices and traditions that students part take in, supporting students to share their cultures with one another, etc.

The Importance Of Cultural Diversity In Education

Cultural diversity is important in every setting in life, but it can be even more pivotal when it happens within education. Students around the world have the right to equal access of quality education , and as such, there are many upsides that come along with it when institutions believe in the power of diversity.

Cultural diversity in education helps to support:

1. Deep Learning

Learning happens within the curriculum and outside of it. With a diverse student population, students have the privilege of gaining more understanding about people and backgrounds from all over. This also contributes to diversity of thought and perspectives that make learning more interesting and dynamic.

2. Confidence And Growth

When students participate with people from varied cultures, it provides them with more confidence in dealing with things outside of their comfort zones. It can build strength of character, pride, and confidence.

3. Preparation For The Future

If a workplace has done the necessary work, it’s bound to be culturally diverse. Attending a culturally diverse institute of education will prepare students for their future in a workplace.

4. More Empathy

Interacting with people who have diverse practices, beliefs, life experiences, and culture promotes empathy. While you can never fully understand someone’s life without being them, you can learn, listen, and understand.

Benefits Of Cultural Diversity

The world is naturally multicultural. Approaching cultural diversity with a mindset and actions that embrace this fact leads to many benefits, like:

• Compassion: Communication and understanding of differences leads to increased compassion instead of judgment.
• Innovation: Varied perspectives and lens of looking at the world lend to innovative thinking.
• Productivity: People who come together and bring their own style of working together tend to support a more productive team.
• New Opportunities: The diversity opens the door to new opportunities and the blending of ideas which would otherwise have been homogeneous.
• Problem-Solving: Challenges are layered, so having people with different backgrounds can lead to better problem-solving with richness of opinions.

How To Support Cultural Diversity

Individuals and institutions alike have the agency to support cultural diversity. If you’re unsure how you can take action to do so, consider these ideas:

• Interact with people outside of your culture
• Be open-minded to listen and let go of judgment
• If you see anyone who is being culturally insensitive, speak out against it
• Accept that differences are beneficial and not harmful
• Don’t force your beliefs on people with opposing views
• Advocate to hire people or work with people who are not within your same culture
• Travel the world as much as you can to take part in cultures and understand them from the source
• Read literature and learn from different cultures
• Absorb media and art from around the world
• Learn a new language and communicate in a friend’s native language rather than your own

How UoPeople Supports Diversity

The University of the People was founded with the mission to offer accessible education that’s affordable to students from the entire globe. We believe that our differences bring strength and can help to promote world peace, just like education. That’s why we have a global student body with students attending our online degree programs from over 200 countries and territories.

While our institution is set up to be affordable to all because programs are tuition-free, we also extend specific scholarships that help to grow cultural diversity.

Some of our scholarships include :

• Scholarship for Syrian Refugees
• U.S. Embassy in Burkina Faso Scholarship
• Viatnamese Scholarship Fund
• Botari Women’s Scholarship Fund

Photo by Kyle Glenn on Unsplash

Cultural diversity is worth celebrating.

The world is filled with people who have different beliefs, religions, traditions, and ways of living. It is within our differences that we can find beauty. Both in educational and professional environments, cultural diversity benefits everyone. It paves the way to better problem-solving, more empathy and compassion, deepened learning, and approaches the world from various perspectives.

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Why Study Literature?

05.15.2023 • 5 min read

Learn about the value and benefits of studying literature: how it develops our skills as well as shapes our understanding of the society we live in.

What Is Literature?

The benefits of studying literature.

Literature & Outlier.org

Many libraries in the U.S. are under attack.

From small towns to big cities, it’s more common to see protests outside of libraries. Libraries are under the microscope and being scrutinized for what content they have on their shelves.

Some people see certain books as a threat to society. While others believe everyone has a right to access any information they wish. The fact is literature is so powerful some people see it as dangerous and want to choose what the public has a right to read.

This is not the first time in history that people have tried to censor literature for what it says. So what really is literature and why is it so powerful?

In this article, we’ll define literature, talk about the history of literature, and the benefits of studying literature in college.

Literature is an art form that uses language to create imaginative experiences. It includes poetry, drama, fiction, and nonfiction.

Literature communicates ideas and emotions.It entertains, educates, and inspires readers. Literature explores complex themes and is an important part of human culture.

From its original Latin derivative, "writing formed with letters," to its current definition, a "body of written works," our understanding of literature has evolved.

Literature explains society and culture. It both criticizes and affirms cultural values based on the writer’s perceptions. It expresses and explores the human condition. It looks back to the past and onward toward the future.

As literature represents the culture and history of a language or people, the study of literature has great value. To study literature means looking deeply into a large body of written work and examining it as an art form.

Of course, there are many different literary genres, or types of literature. At a liberal arts school , a literature program, a student would study these genres extensively and understand the historical and cultural context they represent.

Literary Fiction vs. Genre Fiction

Students in a college literature program examine many forms of literature, including:

Some definitions of literature separate fiction into 2 categories: literary fiction and genre fiction. Genre fiction consists of more popular literature read for entertainment. Some examples of genre fiction include crime, fantasy, and science fiction stories.

Literary fiction explores themes of the human condition. These stories cannot be further categorized and are read primarily for a philosophical search for the meaning of life. Examples of literary fiction include The Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald and Beloved by Toni Morrison.

You can discover more distinctions by studying literature in depth.

1. Literature Develops Communication Skills

The foundation of literature is the English Language. By reading literature, you can improve your knowledge of language: vocabulary, grammar, sentence structure, content creation, and more. When you immerse yourself in William Shakespeare, Celeste Ng, or Chinua Achebe, you're absorbing new words, expressions, and ideas—without even realizing it.

You can use everything you learn to improve your own writing and communication skills . You will use these skills beyond high school and college. In our everyday lives, we navigate personal relationships, craft emails, present projects, collaborate with teammates, analyze data, and more.

Yuval Noah Harari has written much of his own literature on the history and success of the human race. In his book Sapiens, he emphasizes our ability to craft stories as one of our most valuable skills: " Fiction has enabled us not merely to imagine things, but to do so collectively.” Through these collective stories, we learn about the human experience, both in smaller interpersonal ways and on a larger, more global scale.

2. Literature Teaches Us About the Human Condition

Literature helps us reflect on the human experience, teaching us about who we are and the world we live in. It presents a range of emotions, from love to anger to grief to happiness. It gives us insight and context about societal norms and cultural traditions.

It explores our history and our present; it imagines our futures. It introduces us to new ways of thinking and living, compelling us to think critically and creatively about our own experiences.

Through literature, we see we're not alone in our thoughts and feelings. The characters we read about have already experienced similar difficulties and worked to solve or change them, giving us the blueprint to do the same.

Jane Austen's Pride and Prejudice goes beyond social commentary to explore the complexities of familial relationships, romantic relationships, and friendships. Mr. Darcy insults Elizabeth Bennet without meaning to, Elizabeth Bennet makes harsh judgments without knowing all the facts, and Mrs. Bennet worries about her daughter's future constantly. We can see ourselves in them.

3. Literature Teaches Us About Empathy

When we connect with literature's characters and narratives, we learn how to empathize with others. While we’re not physically experiencing the raging seas in Virginia Woolf's To the Lighthouse or the loss of a loved one in William Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet, we are swept up in the story and the emotion. This helps us develop empathy and emotional intelligence.

In a 2006 study , professors at the University of Toronto concluded a lifetime exposure to literary fiction positively correlated with advanced social ability. In 2020, the Harvard Business Review encouraged business students to read literary works to enhance their abilities to keep an open mind, process information, and make effective decisions.

4. Literature Helps Us Explore New Ideas

With words, and not actions, authors create spaces where we can explore new ideas, new structures, new concepts, and new products. When the only limit is your imagination, anything is possible in creative writing.

We can dive into the past to understand British society at the turn of the 19th century in Austen's Pride and Prejudice or jump into potential futures through Harari's Homo Deus. We can consider alternative futures like that in George Orwell's 1984 or conduct experiments in Robert Louis Stevenson's The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde.

We don't encounter monsters or humanoid robots in our everyday lives (at least we hope not!). But when we explore them through literature, we’re equipped to consider, challenge, and analyze concepts we don't yet know or understand. This practice opens our minds and allows us to be more flexible when we face the new and unknown. These critical thinking skills enable us to process information easier.

5. Literature Changes the Way We Think

With everything we learn from literature and the skills it helps us develop, literature changes the way we think, work, and act.

When we can think more critically, we arrive at different conclusions. When we open our minds and empathize with others, we better accept and tolerate differences. When we can articulate and communicate effectively, we work better together to achieve and succeed.

Whether English literature or Russian literature or French literature, literature is the key to understanding ourselves and society.

Literature and Outlier.org

Looking to study literature and develop your own writing skills? Outlier.org’s cutting-edge College Writing course is a great place to start. Through interviews with celebrated writers and writing secrets from instructor John Kaag, you'll learn how to use words to express yourself and communicate more effectively.

The course explores:

How to level up your love letters

What writing and magic have in common

How to write better professional emails using The Princess Bride

How to get your writing published

How to create the perfect short sentence

Outlier courses are 100% online, so you can learn at your own pace from the comfort of your own home. At $149 per credit, you’ll save 50% compared to other college courses, all while earning transferable credits from the top-ranked University of Pittsburgh. If you decide to continue your education in literature, you can take the credit with you to the degree program of your choice.

It’s no doubt studying literature will give you a well-rounded education. It is through literature that societies have grown and developed—inspiring change throughout the world. Choosing to study literature will not only give you a glimpse into the past but help you articulate the present and inspire change in the future. By studying literature you will have the power to connect with others and truly touch their hearts and minds.

About the Author

Bob Patterson is a former Director of Admissions at Stanford University, UNC Chapel Hill, and UC Berkeley; Daisy Hill is the co-author of Uni in the USA…and beyond published by the Good Schools Guide 2019. Together, they have established MyGuidED, a new educational tool for students looking to apply to university (launching 2023).

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Why children’s books that teach diversity are more important than ever

Senior Lecturer in Literature and Public Engagement, University of East Anglia

Disclosure statement

BJ Woodstein does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

University of East Anglia provides funding as a member of The Conversation UK.

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If you think back to your childhood, what sticks with you? For many people, it’s those cosy times when they were cuddled up with a parent or grandparent, being read a story.

But bedtime stories aren’t just lovely endings to the day or a way to induce sleep, they are also a safe way to experience and discuss all sorts of feelings and situations. So even when children think they’re just being told about an adorable bunny’s adventures, they are actually learning about the world around them.

We know that children’s books can act like both mirrors and windows on the world. Mirrors in that they can reflect on children’s own lives, and windows in that they can give children a chance to learn about someone else’s life. We also know that this type of self-reflection and opportunity to read or hear about different lives is essential for young people .

Research on prejudice shows that coming in contact with people who are different – so-called “others” – helps to reduce stereotypes. This is because when we see people who initially seem different, we learn about them and get closer to them through their story. The “other” seems less far away and, well, less “otherly”.

But while it may be ideal for children to actually meet people from different backgrounds in person, if that isn’t possible, books can serve as a first introduction to an outside world.

Representing the world

Despite knowing how important it is for diversity to be represented in our day-to-day lives, many children’s books are still littered with white, male, able-bodied, heterosexual, cisgender, nominally Christian characters. And research suggests that over 80% of characters in children’s books are white – which clearly doesn’t reflect the reality of our world.

All of these reasons are why the We Need Diverse Books movement was set in motion in 2014, stemming from a discussion between children’s books authors Ellen Oh and Malinda Lo . The movement aims for more diverse children’s books to actually be created and for these works to be available to young people. And while we need people to actually write them, we also need publishers to produce them, and bookstores, libraries, and schools to stock them.

As someone who researches children’s literature, I think we’d have fewer conflicts in the world if we all read more diverse literature and lived more diverse lives.

I like to think that if we had more diverse children’s books, featuring a broad range of characters in many different jobs and situations, as well as more diverse role models in the media, young people would feel empowered, and they’d believe that when they grow up, they could be anyone and do anything they wanted. And they’d look at their friends and think the same for them, and they’d grow up respecting and appreciating everyone’s talents.

With this mindset present, issues such as race or religion wouldn’t even play a subconscious role . And it would mean that within a generation or two, we wouldn’t read articles about appalling and depressing statistics, and we wouldn’t need campaigns to increase diversity in literature, academia, or anywhere else.

Role models

But books aren’t just about “others”. When we see people like ourselves in the media, including in fiction, we get a glimpse of who we might become, and we feel validated. We can gain role models and inspiration through literature.

Perhaps partly in response to people’s growing awareness of the need for role models – whether in person or in literature – one young black girl, Marley Dias, started a campaign to find 1,000 “black girl books”. Dias recommends works such as Brown Girl Dreaming by Jacqueline Woodson, One Crazy Summer by Rita Williams-Garcia, Chains by Laurie Halse Anderson and I Love My Hair by Natasha Anastasia Tarpley.

But I wonder how many of those “black girl books” feature black girls in prominent roles, such as working as professors, doctors, teachers, or even as presidents of nations. I have a suspicion that the percentage would be disappointingly low.

Just featuring a minority character isn’t enough to create quality diverse literature, but it is a first step. And while there are some useful websites that recommend diverse children’s books and even literary awards dedicated to promoting such works, much still needs to be done.

Along with the increased worries today about immigrants, refugees, and general “otherness”, some societies seem to be headed towards a sense of false nostalgia about a time when the world was controlled by whites.

Given this is not how the world is or should be, we owe it to young readers to show them reality in the books they’re reading. Perhaps then the next generation will be less frightened of the “other” if they get to meet them and learn about them from an early age.

• Stereotypes
• Children's books
• How children learn

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The importance of cultures and why we should study them

While cultural studies are somewhat complex and can hardly be explained in a few paragraphs, we will give our best to tell you why it’s essential. Learning about other cultures can be both beneficial and fun, no matter how much time you spend on it. Our world is full of diversity, and although our own cultures impact us the most, there is a whole spectre of cultures out there that are worth exploring.

Cultural Studies Open Your Mind

Spending too much time with a limited amount of interests can make you close-minded. This can create a dose of animosity towards other people and their cultures. By giving yourself a chance to learn about other societies and their behavior, you are more likely to accept their way of living rather than judging it. If more people were to participate in cultural studies, it would lead to the rising of global awareness, which will create only positive results.

Studying Cultures Can be Fun

Not a lot of people associate studying with fun, but cultural studies can, in fact, be very amusing. Learning about other cultures may provide you with a lot of interesting facts. You might learn stuff you never knew existed. In effect, this can create additional curiosity and the desire to learn more about each subject. Even if you don’t find cultural studies that interesting, you will still get a chance to learn something new.

Learning by Travelling

Studying about cultures does not necessarily involve book reading. Maybe the best way to learn about other cultures is to be right on the spot. You may read about different customs and traditions in great detail, but until you are there to witness them, you won’t be able to experience them properly.

Traveling can help you to understand other cultures better and appreciate them. Speaking to a person from a foreign country about their customs and traditions is probably the best way to learn about this. More so, you can share a thing or two about your culture during the conversation as well.

Studying about cultures opens up a whole new horizon. Apart from being educational, cultural studies create the feel of appreciation towards other ethnicities. On top of that, you can learn about it just by going to different places and seeing the world for yourself.

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