how to define key concepts in research

Want to create or adapt books like this? Learn more about how Pressbooks supports open publishing practices.

Introduction to Research Methods

3 Understanding Key Research Concepts and Terms

Many terms and concepts are associated with research methods, particularly as it relates to the research planning decisions you must make along the way.  Throughout this textbook, you will be exposed to many of these terms and concepts.  Figure 1.1 is a general chart that will help you contextualize many of these terms and also understand the research process.  As you can see, Figure 1.1 begins with two key concepts: ontology and epistemology, advances through other concepts and concludes with three research methodological approaches: qualitative, quantitative and mixed methods.

However, it is important to note that research does not end with making decisions about the type of methods you will use. In fact, we could argue that the work is just beginning at this point. As such, Figure 1.1 does not represent an all-encompassing list of concepts and terms related to research methods. Keep in mind that each strategy has its own data collection and analysis approaches, which are associated with the various methodological approaches you choose.  Figure 1.1 is meant to provide a general overview of the lay of the research land. You may want to keep this figure handy as you read through the various chapters.

Ontology & epistemology

Thinking about what you know and how you know what you know involves questions of ontology and epistemology. Perhaps you have heard these concepts before in a philosophy class?  These concepts are relevant to the work of sociologists as well. As sociologists (those who undertake socially-focused research), we want to understand some aspect of our social world.  Usually, we are not starting with zero knowledge.  In fact, we usually start with some understanding of: 1) what is; 2) what can be known about what is; and, 3) what the best mechanism happens to be for learning about what is (Schmitz, 2012). In the following sections, we will define these terms and provide an example of ontology and epistemology

Ontology is a Greek word that means the study, theory, or science of being.  Ontology is concerned with the what is or the nature of reality (Saunders, Lewis, & Thornhill, 2009).  It can involve some very large and difficult to answer questions, such as: What is the purpose of life? What, if anything, exists beyond our universe?  Ontology also asks: What categories does it belong to? Is there such a thing as objective reality?  What does the verb “to be” mean?  

Ontology is comprised of two aspects: objectivism and subjectivism. Objectivism means that social entities exist externally to the social actors who are concerned with their existence. Subjectivism means that social phenomena are created from the perceptions and actions of the social actors who are concerned with their existence (Saunders, et al., 2009).  Figure 1.2 provides an example of a similar research project to be undertaken by two different students.  While the projects being proposed by the students are similar, they each have different research questions.  Read the scenario and then answer the questions that follow.

Subjectivist and objectivist approaches (adapted from Saunders et al., 2009)

Ana is an Emergency & Security Management Studies (ESMS) student at a local college. She is just beginning her capstone research project and she plans to do research at the City of Vancouver. Her research question is as follows: What is the role of City of Vancouver managers, working in the emergency management department, in enabling positive community relationships? She will be collecting data related to the roles and duties of managers in enabling positive community relationships.

Robert is also an ESMS student at the same college. He too will be undertaking his research at the City of Vancouver. His research question is as follows: What is the effect of the City of Vancouver’s corporate culture in enabling managers, working in the emergency management department, to develop a positive relationship with the local community? He will be collecting data related to perceptions of corporate culture and its effect on enabling positive community-emergency management department relationships.

Before the students begin collecting data, they learn that six months ago, the long-time emergency department manager and assistance manager both retired. They have been replaced by two senior staff managers who have Bachelor’s degrees in Emergency Services Management. These new managers are considered more up-to-date and knowledgeable on emergency services management, give their specialized academic training and practical on-the-job work experience in this department. The new managers have, essentially, the same job duties and operate under the same procedures as the managers they replaced. When Ana and Robert approach the managers to ask them to participate in their separate studies, the new managers state that they are just new on the job and probably cannot answer the research questions and they decline to participate. Ana and Robert are worried that they will need to start all over again with a new research project. They return to their supervisors to get their opinions on what they should do.

Before reading about their supervisors’ responses, answer the following questions:

• Is Ana’s research question indicative of an objectivist or a subjectivist approach?
• Is Robert’s research question indicative of an objectivist or a subjectivist approach?
• Given your answer in question 1, which managers could Ana interview (new, old, or both) for her research study? Why?
• Given your answer in question 2, which managers could Robert interview (new, old, or both) for his research study? Why?

Ana’s supervisor tells her that her research question set up for an objectivist approach. Her supervisor tells her that in her study the social entity (the City) exists in reality external to the social actors (the managers). In other words, there is a formal management structure at the City that has largely remained unchanged since the old managers left and the new ones started. The procedures remain the same regardless of whoever occupies those positions. As such, Ana using an objectivist approach, could state that the new managers have job descriptions which describe their duties and that they are a part of a formal structure with a hierarchy of people reporting to them and to whom they report to. She could further state that this hierarchy, which unique to this organization, also resembles hierarchies found in other similar organizations. As such, she can argue that the new managers will be able to speak about the role they play in enabling positive community relationships. Their answers are likely to be no different than the old managers, because the management structure and the procedures remain the same. Therefore, she can go back to the new managers and ask them to participate in her research study.

Robert’s supervisor tells him that his research sets up for a subjectivist approach because in his study the social phenomena (the effect of corporate culture on the relationship with the community) is created from the perceptions and consequent actions of the social actors (the managers). In other words, there is a continual process of social interaction, that is influenced by the corporate culture at the City, and it is these interactions that influence perceptions of the relationship with the community. The relationship is in a constant state of revision. As such, Robert, using a subjectivist approach, could state that the new managers may have had few interactions with the community members to date and therefore may not be fully cognizant of how the corporate culture affects the department’s relationship with the community. While it will be important to get the new mangers’ perceptions, he will also need to speak with the precious managers to get their perceptions from the time they were employed in their positions. This is because the community-department relationship is in a state of constant revision, which is influenced by the various managers perceptions of the corporate culture and its effect on their ability to form positive community relationships. Therefore, he can go back to the current managers and ask them to participate in his study and also ask that the department please contact the previous managers to see if they would be willing to participate in his study.

As you can see from the previous examples, it is the research question of each study that served to guide the decision as to whether the researcher should take a subjective or an objective ontological approach. This decision, in turn, guided their approach to the research study, including to whom they should interview in order to answer their respective interview questions.  We will be speaking a lot more about research questions in the upcoming chapters.

• Epistemology

Epistemology has to do with knowledge. Rather than dealing with questions about what is , epistemology deals with questions of how we know what is.  In sociology, there are many ways to uncover knowledge. We might interview people to understand public opinion about some topic, or perhaps we’ll observe them in their natural environment. We could avoid face-to-face interaction altogether by mailing people surveys for them to complete on their own or by reading what people have to say about their opinions in newspaper editorials. These methods are all ways that sociologists gain knowledge. Each method of data collection comes with its own set of epistemological assumptions about how to find things out (Schmitz, 2012). There are two main subsections of epistemology: positivist and interpretivist philosophies. We will examine these philosophies or paradigms in the following sections.

Long Descriptions

Figure 1.1 long description: The research process.

• Interpretivism
• Post-modernism
• Social constructivism
• Non-experiment
• Quasi-experiment
• Quantitative
• Qualitative
• Mixed methods
• Unobtrusive methods

[Return to Figure 1.1]

An Introduction to Research Methods in Sociology Copyright © 2019 by Valerie A. Sheppard is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

Share This Book

An official website of the United States government

The .gov means it’s official. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.

The site is secure. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

• Publications
• Account settings

Preview improvements coming to the PMC website in October 2024. Learn More or Try it out now .

• Advanced Search
• Journal List
• J Pharmacol Pharmacother
• v.4(2); Apr-Jun 2013

The critical steps for successful research: The research proposal and scientific writing: (A report on the pre-conference workshop held in conjunction with the 64 th annual conference of the Indian Pharmaceutical Congress-2012)

Pitchai balakumar.

Pharmacology Unit, Faculty of Pharmacy, AIMST University, Semeling, 08100 Bedong. Kedah Darul Aman, Malaysia

Mohammed Naseeruddin Inamdar

1 Department of Pharmacology, Al-Ameen College of Pharmacy, Bengaluru, Karnataka, India

Gowraganahalli Jagadeesh

2 Division of Cardiovascular and Renal Products, Center for Drug Evaluation and Research, US Food and Drug Administration, Silver Spring, USA

An interactive workshop on ‘The Critical Steps for Successful Research: The Research Proposal and Scientific Writing’ was conducted in conjunction with the 64 th Annual Conference of the Indian Pharmaceutical Congress-2012 at Chennai, India. In essence, research is performed to enlighten our understanding of a contemporary issue relevant to the needs of society. To accomplish this, a researcher begins search for a novel topic based on purpose, creativity, critical thinking, and logic. This leads to the fundamental pieces of the research endeavor: Question, objective, hypothesis, experimental tools to test the hypothesis, methodology, and data analysis. When correctly performed, research should produce new knowledge. The four cornerstones of good research are the well-formulated protocol or proposal that is well executed, analyzed, discussed and concluded. This recent workshop educated researchers in the critical steps involved in the development of a scientific idea to its successful execution and eventual publication.

INTRODUCTION

Creativity and critical thinking are of particular importance in scientific research. Basically, research is original investigation undertaken to gain knowledge and understand concepts in major subject areas of specialization, and includes the generation of ideas and information leading to new or substantially improved scientific insights with relevance to the needs of society. Hence, the primary objective of research is to produce new knowledge. Research is both theoretical and empirical. It is theoretical because the starting point of scientific research is the conceptualization of a research topic and development of a research question and hypothesis. Research is empirical (practical) because all of the planned studies involve a series of observations, measurements, and analyses of data that are all based on proper experimental design.[ 1 – 9 ]

The subject of this report is to inform readers of the proceedings from a recent workshop organized by the 64 th Annual conference of the ‘ Indian Pharmaceutical Congress ’ at SRM University, Chennai, India, from 05 to 06 December 2012. The objectives of the workshop titled ‘The Critical Steps for Successful Research: The Research Proposal and Scientific Writing,’ were to assist participants in developing a strong fundamental understanding of how best to develop a research or study protocol, and communicate those research findings in a conference setting or scientific journal. Completing any research project requires meticulous planning, experimental design and execution, and compilation and publication of findings in the form of a research paper. All of these are often unfamiliar to naïve researchers; thus, the purpose of this workshop was to teach participants to master the critical steps involved in the development of an idea to its execution and eventual publication of the results (See the last section for a list of learning objectives).

THE STRUCTURE OF THE WORKSHOP

The two-day workshop was formatted to include key lectures and interactive breakout sessions that focused on protocol development in six subject areas of the pharmaceutical sciences. This was followed by sessions on scientific writing. DAY 1 taught the basic concepts of scientific research, including: (1) how to formulate a topic for research and to describe the what, why , and how of the protocol, (2) biomedical literature search and review, (3) study designs, statistical concepts, and result analyses, and (4) publication ethics. DAY 2 educated the attendees on the basic elements and logistics of writing a scientific paper and thesis, and preparation of poster as well as oral presentations.

The final phase of the workshop was the ‘Panel Discussion,’ including ‘Feedback/Comments’ by participants. There were thirteen distinguished speakers from India and abroad. Approximately 120 post-graduate and pre-doctoral students, young faculty members, and scientists representing industries attended the workshop from different parts of the country. All participants received a printed copy of the workshop manual and supporting materials on statistical analyses of data.

THE BASIC CONCEPTS OF RESEARCH: THE KEY TO GETTING STARTED IN RESEARCH

A research project generally comprises four key components: (1) writing a protocol, (2) performing experiments, (3) tabulating and analyzing data, and (4) writing a thesis or manuscript for publication.

Fundamentals in the research process

A protocol, whether experimental or clinical, serves as a navigator that evolves from a basic outline of the study plan to become a qualified research or grant proposal. It provides the structural support for the research. Dr. G. Jagadeesh (US FDA), the first speaker of the session, spoke on ‘ Fundamentals in research process and cornerstones of a research project .’ He discussed at length the developmental and structural processes in preparing a research protocol. A systematic and step-by-step approach is necessary in planning a study. Without a well-designed protocol, there would be a little chance for successful completion of a research project or an experiment.

Research topic

The first and the foremost difficult task in research is to identify a topic for investigation. The research topic is the keystone of the entire scientific enterprise. It begins the project, drives the entire study, and is crucial for moving the project forward. It dictates the remaining elements of the study [ Table 1 ] and thus, it should not be too narrow or too broad or unfocused. Because of these potential pitfalls, it is essential that a good or novel scientific idea be based on a sound concept. Creativity, critical thinking, and logic are required to generate new concepts and ideas in solving a research problem. Creativity involves critical thinking and is associated with generating many ideas. Critical thinking is analytical, judgmental, and involves evaluating choices before making a decision.[ 4 ] Thus, critical thinking is convergent type thinking that narrows and refines those divergent ideas and finally settles to one idea for an in-depth study. The idea on which a research project is built should be novel, appropriate to achieve within the existing conditions, and useful to the society at large. Therefore, creativity and critical thinking assist biomedical scientists in research that results in funding support, novel discovery, and publication.[ 1 , 4 ]

Elements of a study protocol

Research question

The next most crucial aspect of a study protocol is identifying a research question. It should be a thought-provoking question. The question sets the framework. It emerges from the title, findings/results, and problems observed in previous studies. Thus, mastering the literature, attendance at conferences, and discussion in journal clubs/seminars are sources for developing research questions. Consider the following example in developing related research questions from the research topic.

Hepatoprotective activity of Terminalia arjuna and Apium graveolens on paracetamol-induced liver damage in albino rats.

How is paracetamol metabolized in the body? Does it involve P450 enzymes? How does paracetamol cause liver injury? What are the mechanisms by which drugs can alleviate liver damage? What biochemical parameters are indicative of liver injury? What major endogenous inflammatory molecules are involved in paracetamol-induced liver damage?

A research question is broken down into more precise objectives. The objectives lead to more precise methods and definition of key terms. The objectives should be SMART-Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Realistic, Time-framed,[ 10 ] and should cover the entire breadth of the project. The objectives are sometimes organized into hierarchies: Primary, secondary, and exploratory; or simply general and specific. Study the following example:

To evaluate the safety and tolerability of single oral doses of compound X in normal volunteers.

To assess the pharmacokinetic profile of compound X following single oral doses.

To evaluate the incidence of peripheral edema reported as an adverse event.

The objectives and research questions are then formulated into a workable or testable hypothesis. The latter forces us to think carefully about what comparisons will be needed to answer the research question, and establishes the format for applying statistical tests to interpret the results. The hypothesis should link a process to an existing or postulated biologic pathway. A hypothesis is written in a form that can yield measurable results. Studies that utilize statistics to compare groups of data should have a hypothesis. Consider the following example:

• The hepatoprotective activity of Terminalia arjuna is superior to that of Apium graveolens against paracetamol-induced liver damage in albino rats.

All biological research, including discovery science, is hypothesis-driven. However, not all studies need be conducted with a hypothesis. For example, descriptive studies (e.g., describing characteristics of a plant, or a chemical compound) do not need a hypothesis.[ 1 ]

Relevance of the study

Another important section to be included in the protocol is ‘significance of the study.’ Its purpose is to justify the need for the research that is being proposed (e.g., development of a vaccine for a disease). In summary, the proposed study should demonstrate that it represents an advancement in understanding and that the eventual results will be meaningful, contribute to the field, and possibly even impact society.

Biomedical literature

A literature search may be defined as the process of examining published sources of information on a research or review topic, thesis, grant application, chemical, drug, disease, or clinical trial, etc. The quantity of information available in print or electronically (e.g., the internet) is immense and growing with time. A researcher should be familiar with the right kinds of databases and search engines to extract the needed information.[ 3 , 6 ]

Dr. P. Balakumar (Institute of Pharmacy, Rajendra Institute of Technology and Sciences, Sirsa, Haryana; currently, Faculty of Pharmacy, AIMST University, Malaysia) spoke on ‘ Biomedical literature: Searching, reviewing and referencing .’ He schematically explained the basis of scientific literature, designing a literature review, and searching literature. After an introduction to the genesis and diverse sources of scientific literature searches, the use of PubMed, one of the premier databases used for biomedical literature searches world-wide, was illustrated with examples and screenshots. Several companion databases and search engines are also used for finding information related to health sciences, and they include Embase, Web of Science, SciFinder, The Cochrane Library, International Pharmaceutical Abstracts, Scopus, and Google Scholar.[ 3 ] Literature searches using alternative interfaces for PubMed such as GoPubMed, Quertle, PubFocus, Pubget, and BibliMed were discussed. The participants were additionally informed of databases on chemistry, drugs and drug targets, clinical trials, toxicology, and laboratory animals (reviewed in ref[ 3 ]).

Referencing and bibliography are essential in scientific writing and publication.[ 7 ] Referencing systems are broadly classified into two major types, such as Parenthetical and Notation systems. Parenthetical referencing is also known as Harvard style of referencing, while Vancouver referencing style and ‘Footnote’ or ‘Endnote’ are placed under Notation referencing systems. The participants were educated on each referencing system with examples.

Bibliography management

Dr. Raj Rajasekaran (University of California at San Diego, CA, USA) enlightened the audience on ‘ bibliography management ’ using reference management software programs such as Reference Manager ® , Endnote ® , and Zotero ® for creating and formatting bibliographies while writing a manuscript for publication. The discussion focused on the use of bibliography management software in avoiding common mistakes such as incomplete references. Important steps in bibliography management, such as creating reference libraries/databases, searching for references using PubMed/Google scholar, selecting and transferring selected references into a library, inserting citations into a research article and formatting bibliographies, were presented. A demonstration of Zotero®, a freely available reference management program, included the salient features of the software, adding references from PubMed using PubMed ID, inserting citations and formatting using different styles.

Writing experimental protocols

The workshop systematically instructed the participants in writing ‘ experimental protocols ’ in six disciplines of Pharmaceutical Sciences.: (1) Pharmaceutical Chemistry (presented by Dr. P. V. Bharatam, NIPER, Mohali, Punjab); (2) Pharmacology (presented by Dr. G. Jagadeesh and Dr. P. Balakumar); (3) Pharmaceutics (presented by Dr. Jayant Khandare, Piramal Life Sciences, Mumbai); (4) Pharmacy Practice (presented by Dr. Shobha Hiremath, Al-Ameen College of Pharmacy, Bengaluru); (5) Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry (presented by Dr. Salma Khanam, Al-Ameen College of Pharmacy, Bengaluru); and (6) Pharmaceutical Analysis (presented by Dr. Saranjit Singh, NIPER, Mohali, Punjab). The purpose of the research plan is to describe the what (Specific Aims/Objectives), why (Background and Significance), and how (Design and Methods) of the proposal.

The research plan should answer the following questions: (a) what do you intend to do; (b) what has already been done in general, and what have other researchers done in the field; (c) why is this worth doing; (d) how is it innovative; (e) what will this new work add to existing knowledge; and (f) how will the research be accomplished?

In general, the format used by the faculty in all subjects is shown in Table 2 .

Elements of a research protocol

Biostatistics

Biostatistics is a key component of biomedical research. Highly reputed journals like The Lancet, BMJ, Journal of the American Medical Association, and many other biomedical journals include biostatisticians on their editorial board or reviewers list. This indicates that a great importance is given for learning and correctly employing appropriate statistical methods in biomedical research. The post-lunch session on day 1 of the workshop was largely committed to discussion on ‘ Basic biostatistics .’ Dr. R. Raveendran (JIPMER, Puducherry) and Dr. Avijit Hazra (PGIMER, Kolkata) reviewed, in parallel sessions, descriptive statistics, probability concepts, sample size calculation, choosing a statistical test, confidence intervals, hypothesis testing and ‘ P ’ values, parametric and non-parametric statistical tests, including analysis of variance (ANOVA), t tests, Chi-square test, type I and type II errors, correlation and regression, and summary statistics. This was followed by a practice and demonstration session. Statistics CD, compiled by Dr. Raveendran, was distributed to the participants before the session began and was demonstrated live. Both speakers worked on a variety of problems that involved both clinical and experimental data. They discussed through examples the experimental designs encountered in a variety of studies and statistical analyses performed for different types of data. For the benefit of readers, we have summarized statistical tests applied frequently for different experimental designs and post-hoc tests [ Figure 1 ].

Conceptual framework for statistical analyses of data. Of the two kinds of variables, qualitative (categorical) and quantitative (numerical), qualitative variables (nominal or ordinal) are not normally distributed. Numerical data that come from normal distributions are analyzed using parametric tests, if not; the data are analyzed using non-parametric tests. The most popularly used Student's t -test compares the means of two populations, data for this test could be paired or unpaired. One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) is used to compare the means of three or more independent populations that are normally distributed. Applying t test repeatedly in pair (multiple comparison), to compare the means of more than two populations, will increase the probability of type I error (false positive). In this case, for proper interpretation, we need to adjust the P values. Repeated measures ANOVA is used to compare the population means if more than two observations coming from same subject over time. The null hypothesis is rejected with a ‘ P ’ value of less than 0.05, and the difference in population means is considered to be statistically significant. Subsequently, appropriate post-hoc tests are used for pairwise comparisons of population means. Two-way or three-way ANOVA are considered if two (diet, dose) or three (diet, dose, strain) independent factors, respectively, are analyzed in an experiment (not described in the Figure). Categorical nominal unmatched variables (counts or frequencies) are analyzed by Chi-square test (not shown in the Figure)

Research and publication ethics

The legitimate pursuit of scientific creativity is unfortunately being marred by a simultaneous increase in scientific misconduct. A disproportionate share of allegations involves scientists of many countries, and even from respected laboratories. Misconduct destroys faith in science and scientists and creates a hierarchy of fraudsters. Investigating misconduct also steals valuable time and resources. In spite of these facts, most researchers are not aware of publication ethics.

Day 1 of the workshop ended with a presentation on ‘ research and publication ethics ’ by Dr. M. K. Unnikrishnan (College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Manipal University, Manipal). He spoke on the essentials of publication ethics that included plagiarism (attempting to take credit of the work of others), self-plagiarism (multiple publications by an author on the same content of work with slightly different wordings), falsification (manipulation of research data and processes and omitting critical data or results), gift authorship (guest authorship), ghostwriting (someone other than the named author (s) makes a major contribution), salami publishing (publishing many papers, with minor differences, from the same study), and sabotage (distracting the research works of others to halt their research completion). Additionally, Dr. Unnikrishnan pointed out the ‘ Ingelfinger rule ’ of stipulating that a scientist must not submit the same original research in two different journals. He also advised the audience that authorship is not just credit for the work but also responsibility for scientific contents of a paper. Although some Indian Universities are instituting preventive measures (e.g., use of plagiarism detecting software, Shodhganga digital archiving of doctoral theses), Dr. Unnikrishnan argued for a great need to sensitize young researchers on the nature and implications of scientific misconduct. Finally, he discussed methods on how editors and peer reviewers should ethically conduct themselves while managing a manuscript for publication.

SCIENTIFIC COMMUNICATION: THE KEY TO SUCCESSFUL SELLING OF FINDINGS

Research outcomes are measured through quality publications. Scientists must not only ‘do’ science but must ‘write’ science. The story of the project must be told in a clear, simple language weaving in previous work done in the field, answering the research question, and addressing the hypothesis set forth at the beginning of the study. Scientific publication is an organic process of planning, researching, drafting, revising, and updating the current knowledge for future perspectives. Writing a research paper is no easier than the research itself. The lectures of Day 2 of the workshop dealt with the basic elements and logistics of writing a scientific paper.

An overview of paper structure and thesis writing

Dr. Amitabh Prakash (Adis, Auckland, New Zealand) spoke on ‘ Learning how to write a good scientific paper .’ His presentation described the essential components of an original research paper and thesis (e.g., introduction, methods, results, and discussion [IMRaD]) and provided guidance on the correct order, in which data should appear within these sections. The characteristics of a good abstract and title and the creation of appropriate key words were discussed. Dr. Prakash suggested that the ‘title of a paper’ might perhaps have a chance to make a good impression, and the title might be either indicative (title that gives the purpose of the study) or declarative (title that gives the study conclusion). He also suggested that an abstract is a succinct summary of a research paper, and it should be specific, clear, and concise, and should have IMRaD structure in brief, followed by key words. Selection of appropriate papers to be cited in the reference list was also discussed. Various unethical authorships were enumerated, and ‘The International Committee of Medical Journal Editors (ICMJE) criteria for authorship’ was explained ( http://www.icmje.org/ethical_1author.html ; also see Table 1 in reference #9). The session highlighted the need for transparency in medical publication and provided a clear description of items that needed to be included in the ‘Disclosures’ section (e.g., sources of funding for the study and potential conflicts of interest of all authors, etc.) and ‘Acknowledgements’ section (e.g., writing assistance and input from all individuals who did not meet the authorship criteria). The final part of the presentation was devoted to thesis writing, and Dr. Prakash provided the audience with a list of common mistakes that are frequently encountered when writing a manuscript.

The backbone of a study is description of results through Text, Tables, and Figures. Dr. S. B. Deshpande (Institute of Medical Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India) spoke on ‘ Effective Presentation of Results .’ The Results section deals with the observations made by the authors and thus, is not hypothetical. This section is subdivided into three segments, that is, descriptive form of the Text, providing numerical data in Tables, and visualizing the observations in Graphs or Figures. All these are arranged in a sequential order to address the question hypothesized in the Introduction. The description in Text provides clear content of the findings highlighting the observations. It should not be the repetition of facts in tables or graphs. Tables are used to summarize or emphasize descriptive content in the text or to present the numerical data that are unrelated. Illustrations should be used when the evidence bearing on the conclusions of a paper cannot be adequately presented in a written description or in a Table. Tables or Figures should relate to each other logically in sequence and should be clear by themselves. Furthermore, the discussion is based entirely on these observations. Additionally, how the results are applied to further research in the field to advance our understanding of research questions was discussed.

Dr. Peush Sahni (All-India Institute of Medical Sciences, New Delhi) spoke on effectively ‘ structuring the Discussion ’ for a research paper. The Discussion section deals with a systematic interpretation of study results within the available knowledge. He said the section should begin with the most important point relating to the subject studied, focusing on key issues, providing link sentences between paragraphs, and ensuring the flow of text. Points were made to avoid history, not repeat all the results, and provide limitations of the study. The strengths and novel findings of the study should be provided in the discussion, and it should open avenues for future research and new questions. The Discussion section should end with a conclusion stating the summary of key findings. Dr. Sahni gave an example from a published paper for writing a Discussion. In another presentation titled ‘ Writing an effective title and the abstract ,’ Dr. Sahni described the important components of a good title, such as, it should be simple, concise, informative, interesting and eye-catching, accurate and specific about the paper's content, and should state the subject in full indicating study design and animal species. Dr. Sahni explained structured (IMRaD) and unstructured abstracts and discussed a few selected examples with the audience.

Language and style in publication

The next lecture of Dr. Amitabh Prakash on ‘ Language and style in scientific writing: Importance of terseness, shortness and clarity in writing ’ focused on the actual sentence construction, language, grammar and punctuation in scientific manuscripts. His presentation emphasized the importance of brevity and clarity in the writing of manuscripts describing biomedical research. Starting with a guide to the appropriate construction of sentences and paragraphs, attendees were given a brief overview of the correct use of punctuation with interactive examples. Dr. Prakash discussed common errors in grammar and proactively sought audience participation in correcting some examples. Additional discussion was centered on discouraging the use of redundant and expendable words, jargon, and the use of adjectives with incomparable words. The session ended with a discussion of words and phrases that are commonly misused (e.g., data vs . datum, affect vs . effect, among vs . between, dose vs . dosage, and efficacy/efficacious vs . effective/effectiveness) in biomedical research manuscripts.

Working with journals

The appropriateness in selecting the journal for submission and acceptance of the manuscript should be determined by the experience of an author. The corresponding author must have a rationale in choosing the appropriate journal, and this depends upon the scope of the study and the quality of work performed. Dr. Amitabh Prakash spoke on ‘ Working with journals: Selecting a journal, cover letter, peer review process and impact factor ’ by instructing the audience in assessing the true value of a journal, understanding principles involved in the peer review processes, providing tips on making an initial approach to the editorial office, and drafting an appropriate cover letter to accompany the submission. His presentation defined the metrics that are most commonly used to measure journal quality (e.g., impact factor™, Eigenfactor™ score, Article Influence™ score, SCOPUS 2-year citation data, SCImago Journal Rank, h-Index, etc.) and guided attendees on the relative advantages and disadvantages of using each metric. Factors to consider when assessing journal quality were discussed, and the audience was educated on the ‘green’ and ‘gold’ open access publication models. Various peer review models (e.g., double-blind, single-blind, non-blind) were described together with the role of the journal editor in assessing manuscripts and selecting suitable reviewers. A typical checklist sent to referees was shared with the attendees, and clear guidance was provided on the best way to address referee feedback. The session concluded with a discussion of the potential drawbacks of the current peer review system.

Poster and oral presentations at conferences

Posters have become an increasingly popular mode of presentation at conferences, as it can accommodate more papers per meeting, has no time constraint, provides a better presenter-audience interaction, and allows one to select and attend papers of interest. In Figure 2 , we provide instructions, design, and layout in preparing a scientific poster. In the final presentation, Dr. Sahni provided the audience with step-by-step instructions on how to write and format posters for layout, content, font size, color, and graphics. Attendees were given specific guidance on the format of text on slides, the use of color, font type and size, and the use of illustrations and multimedia effects. Moreover, the importance of practical tips while delivering oral or poster presentation was provided to the audience, such as speak slowly and clearly, be informative, maintain eye contact, and listen to the questions from judges/audience carefully before coming up with an answer.

Guidelines and design to scientific poster presentation. The objective of scientific posters is to present laboratory work in scientific meetings. A poster is an excellent means of communicating scientific work, because it is a graphic representation of data. Posters should have focus points, and the intended message should be clearly conveyed through simple sections: Text, Tables, and Graphs. Posters should be clear, succinct, striking, and eye-catching. Colors should be used only where necessary. Use one font (Arial or Times New Roman) throughout. Fancy fonts should be avoided. All headings should have font size of 44, and be in bold capital letters. Size of Title may be a bit larger; subheading: Font size of 36, bold and caps. References and Acknowledgments, if any, should have font size of 24. Text should have font size between 24 and 30, in order to be legible from a distance of 3 to 6 feet. Do not use lengthy notes

PANEL DISCUSSION: FEEDBACK AND COMMENTS BY PARTICIPANTS

After all the presentations were made, Dr. Jagadeesh began a panel discussion that included all speakers. The discussion was aimed at what we do currently and could do in the future with respect to ‘developing a research question and then writing an effective thesis proposal/protocol followed by publication.’ Dr. Jagadeesh asked the following questions to the panelists, while receiving questions/suggestions from the participants and panelists.

• Does a Post-Graduate or Ph.D. student receive adequate training, either through an institutional course, a workshop of the present nature, or from the guide?
• Are these Post-Graduates self-taught (like most of us who learnt the hard way)?
• How are these guides trained? How do we train them to become more efficient mentors?
• Does a Post-Graduate or Ph.D. student struggle to find a method (s) to carry out studies? To what extent do seniors/guides help a post graduate overcome technical difficulties? How difficult is it for a student to find chemicals, reagents, instruments, and technical help in conducting studies?
• Analyses of data and interpretation: Most students struggle without adequate guidance.
• Thesis and publications frequently feature inadequate/incorrect statistical analyses and representation of data in tables/graphs. The student, their guide, and the reviewers all share equal responsibility.
• Who initiates and drafts the research paper? The Post-Graduate or their guide?
• What kind of assistance does a Post-Graduate get from the guide in finalizing a paper for publication?
• Does the guide insist that each Post-Graduate thesis yield at least one paper, and each Ph.D. thesis more than two papers, plus a review article?

The panelists and audience expressed a variety of views, but were unable to arrive at a decisive conclusion.

WHAT HAVE THE PARTICIPANTS LEARNED?

At the end of this fast-moving two-day workshop, the participants had opportunities in learning the following topics:

• Sequential steps in developing a study protocol, from choosing a research topic to developing research questions and a hypothesis.
• Study protocols on different topics in their subject of specialization
• Searching and reviewing the literature
• Appropriate statistical analyses in biomedical research
• Scientific ethics in publication
• Writing and understanding the components of a research paper (IMRaD)
• Recognizing the value of good title, running title, abstract, key words, etc
• Importance of Tables and Figures in the Results section, and their importance in describing findings
• Evidence-based Discussion in a research paper
• Language and style in writing a paper and expert tips on getting it published
• Presentation of research findings at a conference (oral and poster).

Overall, the workshop was deemed very helpful to participants. The participants rated the quality of workshop from “ satisfied ” to “ very satisfied .” A significant number of participants were of the opinion that the time allotted for each presentation was short and thus, be extended from the present two days to four days with adequate time to ask questions. In addition, a ‘hands-on’ session should be introduced for writing a proposal and manuscript. A large number of attendees expressed their desire to attend a similar workshop, if conducted, in the near future.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

We gratefully express our gratitude to the Organizing Committee, especially Professors K. Chinnasamy, B. G. Shivananda, N. Udupa, Jerad Suresh, Padma Parekh, A. P. Basavarajappa, Mr. S. V. Veerramani, Mr. J. Jayaseelan, and all volunteers of the SRM University. We thank Dr. Thomas Papoian (US FDA) for helpful comments on the manuscript.

The opinions expressed herein are those of Gowraganahalli Jagadeesh and do not necessarily reflect those of the US Food and Drug Administration

Source of Support: Nil

Conflict of Interest: None declared.

Want to create or adapt books like this? Learn more about how Pressbooks supports open publishing practices.

4-Precision Searching

2. Main Concepts

Identify the main concepts in your research question by selecting nouns important to the meaning of your question. Leave out words that don’t help the search, such as adjectives, adverbs, prepositions and, usually, verbs. Nouns that you would use to tag your research question so you could find it later are likely to be its main concepts.

Finding the main concepts in a research question is a lot like finding the main idea in an essay or story. Often the main idea is in the first paragraph, but not always. Sometimes it’s in a later paragraph or even in the conclusion. The same is true with research questions—the main concepts can be at the beginning, middle, or end. Stick to the nouns and only what’s necessary, not already implied. Don’t read in concepts that are not really there. Be alert to words that may have connotations other than the concept you are interested in. For instance, if you identify depression as a main idea, be aware that the search engine won’t automatically know whether you mean depression as a psychological state or as a condition of the economy or as a weather characteristic.

Example: How are birds affected by wind turbines?

The main concepts are birds and wind turbines. Avoid terms like affect (except the noun) and effect as search terms, even when you’re looking for studies that report effects or effectiveness.

Example: What lesson plans are available for teaching fractions?

The main concepts are lesson plans and fractions. Stick to what’s necessary. For instance, don’t include: children—nothing in the research question suggests the lesson plans are for children; teaching—teaching isn’t necessary because lesson plans imply teaching; available—available is not necessary.

Sometimes your research question itself can seem complicated. Make sure you’ve stated the question as precisely as possible (as you learned in Research Questions ). Then apply our advice for identifying main concepts as usual.

Activity: Main Concepts

Open activity in a web browser.

Activity: More Main Concepts

Example: does the use of mobile technologies by teachers and students in the classroom distract or enhance the educational experience.

Acceptable main concepts are teaching methods and mobile technology. Another possibility is mobile technologies and education. Watch out for overly broad terms. For example, don’t include:

• Educational experience (it misses mobile technology).
• Classroom distractions (too broad because there are distractions that have nothing to do with technology).
• Technology (too broad because the question is focused on mobile technology).

Choosing & Using Sources: A Guide to Academic Research Copyright © 2015 by Teaching & Learning, Ohio State University Libraries is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

Share This Book

Research Process: Getting Started: C. Identify Concepts

• A. Define Your Topic

B. Create Research Questions

• C. Identify Concepts
• D. Broaden/Narrow Topic
• A. Current vs. Historical Information
• B. Popular vs. Scholarly
• C. Primary vs. Secondary Sources
• A. Search Tools
• B. Search Strategies
• c. Research Guides
• A. Why Evaluate?
• B. Guide to Evaluating Sources
• A. Background on Citing Sources
• B. How to Cite

Subsections

A. Define Topic

C. Identify Key Concepts

D. Broaden/Narrow Your Topic

Identify Key Concepts

Creating research questions will allow you to identify key phrases which will assist you when you begin searching the Library's web site for articles, books and other resources.

For example:

Research question: Do male college students have more trouble managing their time then female students?

Keywords: college students, time management, male, female, issues

Brainstorm different ideas related to your topic.

• Since different databases use different terms for the same concept, it is a good idea to generate synonyms and related terms for the concepts you wish to explore.

Tools for Brainstorming/Mind-Mapping

• << Previous: B. Create Research Questions
• Next: D. Broaden/Narrow Topic >>
• Last Updated: Mar 27, 2023 8:52 AM
• URL: https://researchguides.library.syr.edu/researchprocess
• Print This Page

Chapter Twelve: Positing a Thesis Statement and Composing a Title / Defining Key Terms

Defining Key Terms

You are viewing the first edition of this textbook. a second edition is available – please visit the latest edition for updated information..

Earlier in this course, we discussed how to conduct a library search using key terms. Here we discuss how to present key terms. Place yourself in your audience’s position and try to anticipate their need for information. Is your audience composed mostly of novices or professionals? If they are novices, you will need to provide more definition and context for your key concepts and terms.

Because disciplinary knowledge is filled with specialized terms, an ordinary dictionary is of limited value. Disciplines like psychology, cultural studies, and history use terms in ways that are often different from the way we communicate in daily life. Some disciplines have their own dictionaries of key terms. Others may have terms scattered throughout glossaries in important primary texts and textbooks.

Key terms are the “means of exchange” in disciplines. You gain entry into the discussion by demonstrating how well you know and understand them. Some disciplinary keywords can be tricky because they mean one thing in ordinary speech but can mean something different in the discipline. For instance, in ordinary speech, we use the word  shadow  to refer to a darker area produced by an object or person between a light source and a surface. In Jungian psychology,  shadow  refers to the unconscious or unknown aspects of a personality. Sometimes there is debate within a discipline about what key terms mean or how they should be used.

To avoid confusion, define all key terms in your paper before you begin a discussion about them. Even if you think your audience knows the definition of key terms, readers want to see how  you  understand the terms before you move ahead. If a definition is contested—meaning different writers define the term in different ways—make sure you acknowledge these differences and explain why you favor one definition over the others. Cite your sources when presenting key terms and concepts.

Key Takeaways

Strategies for Conducting Literary Research Copyright © 2021 by Barry Mauer & John Venecek is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

Share This Book

Introduction to Research Methods

4 defining and measuring concepts.

Back in chapter 2 we discussed one of the largest differences between the natural and social sciences. In the natural sciences concepts are generally universally understood. Ask a scientist in Japan and the United States what an atom is, and they’ll describe the same thing. The same thing with items like acceleration, or a photon, or light, or gravity. All of the important things they need have set definitions. The social sciences have a lot more difficulty defining exactly what we’re studying, and even if we develop a definition measuring it is more complicated. If you ask an American and a Japanese scientist what happiness is, they’ll likely have different definitions. Heck, ask two Americans in the same family and you’ll probably get two different ideas.

What is happiness? The Merriam-Webster dictionary says “a state of well-being and contentment. Wikipedia describes it as “used in the context of mental or emotional states, including positive or pleasant emotions ranging from contentment to intense joy.” Those are both circling the same ideas, but they don’t have the same precision as the definition a scientist could use for acceleration. But we all generally know what we mean by happiness, even if we can’t develop a definition that is universally shared. But let’s say we identify a definition that most people will understand. How should we measure happiness then?

Let’s say I want to do research on whether more equal societies (or countries or states or neighborhoods) are happier. How would I measure the happiness of California vs. Alabama, or in the United States as opposed to Peru? I could do a survey of people, and ask them to rate their own happiness. I could look at twitter by different localities, and rate how happy or unhappy tweets are. I could look at depression rates or how often certain drugs are prescribed in different locations. None of those are directly measuring happiness though. They’re all just approximations that might help me to understand happiness.

Defining your terms and moving from concepts to measures is one of the most dangerous points in the research process, but also in my opinion one of the most fun.

4.1 Concepts and Operationalization

We begin with concepts. We want to study resiliency, or health, or gentrification, or happiness. These are all concepts , abstract ideas or general notions that occur in the mind, in speech, or in thought. The name used to identify a concept is a “term”. For instance, the term “toughness” is a concept. Different people may have a different interpretations of the word “toughness,” but generally speaking people know what the word means when they hear it used in any context.

What we must then do is operationalize the concept. To operationalize is to identify a way we can measure the concept under study. For instance, if we want to measure a community’s health, we might measure it based on the average life span – assuming that individual’s that live longer on average are healthier. There are other operationalizations we could use for community health, such as the percentage of people that are overweight, of the infant mortality rate, or others I’m sure.

But again, these are just operationalizations of the concept, they aren’t themselves actually the concepts we want to study. Acceleration isn’t a concept. It’s mathematically defined, and so there are no questions about what it is in the sciences. We don’t have any definition of happiness, nor a formula to understand it. Thus, every research studying happiness has to define the term and justify the way they’ll operationalize it in their study.

It’s important not to get confused and assume the way we measure a concept is itself the concept. Reification is the assumption that they are the same, but that can often lead people astray. For example, have you ever seen someone on an internet message board that got into an argument that pointed to their education as proof they are smarter: “I have three advanced degrees, I must be smarter than you.” Education is a good measure of intelligence, but they aren’t the same thing. Smarter people are probably typically more educated, but that is often not true. Getting an education takes the means and opportunity to get finish school. In addition, an education generally celebrates a certain type of intelligence, but book smarts aren’t the only way one can understand intelligence.

Let’s step back. Sometimes we aren’t talking about a concept. If I’m a food scientist and I’m curious about the impact of coffee on health, coffee isn’t a concept. It’s just coffee. It’s not measuring an abstract idea, it’s just coffee. If I’m interested in who votes, voting isn’t a concept. A person goes to the ballot box and votes. That’s an act which people won’t disagree about whether happened or not.

Why do we care about voting? It’s unlikely an individual’s vote will have an impact on the election. I’m not trying to devalue voting (please go vote whenever you get the chance!), but why do we care about predictors of who votes, or falling rates of voting in the United States? Why would we care about this headline from the Pew Research Center?

I would say it’s because of the different concepts that voting is being used to operationalize, even if just implicitly. Voting might itself be a clearly defined action, but voting can also be a measurement of different concepts. Voting is an expression of political power in society, and political power is difficult to define or directly measure. Public participation is often operationalized by using the share of individuals that vote in a community because it’s an expression that people care to be engaged in making changes.

4.2 Evaluating Operationalizations

How do we know we’ve done a good job of operationalizing our concept? It isn’t enough to just say a measure approximates something. I could survey people on how many oranges they eat a week and call that health. But even if I say that is health, most people will understand that I’ve done a bad job of measuring my concept.

We have two things to keep in mind in evaluating our measures: validity and reliability. Validity tells you whether what you’re measuring is what you’re supposed to be measuring.

At its core, validity is about shared understanding. Unfortunately, there’s no great test for a measurements validity. The easiest way to make sure your measure is valid is to ask someone else. If you tell someone you’re measuring mental health by how many books they have on their shelf, they’ll probably look at you funny. That’s not a valid measure, and it won’t fit within their shared understanding of what you mean by mental health.

One objection you may get in your research is that your measure is invalid based on how you define it. If I measure intelligence by years of school completed, some reviewers might find that valid, but others might object. Year of schooling isn’t intelligence they may say, it’s a better measure of education. As such, it isn’t the measure itself that is the problem – it’s what I’m purporting that its operationalizing that is.

Reliability is another concern in thinking about the quality of our measures. Reliability is all about consistency – will you get the same response if you measure the same thing multiple times.

For instance, let’s say I survey people about how concerned they are with their health. I’m unlikely to get consistent answers from people, depending on the time of day or year. People are often more concerned about their health around the holidays, after they’ve seen family, been stuck inside because of the weather, and eaten holiday meals. If I ask them in the middle of March though I might get a different answer. With such unreliable answers and responses, I would want to make sure I’m measuring the phenomena multiple ways and multiple times to get a better idea of a person’s opinion.

If I’m concerned with measuring someone’s height, I have fewer concerns. If I ask you how tall you are today and two days later and a year from now, I’ll probably get the same exact response (maybe not over decades, as people do shrink over time)

Weight is an interesting case. Yes, people’s weights change over time. I wouldn’t expect you to weighh the same today and tomorrow, but people will generally give reliable responses, even with a little fib. If I ask people how much they weigh, they’ll probably tell me something roughly correct, just probably 5 pounds lighter. As long as everyone takes the same 5 pounds off their weight before telling, it’s still a reliable question.

I used this example in class once, and you can imagine it for yourself. I had students write down how many pens they thought they had with them in their bags. Everyone did, and then counted the number of pens. Very few people were right, but more concerning was the nature of how they were wrong. Their answers were all over the place, some people over guessed and some people underused. If I was actually concerned with how many pens people had, just asking them wouldn’t provide me any real indication of how many pens they had. It’s an unreliable question.

Those things come up often in recall. How many calories did you eat today? Unless you tracked it, you’ll take a guess and you might be high or low. Humans aren’t great at processing or retaining that information, which makes those questions unreliable.

The image of a target is often used when discussing validity and reliability. A reliable archer puts their arrows all in the same spot, and a valid archer puts them near the target. If your measure is reliable but not valid, you’ll get really consistent measurements (how tall is a person), but it won’t actually be measuring the concept you’re concerned with (near the target). A valid and reliable measure is the goal.

4.3 Summary

In this chapter we’ve described concepts and measures, and particularly the importance in establishing how you’re going to operationalize the terms in your study. You can have the best research question, the coolest data, and a really nice analysis, but if your data isn’t actually measuring what it says it is your study is going to land like a dud.

Systematic searching: 2. Identifying key concepts

• Grey literature
• Handsearching
• 1. From a topic to a research question
• 2. Identifying key concepts
• 3. Coming up with keywords
• 4. Finding database-specific subject headings
• 5. Focusing the search
• 6. Building search strings
• 7. Running the search in databases
• 8. Limiting the search
• 9. Evaluating the search result
• Finding full texts
• Documenting the search
• Managing references
• Quality assessment
• Handbooks and methods guides
• Finnish This link opens in a new window

Identifying key concepts

The research question or questions you formulate are not directly suitable to use as search terms. Key concepts should be identified for the search.  Concepts should be considered as separate topics or groups of concepts.

Your research question will determine how many concept groups you need. Sometimes you can get good results with just one concept (a rare term), typically a search includes two or three concepts. 

Nursing students' hand hygiene skills 

Research question: Which factors contribute to nursing students' hand hygiene skills during their studies?

• << Previous: 1. From a topic to a research question
• Next: 3. Coming up with keywords >>
• Last Updated: Mar 25, 2024 7:41 AM
• URL: https://libguides.tuni.fi/systematic-searching

Email: [email protected] P. 0294 520 900

Saavutettavuusseloste Accessibility statement Palaute | Feedback

Into the Field: Effective Library Research: Identify Key Research Concepts

• Planning your Research Strategy
• Identify Key Research Concepts
• Identify Information Types
• Find: Where to Search
• Find: How to search
• Using Library Search
• Using Research databases
• Evaluate your search results
• Referencing
• Getting Help

Getting Started: understanding your research topic

• Mapping out Research Concepts - Worksheet

Background reading can also help you to identify key authors and texts (whose bibliographies you can use to generate further ideas). If you find a really useful article, you could mine that for all sorts of other useful related material. 

For example:

Has the author written additional material on the topic?

Does the article have useful keywords or subject terms you can use for further research?

Does the article have references or a bibliography you can use to explore related material?

Does the article link you through to other related material? 

Useful starting points for exploring your research topic in textbooks and reference works are:

Library Search

Sage Knowledge

An important part of the planning process is scoping out the topic areas that you are researching.  It can help to do some brain storming to map out the main topics/concepts you will be looking at.

Mind mapping can be a useful way of capturing these concepts, themes and sub themes - but use whatever technique works best for you.

Ask yourself questions to help you start thinking around your topic, such as;

• Are there particular themes I want to concentrate on? 
• Are there particular works or writers I want to critique? 
• Are there key works that I wish to analyse in detail?

Break your research topic down in to a number of smaller sub topics and address those in turn, before bringing everything together to answer your overarching research query.

This process will help you develop your understanding of exactly what it is you are going to be looking at as you will need to think around your broad topic and start exploring the connections between various sub topics and themes.

As you move through your research you may wish to refresh your scoping exercise in order to encompass new areas you discover as you begin to explore the literature or to close off particular avenues of research that you considered at the outset.

• << Previous: Planning your Research Strategy
• Next: Identify Information Types >>
• Last Updated: Mar 20, 2024 2:09 PM
• URL: https://libguides.exeter.ac.uk/IntoTheField

Want to create or adapt books like this? Learn more about how Pressbooks supports open publishing practices.

10.2 Conceptual definitions

Learning objectives.

Learners will be able to…

• Define conceptualization
• Identify the role previous research and theory play in defining concepts
• Distinguish between unidimensional and multidimensional concepts
• Critically apply reification to how you conceptualize the key variables in your research project

You can measure phenomena in many different ways, but you must be sure that how you choose to measure gives you information and data that lets you answer your research question. If you’re looking for information about a person’s income, but your main points of measurement have to do with the money they have in the bank, you’re not really going to find the information you’re looking for!  Let’s consider Melissa Milkie and Catharine Warner’s study (2011) [1] of first graders’ mental health. In order to conduct that study, Milkie and Warner needed to have some idea about how they were going to measure mental health. What does mental health mean, exactly? And how do we know when we’re observing someone whose mental health is good and when we see someone whose mental health is compromised?

In quantitative methods, conceptualization involves writing out clear, concise definitions for our key concepts. These are the kind of definitions you are used to, like the ones in a dictionary. A conceptual definition involves defining a concept in terms of other concepts, usually by making reference to how other social scientists and theorists have defined those concepts in the past.

Measurement starts with conceptualization

In order to measure the concepts in your research question, we first have to understand what we think about them. For example, masculinity is a concept. What do you think of when you hear that word? Presumably, you imagine some set of behaviors and perhaps even a particular style of self-presentation. Of course, we can’t necessarily assume that everyone conjures up the same set of ideas or images when they hear the word masculinity . While there are many possible ways to define the term and some may be more common or have more support than others, there is no universal definition of masculinity. What counts as masculine may shift over time, from culture to culture, and even from individual to individual (Kimmel, 2008). This is why defining our concepts is so important.

Not all researchers clearly explain their theoretical framework for their study, but they should! Without understanding how a researcher has defined their key concepts, it would be nearly impossible to understand the meaning of that researcher’s findings and conclusions. Back in Chapter 5, you worked toward developing a theoretical framework for your study based on the theoretical literature in your topic area. If you haven’t done that yet, consider flipping back to that section to familiarize yourself with some of the techniques for finding and using theories relevant to your research question. Continuing with our example on masculinity, we would need to survey the literature on theories of masculinity.  Wong et al. (2010) [2] analyzed eight years of the journal Psychology of Men & Masculinity examining how often different theories of masculinity were used . Reading articles like this can help give you a sense of which theories are more accepted and which are more marginal in your field and give you a range of options from which you can find theories that will inform your project.

Conceptualization is a thorough process

Conceptualization is deceptively challenging—spelling out exactly what the concepts in your research question mean to you. Following along with our example, think about what comes to mind when you read the term masculinity. How do you know masculinity when you see it? Does it have something to do with men or with social norms? If so, perhaps we could define masculinity as the social norms that men are expected to follow. That seems like a reasonable start, and at this early stage of conceptualization, brainstorming about the images conjured up by concepts and playing around with possible definitions is appropriate. However, this is just the first step. At this point, you should be beyond brainstorming for your key variables because you have read a good amount of literature about them.

In addition, we should look at previous research and theory to understand the definitions that other scholars have already given for the concepts we are interested in. This doesn’t mean we must use their definitions, but understanding how concepts have been defined in the past will help us to compare our conceptualizations with how other scholars define and relate concepts. Understanding prior definitions of our key concepts will also help us decide whether we plan to challenge those conceptualizations or rely on them for our own work. Finally, working on conceptualization is likely to help in the process of refining your research question to one that is specific and clear in what it asks. Conceptualization and operationalization (next section) are where “the rubber meets the road,” so to speak and we have to specify what we mean by the question we are asking. As our conceptualization deepens, we will often find that our research question becomes more specific and clear.

If we turn to the literature on masculinity, we will surely come across work by Michael Kimmel , one of the preeminent masculinity scholars in the United States. After consulting Kimmel’s prior work (2000; 2008), [3] we might tweak our initial definition of masculinity. Rather than defining masculinity as “the social norms that men are expected to follow,” perhaps instead we’ll define it as “the social roles, behaviors, and meanings prescribed for men in any given society at any one time” (Kimmel & Aronson, 2004, p. 503). [4] Our revised definition is more precise and complex because it goes beyond addressing one aspect of men’s lives (norms), and addresses three aspects: roles, behaviors, and meanings. It also implies that roles, behaviors, and meanings may vary across societies and over time.

Conceptualization isn’t as simple as applying any random definition that we come up with to a term. Defining terms may involve some brainstorming at the very beginning. But conceptualization must go beyond that, to engage with or critique existing definitions and conceptualizations in the literature. Once we’ve brainstormed about the images associated with a particular word, we should also consult prior work to understand how others define the term in question. After we’ve identified a clear definition, we should make sure that every term used in our definition will make sense to others. Are there terms used within our definition that also need to be defined? If so, our conceptualization is not yet complete. Our definition includes the concept of “social roles,” so we should have a definition for what those mean and become familiar with role theory to help us with our conceptualization. If we don’t know what roles are, how can we study them?

Let’s say we do all of that. We have a clear definition of the term masculinity with reference to previous literature and we also have a good understanding of the terms in our conceptual definition…then we’re done, right? Not so fast. You’ve likely met more than one man in your life, and you’ve probably noticed that they are not the same, even if they live in the same society during the same historical time period. This could mean there are dimensions of masculinity. In terms of social scientific measurement, concepts can be said to have multiple dimensions  when there are multiple elements that make up a single concept. With respect to the term  masculinity , dimensions could be based on gender identity, gender performance, sexual orientation, etc. In any of these cases, the concept of masculinity would be considered to have multiple dimensions.

While you do not need to spell out every possible dimension of the concepts you wish to measure, it is important to identify whether your concepts are unidimensional or multidimensional. In this way, how you conceptualize your variables determines how you will measure them in your study. Unidimensional concepts are those that are expected to have a single underlying dimension and can be measured using a single measure or test. Examples include simple concepts such as a person’s weight, time spent sleeping, and so forth.

One frustrating thing is that there is no clear demarcation between concepts that are inherently unidimensional or multidimensional. Even something as simple as age could be broken down into multiple dimensions including mental age and chronological age, so where does conceptualization stop? How far down the dimensional rabbit hole do we have to go? Researchers should consider two things. First, how important is this variable in your study? If age is not important in your study (maybe it is a control variable), it seems like a waste of time to do a lot of work drawing from developmental theory to conceptualize this variable. On the other hand, if we were measuring the impact of age on masculinity, conceptualizing our independent variable (age) as multidimensional may provide a richer understanding of its impact on masculinity. Finally, as we will discuss in the next section, your conceptualizations lead directly to your operationalization of variables, and once your operationalization is complete, it will inform the measures you chose for your variables.

TRACK 1 (IF YOU ARE CREATING A RESEARCH PROPOSAL FOR THIS CLASS):

Write a conceptual definition for your independent and dependent variables.

• Cite and attribute definitions to other scholars, if you use their words.
• Describe how your definitions are informed by your theoretical framework.
• Place your definition in conversation with other theories and conceptual definitions commonly used in the literature.
• Are there multiple dimensions of your variables?
• Are any of these dimensions important for you to measure?

TRACK 2 (IF YOU AREN’T CREATING A RESEARCH PROPOSAL FOR THIS CLASS): 

You are interested in studying older adults’ social-emotional well-being. Specifically, you would like to research the impact on levels of older adult loneliness of an intervention that pairs older adults living in assisted living communities with university student volunteers for a weekly conversation.

Write a conceptual definition for your dependent variable.

• Describe how your definition is informed by your theoretical framework.
• Are there multiple dimensions of your variable?

Conceptualization looks different in qualitative research

Conceptualization proceeds differently in qualitative research compared to quantitative research. Since qualitative researchers are interested in the understandings and experiences of their participants, they generally do not look for one fixed definition for a concept before starting to interview or interact with participants. A qualitative researcher’s job is to accurately and completely represent how their participants understand a concept, not to test their own definition of that concept.

If you were conducting qualitative research on masculinity, you would likely consult previous literature like Kimmel’s work mentioned above. From your literature review, you may come up with a  working definition  for the terms you plan to use in your study, which can change over the course of the investigation. However, the definition that matters is the definition that your participants share during data collection. A working definition is merely a place to start, and researchers should take care not to think it is the only or best definition out there.

In qualitative inquiry, your participants are the experts on the concepts that arise during the research study. Your job as the researcher is to accurately and reliably collect and interpret their understanding of the concepts they describe while answering your questions. Your understanding of concepts is likely to change over the course of qualitative inquiry, as you learn more information from your participants. Indeed, getting participants to comment on, extend, or challenge the researcher’s interpretations (called member checking, informant feedback, or respondent validation) is a hallmark of qualitative research. This is the opposite of quantitative research, in which definitions are predetermined before the inquiry begins.

The contrast between qualitative and quantitative conceptualization is instructive for understanding how quantitative methods (and positivist research in general) give greater weight to the knowledge of the researcher over the knowledge of study participants and community members. In positivism, the implication is that the researcher is the “expert,” and can define concepts based on their expert knowledge of the scientific literature. This knowledge is in contrast to the lived experience that participants possess from experiencing the topic under examination day-in, day-out. For this reason, it would be wise to remind ourselves not to take our definitions too seriously and be critical about the limitations of our knowledge.

Reification

Reification is the process of considering something abstract to be a concrete object or thing. To some extent, reification occurs whenever we define a contruct in terms of observational terms or indirect observables. However, we should not think that any conceptualization is “real,” or more real than other conceptualizations. It would also be wrong to assume that just because definitions exist for some concept that the concept itself exists beyond some abstract idea in our heads. Although we rely on our conceptualizations of constructs in research and everyday life, it may sometimes lead us to commit the “fallacy of reification.” This happens when we mistakenly consider something abstract to actually be a concrete model that represents it. This Logically Fallacious webpage has some good examples. You can also watch this short 2-minute video for a clear explanation:

Key Takeaways

• Measurement is the process by which we describe and ascribe meaning to the key facts, concepts, or other phenomena that we are investigating.
• Kaplan identified three categories of things that social scientists measure including observational terms, indirect observables, and constructs.
• Some concepts have multiple elements or dimensions.
• Researchers often use measures previously developed and studied by other researchers.
• Conceptualization is a process that involves coming up with clear, concise definitions.
• Conceptual definitions are based on the theoretical framework you are using for your study (and the paradigmatic assumptions underlying those theories).
• Whether your conceptual definitions come from your own ideas or the literature, you should be able to situate them in terms of other commonly used conceptual definitions.
• Researchers should acknowledge the limited explanatory power of their definitions for concepts and how oppression can shape what explanations are considered true or scientific.

Think historically about the variables in your research question.

• How has our conceptual definition of your topic changed over time?
• What scholars or social forces were responsible for this change?

Take a critical look at your conceptual definitions.

• How might participants define terms for themselves differently, in terms of their daily experience?
• On what cultural assumptions are your conceptual definitions based?
• Are your conceptual definitions applicable across all cultures that will be represented in your sample?

Take a critical look at your conceptual definition from the previous exercise.

• Milkie, M. A., & Warner, C. H. (2011). Classroom learning environments and the mental health of first grade children. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 52 , 4–22 ↵
• Wong, Y. J., Steinfeldt, J. A., Speight, Q. L., & Hickman, S. J. (2010). Content analysis of Psychology of men & masculinity (2000–2008). Psychology of Men & Masculinity ,  11 (3), 170. ↵
• Kimmel, M. (2000).  The  gendered society . New York, NY: Oxford University Press; Kimmel, M. (2008). Masculinity. In W. A. Darity Jr. (Ed.),  International  encyclopedia of the social sciences  (2nd ed., Vol. 5, p. 1–5). Detroit, MI: Macmillan Reference USA ↵
• Kimmel, M. & Aronson, A. B. (2004).  Men and masculinities: A-J . Denver, CO: ABL-CLIO. ↵

developing clear, concise definitions for the key concepts in a research question

concepts that are comprised of multiple elements

concepts that are expected to have a single underlying dimension

the process of considering something abstract to be a concrete object or thing; the fallacy of reification is assuming that abstract concepts exist in some concrete, tangible way

Doctoral Research Methods in Social Work Copyright © by Mavs Open Press. All Rights Reserved.

Share This Book

Want to create or adapt books like this? Learn more about how Pressbooks supports open publishing practices.

Starting a Research Project

Identifying Key Concepts

Once you have a research question, identifying its key concepts or key terms can help you figure out what words to use when you search for information. A focused research question usually has about three key concepts.

You might also find it helpful to think about what synonyms or related terms could be used to describe the different concepts. For example, if you were researching the concept of grades , related terms could include academic performance or academic achievement .

Check Your Understanding

In the next section, we’ll explore where you can search for information on your research question .

Library Research Skills for Psychology Students Copyright © 2021 by Augustana Campus Library is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

Share This Book

• school Campus Bookshelves
• menu_book Bookshelves
• perm_media Learning Objects
• login Login
• how_to_reg Request Instructor Account
• hub Instructor Commons
• Download Page (PDF)
• Download Full Book (PDF)
• Periodic Table
• Physics Constants
• Scientific Calculator
• Reference & Cite
• Tools expand_more
• Readability

selected template will load here

This action is not available.

6.1: Identifying key concepts and alternative terms to type in

• Last updated
• Save as PDF
• Page ID 65090

• Carol M. Withers with Bruce Johnson & Nathan Martin
• San Diego City College Library

Let’s say that, after doing the work of choosing a topic as described in section 5 above, you have come up with the topic sentence:

How and to what degree is the drought effecting the redwoods in California?

Type your topic sentence or research question. Identify the key words or concepts in your topic sentence by bolding or underlining them. In the example above, the following words would be underlined: drought, redwoods, California. If you identify words such as impact , compared to, related to, benefits of , be sure and come up with good alternative words for them because words like impact , compared … are rarely good choices to use in a computer search. Identifying alternative terms for such words is discussed later. It is often best just to avoid using such words as your key words altogether. Write alternative words for all your key concepts.

In addition to synonyms, you are looking for related terms: broader terms, narrower terms and antonyms (opposites). Your topic, no matter what it is, is on a continuum from narrow to broad in a continuum of topics. You want to create a continuum for your topic for two good reasons into which we will delve after this example.

Let’s say you are going to do a paper/project on the environment. It seems obvious that is far too broad a topic. So, we narrow it down. How about the environment of animals (still too broad)? Let’s whittle this all the way down: the environment of birds, the environment effecting the reproduction of birds, the environment effecting reproduction in birds of the Americas, the environmental pollution effecting reproduction in birds of the eastern Pacific, the environmental pollutions effecting the eggs of birds of the eastern Pacific, the effects of pesticides on the eggs of birds of the eastern Pacific in 1940-70, the effect of DDT on the eggs of birds of the eastern Pacific in 1940-70s, the effect of DDT use in the 1940-70 on the eggs of the pelicans on the Coronado Islands.

The example above is most certainly not the only way one could narrow down this topic, but you do want to take your topic and create your own continuum from broad to narrow. We started with the huge topic, environment . If you started with the topic of the effect of pesticides on birds , you would want to create a continuum that got gradually broader all the way up to environment and gradually got more detailed all the way to effect of DDT use in the 1940-70 on the eggs of the pelicans on the Coronado Islands as an example. Again, there is not just one way to create a continuum. The important thing is to create one. This makes it clear to you what exactly you are interested in learning about. If, for example, the continuum above is what you developed and you found a great article you really found interesting about pesticides and dolphin reproduction in the eastern pacific, you would know you have strayed off your topic and need to refocus on the search results that fall on your continuum and answer your research question.

There are two more important reasons to think through a continuum. Let’s suppose you are interested on the impact of pesticides on birds as your paper/project topic.

• Rarely do you find books or articles exactly on your topic. Most often, the information resources you use will be broader and narrower than your topic. A subject specific encyclopedia on how pesticides harm wild life is an example of a source broader than your topic. In it you may find a chapter on birds. Additionally, you might discover in your reading that pelicans were put at extreme risk because of the heavy use of DDT (a pesticide heavily used in the 1940s and 50s). That is much narrower than your topic, but you certainly could use an article or two about this to make a point.
• Because the resources you use will be broader and narrower than your topic, the words you use in your searches to find those resources will also need to be broader and narrower than your topic to find them. To find that encyclopedia on how pesticides harm wildlife, for example, you would use broader terms than you find in your topic sentence. For example, you might use the words animals and pesticides and not use the word birds to find it. To find a supporting article, you may try some narrower terms than those in your topic sentence. For example, DDT and pelicans.

Now that you have several questions about your topic and you know where your topic falls on a continuum of topics (you have done that, right! Don’t skip a step!) You want to make a grid. This grid will consist of key words and concepts for your topic and alternative terms for those. Include broader and narrower terms as well as synonyms and antonyms because the authors will often use different words for your topic than you have used. You will miss good information if you only use words from your topic sentence. This is one of many reasons you will be doing several searches to get the best information. Some words will work well in one database while different words will work well in another. You will find it useful to do multiple searches in the same database using different words. In our example, we might type in pesticide and birds, words right out of the topic sentence, and get some good results. We would, however, miss articles in which the author used the terms insecticides and birds. It is important, therefore, to try many combinations of terms to find all the relevant information resources (e.g. books and articles).

Pay close attention to making an accurate grid because, when done right, you will be able to use it to create a search strategy. Doing this now will save you time later. You will have far less off-topic resources to sift through. Make a grid with the key concepts down the left hand side of your page. They should be the exact words from your topic. List to their right the broader terms, narrower terms, synonyms and antonyms.

Be sure that you only use concepts that reflect key concepts. If you have a word you really want to use that is not in your topic, perhaps your topic sentence or research question need to be rewritten to include this word(s) or the concepts it represents. If that word or concept is of interest to you and the due date for your paper/project still allows you time to begin again, a change of topic may be in order.

Notice the grid asks for key concepts and not key words . Sometimes your concepts will be expressed in more than one word, for example, Sierra Nevada Mountains. You want to preserve the concept, not the individual words. Another example would be if your paper/project had something to do with storm drains, you would want to keep those two words together since you do not want information on winter storms or the drains in your house. Why this is important will become very clear in a bit. (You will add more and more alternative words to the grid as your research progresses. See 6E for details.)

Notice the word effecting was not used as a key concept. That is because it is best not to use words effecting , influence , impact and so on in your first searches. Try to use only solid nouns. As with most things in this text, there are exceptions. If you already have a little knowledge about your topic and you have a few effects, influences or impacts you want to explore, add a grid line for the terms. For example:

• Key Words / Key Concept*: Alternative/Broader /Narrower Concepts
• Effecting: Sap, sap depletion, pests, beetles

Go ahead and use words like effecting, influence and impact if you have exhausted your other terms and other search strategies soon to be explained or if you are getting far too many hits. *Do not confuse the terms “key words” or “key concepts” in the grid with “keywords” you sometimes see in a database. “Key words/key concepts” heremeans the main ideas within your topic. “Keywords” as used in databases will be discussed later (See 6E).

Truncation and Wildcards

Truncation and wildcards come in handy when the words you want to search have slight variations. Perhaps just one letter could broaden your search. For example: perhaps you want to find both the singular and the plural of a word: turtle and turtles, woman and women. Or perhaps you want to find both the American English word color and the British English word colour . This can be done using truncation and wildcards which saves you an additional search and ensures you capture all relevant results. Some help screens for some databases will call truncation a type of wildcard. Check the database help screens to determine what symbols to use for truncation and wildcards and what happens when you use them. Each database is different. While truncation, as described below is generally standard, wildcard searching varies greatly from database to database. A common usage follows the truncation description below.

To truncate means to cut off. In most databases, by adding a symbol to a word that you cut off will garner results that have all the permutations of that word the database knows that begin with the letters you typed in. For example, pira* will find pirate , pirates , piracy . But this is a bad example, because it will also find the word piranha and piranhas and so on. So it is very important that you cut off your words where it makes sense or you could end up with piranhas or worse. It is an easy way to search the singular and plural of a word at the same time . If all you are interested in is a pirate or two, search the term pirate*.

The asterisk (* shift 8 on your keyboard * ) is the most often used symbol, but you might find the rare database that uses other symbols for truncation such as a dollar sign or a question mark. Even rarer databases allow for left hand truncation meaning you can ask the database to find variant beginnings of words instead of endings.

Using wildcards is a way of replacing one letter within a word or at the end of a word. When wanting to get both the singular and the plural of a words such as women and woman, the last vowel can be replaced with a wildcard symbol: wom?n. Both words would then be searched. Using a wildcard is also useful when searching for words that are spelled differently in British English. For example, color is spelled colour . Not all databases allow this and the symbol for this may also vary. The most commonly used symbols are a number sign (#) or a question mark (?). So if you want to include resources that may have been written by our cousins across the pond, you may choose to type colo#r . That would retrieve items with both color and colour in them because the # replaces one letter or is ignored by the search. What would you expect wom?n to find?

The bottom line to know about truncation and wildcards is that they exist, that they are defined and used differently from database to database and that they can expand your results. Check the databases’ help screens and experiment to see just what results you get.

Getting started with Key Concepts

Cambridge Assessment International Education Teaching and Learning Team

Image of lightbulb

What are key concepts?

A concept is a mental representation of a class of things. Concepts are a way of grouping or categorising things to make sense of a complex and diverse world. For example, we have a concept of 'chair' into which fits a huge variety of actual chairs – tall ones, small ones, wooden ones, metal ones, old ones, new ones, fancy ones, plain ones and so on.

Through this grouping we create a shared framework for understanding, communication and action. Because we have the shared concept of 'chair', one person can ask another to get a chair from the next room without the second person returning with a table! Similarly, we have shared concepts of 'lamp', 'plant', 'house', 'road' and so on.

‘…everyday concepts are ‘picked up’ unconsciously by everyone in our daily lives and are acquired through experience...’ Young, (2015)

Each school subject involves a large number of concepts. These range from concepts that refer to simple,  concrete things (for example, 'bunsen burner', 'watercolour paint', 'basketball') to those that refer to complex,  abstract things  (for example, 'power', 'love', 'religion').

‘Key’ concepts are ones judged to be particularly important in a certain context. A similar term is ‘big’ concepts. This includes a sense of scale and range, as well as importance, within the subject.

The concepts a person or group chooses as ‘key’ in a subject will vary according to their view of that subject and their purpose in selecting the set of key concepts. A teacher working with young children in science may choose a different set to an academic chemist working with undergraduates. Often, the concepts chosen as ‘key’ are complex and abstract, such as 'place', 'chronology' or 'grammar'. However, they could also be simpler and concrete, such as 'crown', 'tree' or 'coin'.

In this video, Dr Liz Taylor introduces key concepts and why they might or might not be shared with learners.

In the rest of this guide, we will discuss the benefits of using key concepts. We will look especially at their benefits in helping us to carry out high-quality planning for progression. We will look at the research behind key concepts and consider some practical ways of using them in medium and long-term planning.

Throughout, you will be encouraged to reflect on how you can use key concepts when planning your curriculum. At the end, there is a glossary of key words and phrases and some suggestions about what you could do next.

Image captions

What is the research behind using key concepts in curriculum planning?

Concept formation is an area of research in psychology. It refers to how people acquire or learn to use concepts. In the ‘ Big Book of Concepts’ , Gregory Murphy summarises research in this area of psychology. Concept formation traces the way people develop an understanding of their experience, what systems of categorisation they develop, and how they learn and use these systems. This research often focuses on concepts of fairly basic, concrete things, for example, types of animals and their features.

Also, there is a range of education research about what children know and how they learn about particular concepts that form part of school subjects. Examples of these concepts include 'sustainability' in geography (Walshe, 2008) and 'chemical elements' in science (Taber, 1995). In history, Lee & Shemilt (2004, 2009) carried out research into the progress learners make in their understanding of key concepts. In science and related subjects, research into key concepts often focuses on identifying and dealing with learners’  misconceptions  or ‘alternative conceptions’. (These are misunderstandings or previous ideas that can act as barriers to further learning on that topic.)

This research is useful when planning and teaching about particular concepts. It helps us to understand misconceptions young people may have about concepts and how we can support learners to make progress.

There are various approaches to thinking about types of concepts. Using substantive, second-order and threshold concepts (see below) is particularly helpful to inform high-quality planning for progression.

• Substantive   and   second-order   concepts The division between substantive and second-order concepts stems from ‘Science, Curriculum, and Liberal Education’, a selection of essays on the structure of disciplines by Joseph Schwab (1978).

In this approach, there are two sets of concepts.

• Substantive concepts:  these are part of the ‘substance’ or content knowledge in a subject. (For example, in geography, these might include 'river', 'trade', 'city' or 'ecosystem'.)

• Second-order concepts:  these shape the key questions asked in a subject and organise the subject knowledge. (For example, a set of second-order concepts for history might include 'cause and consequence' (causation), 'change and continuity', 'similarity and difference', and 'historical significance'.

There will often be an overlap of substantive concepts between subjects. A student might learn about 'renewable energy' in science, geography, economics and politics. There may even be some overlap of second-order concepts, for example ‘change’ in both history and geography. It is the particular combination of substantive and second-order concepts that makes each discipline distinct and unique.

‘Content, therefore, is important, not as facts to be memorised…but because without it students cannot acquire concepts and, therefore, will not develop their understanding and progress in their learning.’ Young (2015)

2. Threshold concepts A  threshold concept  is one that, once understood, modifies learners’ understanding of a particular field and helps them to make progress. It helps them to go through a ‘doorway’ into a new way of understanding a topic or subject. The idea comes from a research project on teaching and learning in undergraduate courses (Meyer and Land, 2003). While ‘core’ concepts build on existing learning, layer by layer, threshold concepts open up a new way of thinking.

‘…there may thus be a transformed internal view of subject matter, subject landscape, or even world view.’ Meyer & Land (2003)

A threshold concept is likely to be difficult for a learner to grasp, but once they understand it their learning can move to a new level within the discipline. It can be hard for a learner to make progress if they don’t understand key threshold concepts.

There is debate over which concepts might be identified as ‘threshold’ in a particular discipline. The original work in this area was in economics, but researchers in engineering, computing, geography and healthcare have also become interested in this idea. For example, suggested threshold concepts include 'sustainability' for geography, 'complex number' for mathematics and 'opportunity cost' for economics.

As you watch the video of Dr Liz Taylor reflecting upon her own learning, look back over your own learning. What was a threshold concept for you?

What are the benefits of using and thinking about key concepts in teaching and learning?

Key concepts help develop a teacher’s understanding. Thinking carefully about key concepts can help you and your subject department better understand the nature of the discipline you teach and help your learners make progress.

Key concepts help develop learners’ understanding. Talking about key concepts and their role in planning within a department helps you focus on what is important within your subject and how you will help learners make progress in understanding these things.

Key concepts help develop understanding.   Teaching and planning with key concepts in mind prevents learning being about gathering information. It helps to develop understanding by offering opportunities to link, review and put knowledge into context (see diagram below). In this way, awareness of key concepts can help deepen learners’ knowledge and understanding. Of course, learners should also be able to apply the skills that are needed to work successfully within a discipline.

Key concepts help to develop powerful knowledge. Powerful knowledge is knowledge that is embedded within a subject and made available to all learners. In the book  ‘Knowledge and the Future School’ , educationalist Michael Young argues that ‘In acquiring subject knowledge they are joining those ‘communities of specialists’ each with their different histories, traditions and ways of working.’ (Young, 2015.) Access to this powerful knowledge means a student in a physics class should be aiming to think and behave like a physicist, a student in a geography class should be aiming to think and behave like a geographer and so on. Key concepts help with this because conceptual knowledge, factual knowledge and skills together create a distinct subject discipline through which learners can progress.

Key concepts help to connect learning.   A key concept will often link one topic to another. In economics, the key concept of 'opportunity cost' links other areas of the curriculum such as production possibility frontier and the theory of comparative advantage. The diagram below (adapted from  ‘Approaches to learning and teaching Science’ ) shows the relationship between some factual knowledge and a key concept in biology. At first, the factual knowledge could seem unrelated to a learner. By keeping the key concept in mind when planning and teaching, it is possible for the learner to make links and put their understanding into context. As their teacher, you have to help learners see these links, as this will not necessarily happen without guidance.

In the video, Dr Liz Taylor suggests that deciding the key concepts in your subject is a challenge for teachers. Do you agree? How would you overcome this challenge?

Common misconceptions

There are a number of misconceptions around the use of key concepts and their role within a subject.

1. Concepts only refer to ‘big ideas’. We have mental representations of big, abstract ideas (such as 'power' or 'change'), but we also have concepts of small, concrete things like 'pen', 'biscuit' or 'chair'. When planning your curriculum think carefully about how you will build learning which takes students from knowledge of the smaller concepts to understanding the more abstract ideas in a discipline.

2. There must be one right set of key concepts for each school subject. If there is, we haven’t found them yet! Different people and groups have different views on this. Subjects are constantly growing and changing, so it is unlikely there could ever be just one agreed set of key concepts for all learning situations. However, it is often useful in a particular context (for example, an examination specification) to present a set of key concepts, as these can then be used to help plan the curriculum.

3. If a concept isn’t in the agreed ‘key’ set for a subject, it isn’t important. Each subject includes many substantive (subject content) concepts that are very important as building blocks for learners’ understanding, even if they aren’t in the ‘key’ list. If these concepts are not thoroughly understood, learners may not be able to grasp the bigger, overall ideas that shape the discipline .

4. Key concepts alone make up subject-specific vocabulary . Each discipline uses specific language that has a distinct meaning to that subject. Key concepts may make up some of this language, but it is important to encourage learners to develop their use of subject-specific vocabulary beyond the key concepts alone. This will mean learners are able to fully explain their understanding of the key concepts.

Imagine a colleague has one of the misconceptions mentioned in the video. How could you support your colleague to develop their understanding of key concepts?

Key concepts in practice

Using key concepts can be one way of helping you plan for progression. There are some suggestions for doing this below. (Of course, there are also lots of other frameworks you could use.)

A helpful exercise in planning for progression is to set out the knowledge, key concepts and skills that you want learners to develop. This is useful as it makes sure there is a  suitable balance  between these three elements over the medium and long term. ‘Suitable’ doesn’t necessarily mean equal or separate in terms of curricular time. In practice, the three elements are linked in learning (see the diagrams below) but each should be evident in the scheme of work to the relevant degree of emphasis. Another approach to planning may be taken in subjects such as maths. In  ‘Approaches to learning and teaching Mathematics’ there are five areas of learning needed for mathematical proficiency. Conceptual understanding is one of these five. This planning framework also requires balance when planning and teaching these five areas.

Key concepts in medium-term planning

Medium-term planning is preparing for learners’ progress and development over a sequence of work. This might be a unit of five to six lessons or longer, depending on the subject and the teaching time available.

One approach to medium-term planning is to design an  enquiry sequence  that is underpinned by one second-order key concept. This was pioneered in history by the work of educators such as Michael Riley (2000). In this work, Riley refers to second-order concepts as ‘areas of second-order understanding’. He proposed the following features of an enquiry sequence.

• A carefully constructed  enquiry question  to guide a short sequence of lessons. This question should be rigorous, challenging and intriguing. The wording of enquiry questions is crucial and may take time for you and your department to develop. Enquiry questions do not have to lead into individual or group research projects. They are a way of getting learners to focus their thinking, and can be used in a whole range of activities and plans.

• The question should ‘place an aspect of historical thinking, concept or process at the forefront of pupils’ minds’ (Riley 2000). This is where the second-order concept comes in. Again, it takes careful thought to phrase the question in the correct way to make sure that the concept is the real driving force.

• Lesson by lesson, learners gain the substantive content knowledge needed to answer the enquiry question effectively.

• It should result in an outcome activity (an essay, wall display, radio script and so on) in which the enquiry question is genuinely answered.

Teachers skilled in creating enquiry sequences deliberately construct puzzles for their classes, introducing new elements to the ‘story’ that cause pupils to question their initial ideas and help them develop more detailed responses as the sequence progresses. This will help learners to think critically and develop a deeper understanding of a topic or theme. This is very different to the superficial approach to enquiry questions in which they form little more than the lesson title.

Example of an enquiry sequence

Context:  The geography department at Loftyhill School teach a 12-hour unit of work on the USA with 13- to 14-year-olds. Their current scheme of work is quite traditional. It covers the main elements of physical and human characteristics of the USA, including types of employment and links with other countries. It is strong on factual knowledge and also builds understanding of substantive concepts such as 'climate', 'urban areas', 'trade' and 'employment'.

Reflection:  The department are worried that their planning does not deal with broad geographical ideas. They would also like to find a way for their planning and delivery to involve and interest pupils more. The department are experimenting with using key concepts such as 'interaction', 'diversity' and 'change' to inform their medium-term planning (Taylor 2008). In the article ‘Key concepts in medium term planning’ (2008), Liz Taylor discusses an approach to medium-term planning in geography, based on key concepts.

Action:  They decide to divide the 12-hour unit into two six-hour enquiry sequences. The first will be based around the key concept of 'diversity'. To get learners interested, they decide to ask: ‘Where should the Smith family move to in the USA?’. They set up a lively activity in which learners play the part of relocation agents hired to look at four locations in the USA. The locations are chosen by the teacher to give a taste of physical, environmental and human diversity. After a general introduction to the USA, learners work in small groups to research and evaluate one location per lesson, applying these to the needs of the family and making a short oral presentation to answer the question in the final lesson.

Outcome activity:  An individual written homework that allows learners to reflect on the extent of human and physical diversity within the USA.

Next steps:  This unit would then provide an excellent foundation for a further enquiry sequence which considers the nature and extent of the key concept of 'interaction' between the USA and other countries in the world, particularly relating to migration and trade links.

Having read the example above, what key concept could you base an enquiry sequence on? How will you know your learners are building an understanding of that key concept?

Key concepts in long-term planning

When using key concepts to shape your long-term planning you will need to think carefully about how to use them to develop learners’ understanding and make sure your learners make progress. Consider the following points.

Planning for progress over the long term.   Think about the learning journey of the pupil. How will they gain an increasingly sophisticated understanding of the key concepts that shape knowledge into a discipline?

Provide opportunities to revisit key concepts.  This will help learners to develop increasingly sophisticated levels of understanding over time. Substantive concepts can be organised into hierarchies, in which a learner needs to grasp a more basic concept before going on to the more complex one.

Think about threshold concepts.  Where should you position these for learners to be most likely to pass through the ‘doorways’ to new ways of looking at a topic or subject? Is just one encounter with a threshold concept enough, or will your learners need to revisit this tricky concept a number of times to be able to understand it?

It will be useful to draw on research on key concepts in your subject, if this is available. However, this is also an area where every teacher can develop their understanding and practice by carefully observing and reflecting on their own students’ learning.

In this video, Dr Liz Taylor discusses why it is helpful to use key concepts in planning and whether this is different at different levels of learning.

Create a list of all the concepts in your subject. Which ones would you say are ‘key’? Ask a colleague to create their own list and compare it with your own. Where are the similarities and differences?

A key concepts checklist

If you are new to using key concepts to support curriculum planning, it will help to consider the following points and even to discuss them with your subject department.

Think carefully about the key concepts in your subject. Start by listing all the concepts that come to mind, then highlight the ones you would consider to be ‘key’. Cross-check against any lists available in examination specifications, textbooks or curriculums. Do the lists differ in any way? Remember that it is fine for different people to have different views of what makes a key concept. However, your examination syllabus will have been written with a recommended list in mind, so you should make sure that you include these key concepts in your own lists.

Review the place of key concepts in your current curriculum documents. Is appropriate emphasis on each of your key concepts clear across your current planning documents? If not, choose one medium-term plan you want to revise, such as a scheme of work for a topic you will be teaching. You might like to start by thinking of one key concept which you think is particularly relevant (perhaps a threshold concept). Although the topic probably involves a number of substantive concepts, and may help learners understand more than one key concept, it helps to give particular emphasis to one key idea.

Devise a medium-term plan. Plan an enquiry sequence or other approach to learning in which students will have the opportunity to get to grips with a particular key concept (see the example above). Try creating an enquiry question that will involve and interest your learners and which can be answered in a substantial outcome activity (see above). How will the sequence help learners make progress in their understanding of the key concept?

Try it out! Teach using your medium-term plan. Be mindful of the key concept you are exploring with your learners and remember to remind them to think about this concept when appropriate.

Reflect on the lesson sequence Evaluate how far the lesson sequence allowed learners to develop their understanding of the key concept. Use learners’ written work or other material (responses to class discussion, for example) as evidence. What did they learn? How do you know? Did you get the balance between building knowledge, building skills and understanding concepts that you were aiming for? If not, what would you change next time? How will you move learners on from this point?

Reflect back over your own learning of your subject.   Can you suggest one or more ‘threshold concepts’ in your discipline? What changed your perspective and modified your view of an issue or field?

Read about your discipline.   To what extent is there agreement on ‘key’ concepts within the academic and teaching communities for your discipline? Can you see how there might be a difference between substantive and second-order concepts for your discipline? Is there any discussion of this in the professional literature you have access to?

Reflect on your teaching.   In what ways do you prompt and respond to learners’ previous ideas on topics that you teach? Are there any common misconceptions in your subject? How will you challenge these misconceptions to move learning forward?

Think about how you will embed key concepts in your teaching.   Do you think that the key concepts in your discipline should be made clear to learners? If so, how and when would this be most helpful? If not, why not?

Want to know more?   Here  is a printable list of interesting books and articles on the topics we have looked at.

Abstract concept A concept not associated with any physical object.

Concept A mental representation of a class of things. A concept may refer to concrete or abstract things for example, 'cat' or 'love'.

Concrete concept A concept of a physical object or being such as 'spoon', 'dog' or 'football'.

Enquiry sequence A short series of lessons focused around a carefully developed exploratory question.

Key concept A concept which people propose or agree to be particularly important within a certain context.

Long-term planning Preparation for learners’ progress and development over a year or more.

Misconception An incorrect view or opinion.

Scheme of work A set of planned units of learning relating to a topic, subject or stage.

Second-order concept A concept which can be used across all aspects of a subject to organise the substantive knowledge. Second-order concepts form the heart of the characteristic questions asked by a discipline.

Substantive concept A concept forming part of the substance (content) within a subject.

Threshold concept A concept which, when fully grasped, will modify learners’ understandings of a particular field.

Fastest Nurse Insight Engine

• MEDICAL ASSISSTANT
• Abdominal Key
• Anesthesia Key
• Basicmedical Key
• Otolaryngology & Ophthalmology
• Musculoskeletal Key
• Obstetric, Gynecology and Pediatric
• Oncology & Hematology
• Plastic Surgery & Dermatology
• Clinical Dentistry
• Radiology Key
• Thoracic Key
• Veterinary Medicine
• Gold Membership

Key concepts in research

2. Key concepts in research Key points • Research is a lot easier to appreciate through an understanding of some of the concepts covered in this chapter. • Quantitative and qualitative approaches to research relate to the different research designs, and are based on philosophical beliefs about the nature of empirical evidence, that is, evidence collected in the real world through the senses. Quantitative research is based on the belief that the truth of a situation exists in an objective state outside the personal views or perceptions of the individual. It emphasises accuracy, and produces numerical data. Qualitative researchers believe that the truth of a situation is produced by our subjective experience, and that we need to look at things from an individual’s point of view. Midwifery is concerned with issues that draw on both beliefs. • Research questions can relate to three levels of exploration. Level-one questions relate to describing one variable, usually about which little is known, or that has rarely been the subject of research. Level-two questions look for relationships between variables but where little theory exists. Level-three questions relate to questions where theory exists and the aim is to test hypotheses based on the theory. • Variables are the elements in which the researcher is interested. In level-three questions, there will be a dependent variable that is the outcome or effect, and one or more independent variables that are presumed to influence or cause the dependent variable. • Concept definitions relate to how the researcher defines the topic in which they are interested. This can be thought of as a dictionary definition or alternative word for the topic of interest. • Operational definitions refer to the way in which a concept is measured. It reduces the vagueness of such words as comfort, pain, and benefit by producing a clear specification of how the researcher will make them visible in a specific study. • Theoretical and conceptual frameworks provide the context and meaning for the ideas and concepts contained in a study. • Reliability, validity, bias and rigour relate first to the extent to which the tool of data collection is accurate and consistent between different measurements, or different researchers. Validity relates to whether the method does measure what the researcher intends it to measure. Bias is the extent to which the findings are distorted either by the choice of subjects or the method of measurement. Rigour is the extent to which the researcher has attempted to conduct the study to ensure accuracy and high-quality research. This chapter will examine some of the important concepts used by researchers and simplify the language by helping you to understand its meaning. The language of research can appear to be composed of ‘jargon’, that is, unhelpful and meaningless words. This can form a barrier to understanding research, as people resent the use of words they do not understand, particularly if they feel they are just being used for effect. However, in reality, the words are a shorthand for complex ideas, and once the most commonly used words are understood, research can take on a completely different level of understanding. The chapter will also cover some of the important issues that researchers face when demonstrating that their research is accurate and carried out to a high standard. These are called ‘methodological issues’. An important starting point is to recognise that research takes many different forms; in this book we will focus specifically on research examining midwifery issues, carried out on the whole by midwives. In Chapter 1 research was defined as the systematic collection of information using carefully designed and controlled methods that answer a specific question objectively and as accurately as possible. This definition can look similar to audit and so lead to some confusion between these two sources of information. The basic difference between the two, however, is that the key role of research is to extend knowledge and understanding of a particular topic or issue through the systematic collection of information that leads to generalisations about the topic examined. Research conclusions are usually placed within a context of existing knowledge. That is, they are usually compared to previous research that has examined the same topic in order to confirm existing knowledge or help to clarify or extend it. The purpose is always to enrich our understanding of the topic so that we can better use, or control its features. Audit, on the other hand, is usually interested in the performance level of a part of a service, and a comparison of results against an agreed standard (or previous audit results) that may allow action to be taken. Watson and Keady (2008) suggest that we can think of audit as management activity concerned with measuring the extent to which agreed standards for clinical practice or procedures are being met or are reaching a sufficient level. Gerrish and Lacey (2010) agree, saying it is a process of measuring care against predetermined standards. This is very different from the way research is designed to increasing our overall understanding of a topic and which can be applied generally, rather than the very specific location to which audit data can apply. One problem in trying to define research is that it is similar to words such as ‘care’, ‘birth’, or ‘midwifery’; it is used as though it consisted of a single entity when, in fact, in can take many different alternative forms. This means that once we decide to study it, we have to learn something about the many forms it can take. At this stage it is useful to think of research as a process that will follow a number of principles or guidelines that will change depending on the type or category of research considered. In this book we will focus on midwifery research, that is, research that explores the problems and issues of direct concern to the midwife and that has implications for the work of the midwife more than any other discipline. Quantitative and qualitative research These two concepts are an ideal starting point for learning about research as they categorise very different approaches to thinking about the role of research and the beliefs or philosophies underpinning its production. This is important as it explains why some studies look very different from others. If we know why they differ we can make the best use of both types. Although Chapter 4 on quantitative and qualitative research explores the differences in more detail in, here we need outline ideas associated with them, and the implications these have for midwifery research and knowledge. Historically, research has been synonymous with the word ‘scientific’, often associated with words like ‘objective’ or ‘accurate’, as these are two key characteristics that ‘good’ research is presumed to posses. Gerrish and Lacey (2010: 8) see a scientific approach to research as indicating ‘a rigorous approach to a systematic form of enquiry’. The philosophy or belief on which this approach is based is that the natural or ‘real’ world does not depend on an individual’s experience of it to exist and that it is open to study and quantification. In other words, it can be measured in some way independent of the person doing the measuring. This type of research can be characterised as ‘ quantitative’ research as it attempts to quantify concepts, such as blood pressure, family size and even pain, in the form of a numeric value. These numbers can be summarised and allow the use of a range of statistical techniques to give the results greater usefulness and meaning ( Chapter 13 ). The purpose of quantitative research is seen as the search for relationships between things in the world so that we can understand the way they act and relate together. The ultimate aim of this understanding is to be able to control the elements in our world that impact on human existence. Our understanding of gravity and how we are influenced by its ‘laws’ is a good example of this measurement and developing of relationships leading to theories about ‘how things are’. In midwifery, an example may be the search for a relationship between physical skin-to-skin contact with the baby at birth and parental feelings of emotional attachment so this pattern can be measured and demonstrated to be advantageous. This scientific view is one ‘ paradigm’ or total way of looking at things (world view) in research. It is the one embraced by medical research as the ‘right’ and ‘proper’ approach for a profession that is concerned with clinical outcomes. These words have been put in inverted commas to show that there may not be total agreement on this statement, and it is open to debate whether the belief applies in all circumstances. We must remember that this is only one approach to research and, without suggesting that it is not an indispensable approach in midwifery, that there are other, just as legitimate ways of conducting a study in addition to counting or measuring something that can also extend midwifery knowledge and practice. Qualitative research (sometimes referred to as representing a naturalistic paradigm as it avoids controlling situations) is the second in the pair of concepts that go to make up the two largest research approaches in midwifery. This has a different view of the characteristics of knowledge and the best way of conducting research to discover, extend or confirm that knowledge. It is believed that the real world can only be understood through our personal experience of it, and everything depends on how we experience and interpret that experience. This explains why some people are afraid of spiders or going to the dentist. It is a product of how people experience them, or the associations they hold for the individual. It does not mean that spiders or dentists themselves are frightening. Naturalistic or qualitative researchers believe that if we are to understand a topic we need to look at it through the eyes of those who experience it and try to understand it from their point of view. This way of thinking creates a different understanding of reality and the type of research we need to capture it accurately. This kind of research produces qualitative data in the form of verbal or written statements and dialogue, or extensive descriptions of observed human activity and behaviour. It uses methods such as interviews or observations, and information taken from documents such as diaries or health records that capture perceptions, interpretations, experiences or understanding. One of the guiding principles of qualitative research is that it tries to capture people’s thoughts and feelings in their own words. So, questionnaires with fixed-choice options would not be classed as qualitative research even though they may have tried to see things from the individual’s point of view, as the list of alternative answers has been developed by the researcher. This format does not allow individuals to express ideas and answers in their own words, only in those of the researchers who have designed the alternatives and selected what they think are relevant alternatives. An important visual distinction between quantitative and qualitative research is the presentation of data. Quantitative research will use numerical or visual forms of data presentation such as tables, bar charts and histograms (more of these in Chapter 13 on statistics). This form of data presentation is not a main feature of qualitative research, although some studies may present a table showing details of the sample, such as age, number of children, etc. It is more usual for qualitative results to avoid numbers and simply present broad theme headings and discuss the type of comments made, often with examples of direct quotations or dialogue. As will be seen in Chapter 4 , these two forms of research are so different they are almost two different entities. The importance of this is that we must avoid criticising qualitative research using the criteria of a quantitative approach. Which of these two approaches is best suited to midwifery research? The answer is, the one that is most appropriate to the question posed. If the midwifery question is one of quantity, or frequency, particularly in regard to clinical outcomes, then a quantitative approach will be appropriate; if the question is one of perceptions, understanding and interpretations, then the best approach will be qualitative. Levels of questions in research There is no shortage of questions that need to be answered through midwifery research. From the research point of view, it is the question posed by the researcher that results in the aim of the research. The aim usually begins with the word ‘to’ as in: … this study aims to examine how a certain group of midwives (the participants) conceptualise the phenomenon of the ‘good’ midwife and the ‘good’ leader. Byrom and Downe (2010: 127) Research questions will differ in their complexity and this will have implications for the way a study is designed. Wood and Ross-Kerr (2006) make a useful distinction between what they call the three levels of research question. These levels are influenced by how much is known about a particular subject, or how much theory exists in relation to it ( Table 2.1 ). The advantage of this system is that it allows you to predict the way a study should be structured to answer a question at each of the levels. Table 2.1 Levels of research questions Level of question Description Type of research Level 1 Examines one variable (or a series of variables) but without looking for patterns between variables. Exploratory situation where little is known about the topic. Quantitative descriptive, e.g. survey Qualitative study: all types are level 1. Level 2

Share this:

• Click to share on Twitter (Opens in new window)
• Click to share on Facebook (Opens in new window)

Related posts:

• The basic framework of research
• The research question
• The challenge of the future
• Sampling methods

Stay updated, free articles. Join our Telegram channel

Comments are closed for this page.

Full access? Get Clinical Tree

Key Concepts in Qualitative Research

Qualitative studies, as we learned earlier in this course, use an inductive method. Meaning, they seek to understand a phenomenon, and then use an emergency design that evolves as the research takes place in order to finally produce a theory. Qualitative designs are also subjective  and use an analysis of words to understand the meaning of viewpoints and realities of the participants.

• Definition of Qualitative Methodology
• Assumptions of Qualitative Methods
• Types of Qualitative Studies
• Population and Samples
• Common Data Collection Methods
• Data Analyses
• Common Statistical Analyses

Objectives:

• Define qualitative research methodology.
• Describe the foundational assumptions of qualitative methods.
• Understand the types of qualitative studies.
• Describe sampling in qualitative research.
• Describe the common data collection methods and data analyses in qualitative research.
• Define mixed methods research.

Qualitative Research Methodology

A key concept is to remember that qualitative research is generally not generalizable, as we are not testing a hypothesis and not making inferences based on data. However, in qualitative research, it is often revolving around the concept of transferability. Transferability is established by providing evidence that the research study’s findings could be applicable to other contexts, situations, times, and populations.

Foundational Assumptions of Qualitative Methods.

The overarching assumptions in qualitative methodology include:

• Truth is fluid. Meaning, it is flexible and holistic.
• Some aspects of humanity and the human experience is best examined with qualitative methods so that we can have a deeper understanding of a person’s experience and viewpoints.

In general, qualitative design (methodology):

• Is flexible and capable to changing as the study progresses, depending on what is learned during the data collection.
• It often uses various data collection strategies in order to collect rich data.
• Is holistic in nature, with the goal of understanding of the whole.
• Researchers are involved, reflexive, and can interact with participants during data collection.

Types of qualitative studies

The common types of qualitative research include:

Phenomenology: the lived experiences; useful to learn about the human experience.

Grounded Theory: to discover the process; often a social process in nursing.

Ethnography: to describe a culture; used commonly in nursing to describe cultures (Brown, 2017).

Historical: a retrospective examination of events to explain and understand (Schmidt & Brown, 2019).

Case Study: a comprehensive investigation of individuals or groups of people to gain insight into a specific situation (Brown, 2017).

Sampling in Qualitative Research

Sample sizes in qualitative research are often much smaller than quantitative research. Remember, we are not generalizing findings to a larger population, so the sample size can be very small.

One of the reasons samples are smaller is because each participant contributes a large amount of data in the form of a narrative. The narrative (words) is then analyzed for themes (thematic analysis) and this takes a lot of time.

Data saturation involves sampling until no new information is obtained and redundancy is achieved. This can vary the sample size, depending on various factors. Data quality can absolutely affect the sample size. If participants are insightful and can share their narrative well, then saturation may be achieved with a relatively small sample.

Common Data Collection Methods and Data Analyses in Qualitative Research

Types of data collection methods in qualitative research include:

Self-Reports : These can include unstructured interviews that begin with a general question, and then subsequent questions are guided by the initial answers. Researchers utilize a general topic guide so that the interviews progress.

Focus Group Interviews : As above, but in a group setting when opinions and experiences are solicited simultaneously. The researcher/interviewer acts as moderator to keep conversation progressing.

Open-Ended Questions in a Survey : Participants can fill in a narrative as they wish. This sometimes elicits information that may not have been obtained in an in-person interview.

Personal Diaries : A standard data course in historical research.

Observations : The aim of observational is to understand the behaviors and experiences of people as they occur. The researcher participates in whatever group is being studies, which often elicits insights that would have eluded more passive or concealed observers.

Next are commonly used data analysis strategies used in qualitative methods. The intent is to introduce terms and how these relate to qualitative analysis.

Coding : line by line coding of the transcript is done to identify reappearing concepts in the data (Schmidt & Brown, 2019). Coding is the process of labeling and organizing your qualitative data to identify different themes and the relationships between them. When coding, you assign labels to words or phrases that represent important (and recurring) themes in each response.

Open coding : the grouping of data into main categories (Schmidt & Brown, 2019). With open coding, you break your data into discrete parts and create “codes” to label them. As its name would imply, open-coding is meant to open you up to new theoretical possibilities, as you first engage with your qualitative data.

Axial coding : after open coding is completed, the categories are analyzed (Schmidt & Brown, 2019).  Axial coding is when the researcher begins to draw connections between ideas in their research. 

There are some software programs that analyze qualitative data in transcripts to look for themes or commonly appearing concepts (Schmidt & Brown, 2019).

This can also be done manually by researchers. Some use index cards, tally marks, and other methods to note common themes/patterns (Leibold, 2020).

Mixed Methods Research

Finally, not all research is simply qualitative or quantitative. Research in which both types of methodology is utilized is called mixed-methods research . Mixed methods is a research approach whereby researchers collect and analyze both quantitative and qualitative data within the same study.

Growth of mixed methods research in nursing and healthcare has occurred at a time of internationally increasing complexity in healthcare delivery. Mixed methods research draws on potential strengths of both qualitative and quantitative methods, allowing researchers to explore diverse perspectives and uncover relationships that exist between the intricate layers of our multifaceted research questions. As providers and policy makers strive to ensure quality and safety for patients and families, researchers can use mixed methods to explore contemporary healthcare trends and practices across increasingly diverse practice settings (Shorten & Smith, 2017).

References & Attribution

“ Green check mark ” by rawpixel licensed CC0 .

Brown, S. J.   (2017). Evidence-based nursing: The research-practice connection (4th ed.). Jones & Bartlett Learning.

Leibold, N. (2020). Research variables. Measures and Concepts Commonly Encountered in EBP. CC BY-NC

Schmidt, N. A. & Brown, J. M. (2019). Evidence-based practice for nurses: Appraisal and application of research (4th ed.). Jones & Bartlett Learning.

Shorten, A., & Smith, J. (2017). Mixed methods research: Expanding the evidence base. Evidence-Based Nursing, 20 , 74-75.

Evidence-Based Practice & Research Methodologies Copyright © by Tracy Fawns is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

Share This Book

• school Campus Bookshelves
• menu_book Bookshelves
• perm_media Learning Objects
• login Login
• how_to_reg Request Instructor Account
• hub Instructor Commons
• Download Page (PDF)
• Download Full Book (PDF)
• Periodic Table
• Physics Constants
• Scientific Calculator
• Reference & Cite
• Tools expand_more
• Readability

selected template will load here

This action is not available.

5.02: Conceptualization

• Last updated
• Save as PDF
• Page ID 127959

• Rebecca L. Mauldin
• University of Texas at Arlington via Mavs Open Press

Learning Objectives

• Define concept
• Identify why defining our concepts is important
• Describe how conceptualization works in quantitative and qualitative research
• Define dimensions in terms of social scientific measurement
• Apply reification to conceptualization

In this section, we’ll take a look at one of the first steps in the measurement process, which is conceptualization. This has to do with defining our terms as clearly as possible and also not taking ourselves too seriously in the process. Our definitions mean only what we say they mean—nothing more and nothing less. Let’s talk first about how to define our terms, and then we’ll examine not taking ourselves (or our terms, rather) too seriously.

Concepts and conceptualization

  So far, the word concept has come up quite a bit, and it would behoove us to make sure we have a shared understanding of that term. A concept is the notion or image that we conjure up when we think of some cluster of related observations or ideas. For example, masculinity is a concept. What do you think of when you hear that word? Presumably, you imagine some set of behaviors and perhaps even a particular style of self-presentation. Of course, we can’t necessarily assume that everyone conjures up the same set of ideas or images when they hear the word masculinity . In fact, there are many possible ways to define the term. And while some definitions may be more common or have more support than others, there isn’t one true, always-correct-in-all-settings definition. What counts as masculine may shift over time, from culture to culture, and even from individual to individual (Kimmel, 2008).  This is why defining our concepts is so important.

You might be asking yourself why you should bother defining a term for which there is no single, correct definition. Believe it or not, this is true for any concept you might measure in a research study—there is never a single, always-correct definition. When we conduct empirical research, our terms mean only what we say they mean. There’s a New Yorker cartoon that aptly represents this idea. It depicts a young George Washington holding an axe and standing near a freshly chopped cherry tree. Young George is looking up at a frowning adult who is standing over him, arms crossed. The caption depicts George explaining, “It all depends on how you define ‘chop.’” Young George Washington gets the idea—whether he actually chopped down the cherry tree depends on whether we have a shared understanding of the term chop .

Without a shared understanding of this term, our understandings of what George has just done may differ. Likewise, without understanding how a researcher has defined her key concepts, it would be nearly impossible to understand the meaning of that researcher’s findings and conclusions. Thus, any decision we make based on findings from empirical research should be made based on full knowledge not only of how the research was designed, but also of how its concepts were defined and measured.

So, how do we define our concepts? This is part of the process of measurement, and this portion of the process is called conceptualization. The answer depends on how we plan to approach our research. We will begin with quantitative conceptualization and then discuss qualitative conceptualization.

In quantitative research, conceptualization involves writing out clear, concise definitions for our key concepts. Sticking with the previously mentioned example of masculinity, think about what comes to mind when you read that term. How do you know masculinity when you see it? Does it have something to do with men? With social norms? If so, perhaps we could define masculinity as the social norms that men are expected to follow. That seems like a reasonable start, and at this early stage of conceptualization, brainstorming about the images conjured up by concepts and playing around with possible definitions is appropriate. However, this is just the first step.

It would make sense as well to consult other previous research and theory to understand if other scholars have already defined the concepts we’re interested in. This doesn’t necessarily mean we must use their definitions, but understanding how concepts have been defined in the past will give us an idea about how our conceptualizations compare with the predominant ones out there. Understanding prior definitions of our key concepts will also help us decide whether we plan to challenge those conceptualizations or rely on them for our own work. Finally, working on conceptualization is likely to help in the process of refining your research question to one that is specific and clear in what it asks.

If we turn to the literature on masculinity, we will surely come across work by Michael Kimmel, one of the preeminent masculinity scholars in the United States. After consulting Kimmel’s prior work (2000; 2008), we might tweak our initial definition of masculinity just a bit. Rather than defining masculinity as “the social norms that men are expected to follow,” perhaps instead we’ll define it as “the social roles, behaviors, and meanings prescribed for men in any given society at any one time” (Kimmel & Aronson, 2004, p. 503).  Our revised definition is both more precise and more complex. Rather than simply addressing one aspect of men’s lives (norms), our new definition addresses three aspects: roles, behaviors, and meanings. It also implies that roles, behaviors, and meanings may vary across societies and over time. To be clear, we’ll also have to specify the particular society and time period we’re investigating as we conceptualize masculinity.

As you can see, conceptualization isn’t quite as simple as merely applying any random definition that we come up with to a term. Sure, it may involve some initial brainstorming, but conceptualization goes beyond that. Once we’ve brainstormed a bit about the images a particular word conjures up for us, we should also consult prior work to understand how others define the term in question. And after we’ve identified a clear definition that we’re happy with, we should make sure that every term used in our definition will make sense to others. Are there terms used within our definition that also need to be defined? If so, our conceptualization is not yet complete. And there is yet another aspect of conceptualization to consider—concept dimensions. We’ll consider that aspect along with an additional word of caution about conceptualization in the next subsection.

Conceptualization in qualitative research

Conceptualization in qualitative research proceeds a bit differently than in quantitative research. Because qualitative researchers are interested in the understandings and experiences of their participants, it is less important for the researcher to find one fixed definition for a concept before starting to interview or interact with participants. The researcher’s job is to accurately and completely represent how their participants understand a concept, not to test their own definition of that concept.

If you were conducting qualitative research on masculinity, you would likely consult previous literature like Kimmel’s work mentioned above. From your literature review, you may come up with a working definition for the terms you plan to use in your study, which can change over the course of the investigation. However, the definition that matters is the definition that your participants share during data collection. A working definition is merely a place to start, and researchers should take care not to think it is the only or best definition out there.

In qualitative inquiry, your participants are the experts (sound familiar, social workers?) on the concepts that arise during the research study. Your job as the researcher is to accurately and reliably collect and interpret their understanding of the concepts they describe while answering your questions. Conceptualization of qualitative concepts is likely to change over the course of qualitative inquiry, as you learn more information from your participants. Indeed, getting participants to comment on, extend, or challenge the definitions and understandings of other participants is a hallmark of qualitative research. This is the opposite of quantitative research, in which definitions must be completely set in stone before the inquiry can begin.

A word of caution about conceptualization

  Whether you have chosen qualitative or quantitative methods, you should have a clear definition for the term masculinity and make sure that the terms we use in our definition are equally clear—and then we’re done, right? Not so fast. If you’ve ever met more than one man in your life, you’ve probably noticed that they are not all exactly the same, even if they live in the same society and at the same historical time period. This could mean there are dimensions of masculinity. In terms of social scientific measurement, concepts can be said to have multiple dimensions when there are multiple elements that make up a single concept. With respect to the term masculinity , dimensions could be regional (is masculinity defined differently in different regions of the same country?), age-based (is masculinity defined differently for men of different ages?), or perhaps power-based (does masculinity differ based on membership to privileged groups?). In any of these cases, the concept of masculinity would be considered to have multiple dimensions. While it isn’t necessarily required to spell out every possible dimension of the concepts you wish to measure, it may be important to do so depending on the goals of your research. The point here is to be aware that some concepts have dimensions and to think about whether and when dimensions may be relevant to the concepts you intend to investigate.

Before we move on to the additional steps involved in the measurement process, it would be wise to remind ourselves not to take our definitions too seriously. Conceptualization must be open to revisions, even radical revisions, as scientific knowledge progresses. Although that we should consult prior scholarly definitions of our concepts, it would be wrong to assume that just because prior definitions exist that they are more real than the definitions we create (or, likewise, that our own made-up definitions are any more real than any other definition). It would also be wrong to assume that just because definitions exist for some concept that the concept itself exists beyond some abstract idea in our heads. This idea, assuming that our abstract concepts exist in some concrete, tangible way, is known as reification .

To better understand reification, take a moment to think about the concept of social structure. This concept is central to critical thinking. When social scientists talk about social structure, they are talking about an abstract concept. Social structures shape our ways of being in the world and of interacting with one another, but they do not exist in any concrete or tangible way. A social structure isn’t the same thing as other sorts of structures, such as buildings or bridges. Sure, both types of structures are important to how we live our everyday lives, but one we can touch, and the other is just an idea that shapes our way of living.

Here’s another way of thinking about reification: Think about the term family . If you were interested in studying this concept, we’ve learned that it would be good to consult prior theory and research to understand how the term has been conceptualized by others. But we should also question past conceptualizations. Think, for example, about how different the definition of family was 50 years ago. Because researchers from that time period conceptualized family using now outdated social norms, social scientists from 50 years ago created research projects based on what we consider now to be a very limited and problematic notion of what family means. Their definitions of family were as real to them as our definitions are to us today. If researchers never challenged the definitions of terms like family, our scientific knowledge would be filled with the prejudices and blind spots from years ago. It makes sense to come to some social agreement about what various concepts mean. Without that agreement, it would be difficult to navigate through everyday living. But at the same time, we should not forget that we have assigned those definitions, they are imperfect and subject to change as a result of critical inquiry.

Key Takeaways

• Conceptualization is a process that involves coming up with clear, concise definitions.
• Conceptualization in quantitative research comes from the researcher’s ideas or the literature.
• Qualitative researchers conceptualize by creating working definitions which will be revised based on what participants say.
• Some concepts have multiple elements or dimensions.
• Researchers should acknowledge the limitations of their definitions for concepts.
• Concept- notion or image that we conjure up when we think of some cluster of related observations or ideas
• Conceptualization- writing out clear, concise definitions for our key concepts, particularly in quantitative research
• Multi-dimensional concepts- concepts that are comprised of multiple elements
• Reification- assuming that abstract concepts exist in some concrete, tangible way

Image attributions

thought by TeroVesalainen CC-0

mindmap by TeroVesalainen CC-0

• Privacy Policy

Buy Me a Coffee

Home » Concept – Definition, Types and Examples

Concept – Definition, Types and Examples

Table of Contents

Definition:

Concept is a mental representation or an abstract idea that we use to understand and organize the world around us. It is a general notion that summarizes and simplifies complex information or experiences, making it easier to communicate and process.

For example, the concept of “love” is an abstract idea that represents a range of emotions and behaviors that people experience in their relationships with others. Similarly, the concept of “justice” represents a set of principles and standards that guide our sense of fairness and equality.

Types of Concept

Types of Concepts are as follows:

Concrete Concepts

These are concepts that refer to tangible objects or physical entities that can be perceived through the senses, such as a table, a car, or a flower.

Abstract Concepts

These are concepts that refer to ideas, qualities, or attributes that cannot be perceived through the senses, such as freedom, justice, or happiness.

Formal Concepts

These are concepts that are defined by specific rules or criteria, such as mathematical concepts like a triangle or a circle.

Natural Concepts

These are concepts that are based on our experience and interactions with the world, such as concepts like water, food, or family.

Social Concepts

These are concepts that are based on cultural or social norms, such as concepts like marriage, friendship, or etiquette.

Prototype Concepts

These are concepts that are based on typical or idealized examples of a category, such as a prototype concept of a bird that includes features like wings, feathers, and the ability to fly.

Exemplar Concepts

These are concepts that are based on specific examples or instances of a category, rather than on an idealized prototype.

Examples of Concept

Here are some examples of concepts:

• Love – a feeling of strong attachment or deep affection towards someone or something.
• Democracy – a system of government in which power is vested in the people and exercised through free and fair elections.
• Justice – the quality of being fair and impartial, particularly in the administration of the law.
• Equality – the state of being equal in status, rights, and opportunities.
• Freedom – the state of being free from coercion, constraint, or oppression.
• Creativity – the ability to produce original and imaginative ideas, works, or solutions.
• Sustainability – the ability to maintain ecological balance and meet the needs of the present generation without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.
• Globalization – the process of integration and interdependence among people, companies, and governments across the world.
• Diversity – the range of different cultures, ethnicities, genders, and other characteristics that exist within a group or society.
• Leadership – the ability to inspire and guide others towards a common goal or vision.

Applications of Concept

Applications of Concept are as follows:

• Education : Concepts play a crucial role in education, where they are used to help students develop a deeper understanding of various subjects. For example, in mathematics, concepts such as fractions, decimals, and geometric shapes are used to solve problems.
• Science : Concepts are used extensively in scientific research to help scientists understand and explain the natural world. For instance, concepts such as energy, matter, and gravity are used to describe and explain various phenomena.
• Business : Concepts such as marketing, branding, and customer service are essential for businesses to succeed. These concepts help businesses develop effective strategies to reach their target audience and improve customer satisfaction.
• Technology : Concepts are the foundation of many technological innovations. For example, the concept of artificial intelligence is used to develop intelligent machines that can perform tasks that would otherwise require human intervention.
• Philosophy : Concepts are a key aspect of philosophical inquiry, where they are used to analyze and understand complex ideas and arguments. For instance, concepts such as justice, ethics, and morality are used to explore ethical dilemmas and the nature of right and wrong.

Purpose of Concept

The purpose of a concept is to provide a mental framework or idea that helps us understand a particular topic or phenomenon. Concepts can range from simple ideas like “honesty” or “loyalty” to more complex ideas like “democracy” or “social justice.”

Concepts allow us to classify, organize, and analyze information, making it easier to understand and communicate. They also help us identify patterns, similarities, and differences between different ideas or things.

Concepts are essential for learning and intellectual development, as they provide a foundation for more advanced understanding and learning. They also allow us to build upon existing knowledge and make connections between different fields or areas of study.

Characteristics of Concept

There are several characteristics of a concept, including:

• Abstractness: A concept is an abstract idea that represents a class of objects, events, or phenomena. It is a mental construct that does not have a physical existence.
• Generalization : A concept represents a general idea that applies to a broad range of situations, objects, or events. It helps to identify commonalities among various things or phenomena.
• Mental Representation : A concept is a mental representation of an idea that we use to understand the world around us.
• Clarity : A concept should be clearly defined and understandable, so that others can comprehend it.
• Universality : A concept is universal and can be applied across different domains or contexts.
• Coherence : A concept should be logically consistent and coherent, so that it can be used to make sense of information and solve problems.
• Relevance : A concept should be relevant to the context in which it is used, and should have practical applications.
• Flexibility : A concept should be flexible enough to accommodate changes in our understanding of the world, and to adapt to new situations and contexts.
• Abstraction : A concept is an abstraction, meaning that it represents a simplified version of reality that is easier to understand and manipulate.

Advantage of Concept

Here are some advantages of concepts:

• Efficient Communication: Concepts provide a way to communicate efficiently by encapsulating complex ideas into simple, easily understandable units. For example, the concept of “love” represents a broad range of emotional experiences and allows us to communicate about this complex subject more easily.
• Problem-Solving: Concepts help us to solve problems by allowing us to identify patterns and similarities between different situations. This enables us to apply solutions that have worked in similar situations to new problems.
• Learning : Concepts provide a way to organize and structure new information, making it easier to learn and remember. By understanding the concept of “gravity,” for example, we can better understand the behavior of objects in the physical world.
• Decision Making: Concepts enable us to make more informed decisions by providing a framework for evaluating options and considering trade-offs. For example, the concept of “opportunity cost” helps us to weigh the benefits and drawbacks of different choices.

Limitations of Concept

Limitations of the Concept are as follows:

• Subjectivity : Concepts are inherently subjective, as they are based on individual experiences, beliefs, and cultural contexts. The meaning and interpretation of a concept may vary from person to person or culture to culture.
• Incompleteness : Concepts are often incomplete, as they represent a simplified version of reality. They may leave out important details or nuances, leading to misunderstandings or misinterpretations.
• Rigidity : Concepts can be rigid and inflexible, as they may not be able to accommodate new information or perspectives. This can lead to resistance to change or an inability to adapt to new situations.
• Overgeneralization : Concepts can also be overgeneralized, as people may apply a concept to situations where it does not apply or make assumptions based on incomplete or inaccurate information.
• Context dependence: The meaning of a concept can depend on the context in which it is used, making it difficult to apply the concept universally. This can lead to confusion or misinterpretation.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

You may also like

What is Art – Definition, Types, Examples

What is Anthropology – Definition and Overview

What is Literature – Definition, Types, Examples

Economist – Definition, Types, Work Area

Anthropologist – Definition, Types, Work Area

What is History – Definitions, Periods, Methods

Definition of key concepts

Cite this chapter.

• Oliver Uecke 2  

1501 Accesses

1 Citations

In this chapter, important key concepts are defined for the present study. As described in the introduction section, the study has a focus on innovations with a high level of novelty (radical innovations). Thus, at the beginning, the key concept of innovation and specifically radical innovation will be introduced and key terms are defined. Furthermore, the study focuses on early stages of the innovation process. Hence, the key concept of innovation process is discussed and early stages of the innovation process are defined for the present study. Additionally, the study focuses on innovation projects within academia, which are eventually transferred from academia to industry. Therefore, in the second part of this chapter the key concept of technology transfer is discussed and defined, in addition to the terms technology and technology transfer process. At the end the entrepreneurship term is delineated from previous key concepts.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

• Available as PDF
• Read on any device
• Instant download
• Own it forever
• Compact, lightweight edition
• Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
• Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Unable to display preview.  Download preview PDF.

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

Dresden, Germany

Oliver Uecke

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2012 Gabler Verlag | Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden

About this chapter

Uecke, O. (2012). Definition of key concepts. In: How to Commercialise Research in Biotechnology?. Gabler Verlag. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-8349-4134-3_3

Download citation

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-8349-4134-3_3

Publisher Name : Gabler Verlag

Print ISBN : 978-3-8349-4133-6

Online ISBN : 978-3-8349-4134-3

eBook Packages : Business and Economics Business and Management (R0)

Share this chapter

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

• Publish with us

Policies and ethics

• Find a journal
• Track your research