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How to Find Sources | Scholarly Articles, Books, Etc.

Published on June 13, 2022 by Eoghan Ryan . Revised on May 31, 2023.

It’s important to know how to find relevant sources when writing a  research paper , literature review , or systematic review .

The types of sources you need will depend on the stage you are at in the research process , but all sources that you use should be credible , up to date, and relevant to your research topic.

There are three main places to look for sources to use in your research:

Research databases

• Your institution’s library
• Other online resources

Table of contents

Library resources, other online sources, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about finding sources.

You can search for scholarly sources online using databases and search engines like Google Scholar . These provide a range of search functions that can help you to find the most relevant sources.

If you are searching for a specific article or book, include the title or the author’s name. Alternatively, if you’re just looking for sources related to your research problem , you can search using keywords. In this case, it’s important to have a clear understanding of the scope of your project and of the most relevant keywords.

Databases can be general (interdisciplinary) or subject-specific.

• You can use subject-specific databases to ensure that the results are relevant to your field.
• When using a general database or search engine, you can still filter results by selecting specific subjects or disciplines.

Example: JSTOR discipline search filter

Check the table below to find a database that’s relevant to your research.

Google Scholar

To get started, you might also try Google Scholar , an academic search engine that can help you find relevant books and articles. Its “Cited by” function lets you see the number of times a source has been cited. This can tell you something about a source’s credibility and importance to the field.

Example: Google Scholar “Cited by” function

Boolean operators

Boolean operators can also help to narrow or expand your search.

Boolean operators are words and symbols like AND , OR , and NOT that you can use to include or exclude keywords to refine your results. For example, a search for “Nietzsche NOT nihilism” will provide results that include the word “Nietzsche” but exclude results that contain the word “nihilism.”

Many databases and search engines have an advanced search function that allows you to refine results in a similar way without typing the Boolean operators manually.

Example: Project Muse advanced search

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You can find helpful print sources in your institution’s library. These include:

• Journal articles
• Encyclopedias
• Newspapers and magazines

Make sure that the sources you consult are appropriate to your research.

You can find these sources using your institution’s library database. This will allow you to explore the library’s catalog and to search relevant keywords. You can refine your results using Boolean operators .

Once you have found a relevant print source in the library:

• Consider what books are beside it. This can be a great way to find related sources, especially when you’ve found a secondary or tertiary source instead of a primary source .
• Consult the index and bibliography to find the bibliographic information of other relevant sources.

You can consult popular online sources to learn more about your topic. These include:

• Crowdsourced encyclopedias like Wikipedia

You can find these sources using search engines. To refine your search, use Boolean operators in combination with relevant keywords.

However, exercise caution when using online sources. Consider what kinds of sources are appropriate for your research and make sure the sites are credible .

Look for sites with trusted domain extensions:

• URLs that end with .edu are educational resources.
• URLs that end with .gov are government-related resources.
• DOIs often indicate that an article is published in a peer-reviewed , scientific article.

Other sites can still be used, but you should evaluate them carefully and consider alternatives.

If you want to know more about ChatGPT, AI tools , citation , and plagiarism , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

• ChatGPT vs human editor
• ChatGPT citations
• Is ChatGPT trustworthy?
• Using ChatGPT for your studies
• What is ChatGPT?
• Chicago style
• Paraphrasing

 Plagiarism

• Types of plagiarism
• Self-plagiarism
• Avoiding plagiarism
• Academic integrity
• Consequences of plagiarism
• Common knowledge

Scribbr Citation Checker New

The AI-powered Citation Checker helps you avoid common mistakes such as:

• Missing commas and periods
• Incorrect usage of “et al.”
• Ampersands (&) in narrative citations
• Missing reference entries

You can find sources online using databases and search engines like Google Scholar . Use Boolean operators or advanced search functions to narrow or expand your search.

For print sources, you can use your institution’s library database. This will allow you to explore the library’s catalog and to search relevant keywords.

It is important to find credible sources and use those that you can be sure are sufficiently scholarly .

• Consult your institute’s library to find out what books, journals, research databases, and other types of sources they provide access to.
• Look for books published by respected academic publishing houses and university presses, as these are typically considered trustworthy sources.
• Look for journals that use a peer review process. This means that experts in the field assess the quality and credibility of an article before it is published.

When searching for sources in databases, think of specific keywords that are relevant to your topic , and consider variations on them or synonyms that might be relevant.

Once you have a clear idea of your research parameters and key terms, choose a database that is relevant to your research (e.g., Medline, JSTOR, Project MUSE).

Find out if the database has a “subject search” option. This can help to refine your search. Use Boolean operators to combine your keywords, exclude specific search terms, and search exact phrases to find the most relevant sources.

There are many types of sources commonly used in research. These include:

You’ll likely use a variety of these sources throughout the research process , and the kinds of sources you use will depend on your research topic and goals.

Scholarly sources are written by experts in their field and are typically subjected to peer review . They are intended for a scholarly audience, include a full bibliography, and use scholarly or technical language. For these reasons, they are typically considered credible sources .

Popular sources like magazines and news articles are typically written by journalists. These types of sources usually don’t include a bibliography and are written for a popular, rather than academic, audience. They are not always reliable and may be written from a biased or uninformed perspective, but they can still be cited in some contexts.

Cite this Scribbr article

If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the “Cite this Scribbr article” button to automatically add the citation to our free Citation Generator.

Ryan, E. (2023, May 31). How to Find Sources | Scholarly Articles, Books, Etc.. Scribbr. Retrieved April 15, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/working-with-sources/finding-sources/

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Library Research at Cornell: Find Articles

• The Research Steps
• Which Topic?
• Find the Context
• Find Articles
• Evaluate Sources
• Cite Sources
• Review the Steps
• Find Primary Sources
• Find Images
• Library Jargon

Tips for Finding Articles

• Use online databases to find articles in journals, newspapers, and magazines (periodicals). You can search for periodical articles by the article author, title, or keyword by using databases in your subject area in Databases .
• Choose the database best suited to your particular topic--see details in the box below.
• Use our Ask a Librarian service for help for figuring out which databases are best for your topic.
• If the article full text is not linked from the citation in the database you are using, search for the title of the periodical in our Catalog . This catalog lists the print, microform, and electronic versions of journals, magazines, and newspapers available in the library.

Finding Periodicals and Periodical Articles

Topic outline for this page:

• What Are Periodicals?

Finding the Periodical When You Do Have the Article Citation

• Locating Periodicals in Olin and Uris Libraries

Distinguishing Scholarly Journals from Other Periodicals

• Evaluating Individual Periodical Titles

What are Periodicals?

Periodicals are continuing publications such as journals, newspapers, or magazines. They are issued regularly (daily, weekly, monthly, or quarterly).

The Cornell Library Catalog includes records for all the periodicals which are received by all the individual units of the Cornell University Library (Music Library, Mann Library, Law Library, Uris Library, etc.).

The Cornell Library Catalog does not include information on individual articles in periodicals. To find individual periodical articles by subject, article author, or article title, use periodical databases .

When you know the periodical title ( Scientific American, The New York Times, Newsweek ) search the Cornell Library Catalog by journal title .

Finding Articles When You Don't Have the Citation

To find an article, use databases.

When you don't have the citation to a specific article, but you do want to find articles on a subject, by a specific author or authors, or with a known article title, you need to use one or more periodical databases . But how do you know which periodical index to use?

What kind of periodicals are you looking for?

• scholarly journals?
• newspapers and substantive news sources?
• popular magazines?
• all three kinds?

[ Learn how to identify scholarly journals, news sources, and popular magazines. ]

If you want articles from scholarly, research, peer-reviewed journals , ask a reference librarian to recommend an index/database for your topic. Some databases index journals exclusively, like America: History and Life , EconLit , Engineering Village , MLA Bibliography , PsycINFO , PubMed , and Web of Science . Google Scholar searches across all scholarly disciplines and subjects. You can also use the subject menu in Databases linked from the library home page to locate databases that index scholarly publications.

If you want newspaper articles , see this guide to newspaper indexes and full-text newspaper databases . Online databases for finding newspaper articles are listed here: News Collections Online: News Databases .

If you want popular magazines , use Academic Search Premier or ProQuest Research Library . A printed index, Reader's Guide to Periodical Literature covering popular magazines from 1890 to 2011 is found in the Olin reference collection (Olin Reference AI 3 .R28).

The online index Reader's Guide Retrospective indexes popular magazines from 1890 to 1982 online. Periodical Contents Index covers some popular magazines for an even broader time period: 1770 to 1993.

If you want an index to all three kinds of articles, use Academic Search Premier or ProQuest Research Library . To find older articles, try Periodical Contents Index ; it indexes periodicals from 1770 to 1993.

If you want to search many databases simultaneously , use Articles & Full Text , also linked from the Library home page .

• If you're not sure which kind of periodical you want or you're not sure which periodical index to use, or if you want help searching, ask a reference librarian .

Remember you can always browse the titles of online periodical databases available online by clicking on this link to the subject categories in the Databases or on the Databases link in the search box on the Library home page .

When You Have a Citation to a Specific Article, Use the Cornell Library Catalog

When you do have the citation or reference to a periodical article--if you know at least the title of the periodical and the issue date of the article you want--you can find its location at Cornell by using the Cornell Library Catalog . Choose "Journal Title" in the drop-down menu to the right of the search box, click in the search box, type in the title of the periodical in the search box, and press <enter> . Don't use the abbreviated titles that are often used in periodical indexes; remember to omit "a," "an" or "the" when you type in the periodical title.

Search examples in the Cornell Library Catalog:

* When searching for the title, Journal of Modern History

Type the following in the search box: journal of modern history

* When searching for the title, Annales Musicologiques: Moyen-Age et Renaissance

You may type the following: annales musicologiques moyen age (Omit punctuation) (searching is not case sensitive)

Depending on the number of records your search retrieves, you will see either a list of entries or a single record for an individual periodical title. If there is a list of titles, scroll through it and click on the line that lists the journal title you want to see for the call number and location information or the online link(s).

If the journal is available in electronic form , there will be a link or links int the box labelled "Availability" in the catalog record. Click on this link. In most cases, this will take you to the opening screen for the journal, and you can choose the issue you want from there.

If the journal is available in print form , record the call number and any additional location information in the catalog record. Now you're ready to find it on the shelf. Consult the local stack directory for the call number locations in individual libraries.

Locating Print Periodicals in Olin and Uris Libraries

Current periodicals:.

Periodicals noted as "Current issues in Periodicals Room" in the Cornell Library Catalog are print journals shelved by title in the Current Periodicals Room on the main level in Olin Library. This room is immediately to the right and down the hall as you enter Olin Library. Only a small selection of current print periodicals is in this room : all other current periodical issues go directly to the Olin stacks where they are shelved by call number.

Back Issues of Periodicals

Back issues of periodicals are shelved by call number in the Olin and Uris Library stacks. Some back periodicals are shelved in specific subject rooms; watch for location notes in the Cornell Library Catalog record for the title you want.

Pay attention to the + and ++ indicators by the call number. Titles with the + and ++ (Oversize) designations and titles with no plus marks are each shelved in separate sections on each floor in Olin Library and separate floors in Uris Library.

Back issues on microfilm, microfiche, and microprint are housed on the lower or B Level in Olin Library.

Journals, news publications, and magazines are important sources for up-to-date information across a wide variety of topics. With a collection as large and diverse as Cornell's it is often difficult to distinguish between the various levels of scholarship found in the collection. In this guide we have divided the criteria for evaluating periodical literature into four categories:

• Scholarly  /  VIDEO: How to Identify Scholarly Journal Articles
• Substantive News and General Interest  /  VIDEO: How to Identify Substantive News Articles
• Sensational and Tabloid

Definitions:

Webster's Third International Dictionary defines scholarly as:

• concerned with academic study, especially research,
• exhibiting the methods and attitudes of a scholar, and
• having the manner and appearance of a scholar.

Substantive is defined as having a solid base, being substantial.

Popular means fit for, or reflecting the taste and intelligence of, the people at large.

Sensational is defined as arousing or intending to arouse strong curiosity, interest or reaction.

Keeping these definitions in mind, and realizing that none of the lines drawn between types of journals can ever be totally clear cut, the general criteria are as follows.

Scholarly journals are also called academic, peer-reviewed, or refereed journals . Strictly speaking, peer-reviewed (also called refereed) journals refer only to those scholarly journals that submit articles to several other scholars, experts, or academics (peers) in the field for review and comment. These reviewers must agree that the article represents properly conducted original research or writing before it can be published.

To check if a journal is peer-reviewed/refereed, search the journal by title in Ulrich's Periodical Directory --look for the referee jersey icon.

What to look for:

• Scholarly journal articles often have an abstract, a descriptive summary of the article contents, before the main text of the article.
• Scholarly journals generally have a sober, serious look. They often contain many graphs and charts but few glossy pages or exciting pictures.
• Scholarly journals always cite their sources in the form of footnotes or bibliographies. These bibliographies are generally lengthy and cite other scholarly writings.
• Articles are written by a scholar in the field or by someone who has done research in the field. The affiliations of the authors are listed, usually at the bottom of the first page or at the end of the article--universities, research institutions, think tanks, and the like.
• The language of scholarly journals is that of the discipline covered. It assumes some technical background on the part of the reader.
• The main purpose of a scholarly journal is to report on original research or experimentation in order to make such information available to the rest of the scholarly world.
• Many scholarly journals, though by no means all, are published by a specific professional organization.

Examples of Scholarly Journals:

• American Economic Review
• Applied Geography
• Archives of Sexual Behavior
• JAMA : The Journal of the American Medical Association
• Journal of Marriage and the Family (published by the National Council on Family Relations)
• Journal of Theoretical Biology
• Modern Fiction Studies

Substantive News or General Interest

These periodicals may be quite attractive in appearance, although some are in newspaper format. Articles are often heavily illustrated, generally with photographs.

News and general interest periodicals sometimes cite sources, though more often do not.

Articles may be written by a member of the editorial staff, a scholar or a free lance writer.

The language of these publications is geared to any educated audience. There is no specialty assumed, only interest and a certain level of intelligence.

They are generally published by commercial enterprises or individuals, although some emanate from specific professional organizations.

The main purpose of periodicals in this category is to provide information, in a general manner, to a broad audience of concerned citizens.

Examples of Substantive News and General Interest Periodicals:

• The Economist
• National Geographic
• The New York Times
• Scientific American
• Vital Speeches of the Day

Popular periodicals come in many formats, although often slick and attractive in appearance with lots of color graphics (photographs, drawings, etc.).

These publications do not cite sources in a bibliography. Information published in popular periodicals is often second or third hand and the original source is rarely mentioned.

Articles are usually very short and written in simple language.

The main purpose of popular periodicals is to entertain the reader, to sell products (their own or their advertisers), or to promote a viewpoint.

Examples of Popular Periodicals:

• People Weekly
• Readers Digest
• Sports Illustrated

Sensational or Tabloid

Sensational periodicals come in a variety of styles, but often use a newspaper format.

Their language is elementary and occasionally inflammatory. They assume a certain gullibility in their audience.

The main purpose of sensational magazines seems to be to arouse curiosity and to cater to popular superstitions. They often do so with flashy headlines designed to astonish (e.g., Half-man Half-woman Makes Self Pregnant).

Examples of Sensational Periodicals:

• National Examiner
• Weekly World News

Evaluating Periodicals: Magazines for Libraries

Magazines for Libraries describes and evaluates journals, magazines, and newspapers:

Or ask for assistance at the reference desk .

Reference Help

• << Previous: Find Books
• Next: Evaluate Sources >>
• Last Updated: Mar 22, 2024 11:29 AM
• URL: https://guides.library.cornell.edu/sevensteps

Finding Scholarly Articles: Home

What's a Scholarly Article?

Your professor has specified that you are to use scholarly (or primary research or peer-reviewed or refereed or academic) articles only in your paper. What does that mean?

Scholarly or primary research articles are peer-reviewed , which means that they have gone through the process of being read by reviewers or referees  before being accepted for publication. When a scholar submits an article to a scholarly journal, the manuscript is sent to experts in that field to read and decide if the research is valid and the article should be published. Typically the reviewers indicate to the journal editors whether they think the article should be accepted, sent back for revisions, or rejected.

To decide whether an article is a primary research article, look for the following:

• The author’s (or authors') credentials and academic affiliation(s) should be given;
• There should be an abstract summarizing the research;
• The methods and materials used should be given, often in a separate section;
• There are citations within the text or footnotes referencing sources used;
• Results of the research are given;
• There should be discussion   and  conclusion ;
• With a bibliography or list of references at the end.

Caution: even though a journal may be peer-reviewed, not all the items in it will be. For instance, there might be editorials, book reviews, news reports, etc. Check for the parts of the article to be sure.   

You can limit your search results to primary research, peer-reviewed or refereed articles in many databases. To search for scholarly articles in  HOLLIS , type your keywords in the box at the top, and select  Catalog&Articles  from the choices that appear next.   On the search results screen, look for the  Show Only section on the right and click on  Peer-reviewed articles . (Make sure to  login in with your HarvardKey to get full-text of the articles that Harvard has purchased.)

Many of the databases that Harvard offers have similar features to limit to peer-reviewed or scholarly articles.  For example in Academic Search Premier , click on the box for Scholarly (Peer Reviewed) Journals  on the search screen.

Review articles are another great way to find scholarly primary research articles.   Review articles are not considered "primary research", but they pull together primary research articles on a topic, summarize and analyze them.  In Google Scholar , click on Review Articles  at the left of the search results screen. Ask your professor whether review articles can be cited for an assignment.

A note about Google searching.  A regular Google search turns up a broad variety of results, which can include scholarly articles but Google results also contain commercial and popular sources which may be misleading, outdated, etc.  Use Google Scholar  through the Harvard Library instead.

About Wikipedia .  W ikipedia is not considered scholarly, and should not be cited, but it frequently includes references to scholarly articles. Before using those references for an assignment, double check by finding them in Hollis or a more specific subject  database .

Still not sure about a source? Consult the course syllabus for guidance, contact your professor or teaching fellow, or use the Ask A Librarian service.

• Last Updated: Oct 3, 2023 3:37 PM
• URL: https://guides.library.harvard.edu/FindingScholarlyArticles

Harvard University Digital Accessibility Policy

Getting Started with Library Research

Research needs and requirements vary with each assignment, project, or paper. Although there is no single “right” way to conduct research, certain methods and skills can make your research efforts more efficient and effective.

If you have questions or can’t find what you need,  ask a librarian .

Developing a Research Topic

All research starts with a question.

• Discuss your ideas with a librarian or with your professor.
• Formulate a research question and identify keywords.
• Search subject-focused encyclopedias, books, and journals to see what kind of information already exists on your topic. If you are having trouble finding information, you may need to change your search terms or ask for help.

Additional resources:

• Library Research at Cornell
• Research Guides

Using the Library to Find Research Materials

The Library is the top resource when it comes to locating and accessing research materials.

• Use the library catalog to find materials such as books, music, videos, journals, and audio recordings in our collections.
• Search databases to find articles, book chapters, and other sources within a specific subject area or discipline.
• For materials the Library does not own, use BorrowDirect or Interlibrary Loan for quick and easy access.
• Each library unit has unique collections and subject knowledge. See individual library websites for additional resources in specific subject areas.
• Check out our library research guides for lists of resources curated by library staff. Browse by subject or find guides specific to course offerings.

Evaluating Sources

When using a book, article, report, or website for your research, it is important to gauge how reliable the source is. Visit these research guides for more information:

• How to distinguish scholarly vs non-scholarly sources
• Tips for critically analyzing information sources
• Identify misinformation, disinformation, and propaganda

Citing Sources

When writing a research paper, it is important to cite the sources you used in a way that would enable a reader to easily find them.

• Citation Management
• How to Prepare an Annotated Bibliography
• Code of Academic Integrity

How to Start Your Research

• Choose a Topic
• Search Library Databases
• Search the Library Catalog
• Search Google
• Stay Organized

Your Librarian

Off Campus Access

Off-Campus Access Information

In This Section

In this section, you'll find help with:.

• Understanding what databases are and what they can do for your research
• Where to find databases
• The differences between library databases and Google

Phrase searching

Subject headings.

• Video tutorials for our three major database platforms

What's a Database?

A tool for finding information

A library database is a tool that collects and organizes information so that we can find it more easily. Databases contain  records for articles from newspapers, magazines, trade journals, and academic journals, as well as records for other items such as videos, conference proceedings, dissertations, book chapters, and more. A database record contains citation information for articles and other items, and may also point to the full text of the resource. Most databases will have the full-text for some items, but not for others. Some databases are entirely full-text; others have none at all. 

Databases can be general and cover many subjects or focus on specific subjects or types of resources. Deciding which database to search depends on what kind of research you’re doing.

• Examples: Academic Search Premier, Academic OneFile, and reference databases like Credo
• Examples: CINAHL (nursing), PsycArticles (psychology), ERIC (education), and JSTOR (humanities subjects)
• Examples: US Newsstream (news articles), EBSCO SWOT Analyses (SWOT analyses), or GPO Monthly Catalog (government reports and publications)

Where to Find Databases

There are several ways to get to relevant databases. The table below will help you get your bearings and find a path that works for your research.

Google vs. Library Databases

When you search Google, do you type in a full-sentence question? No shame - it works there because Google has a sophisticated algorithm that can parse through your question to find the most important words, search with those terms, and ditch the rest. Google even corrects your spelling and searches what it thinks you mean based on your search history.

Library databases, however, can't do that.

Instead, you have to do the first step of parsing out the most important words yourself - which is to say, you'll have to develop  keywords . Keywords are search terms that are the most essential words in your research question, topic, or thesis statement.

Developing Keywords:

• Locate the essential words in your research question, problem statement, hypothesis, or thesis.
• What are the nouns, proper nouns, and action verbs that make up your question?
• What are the major concepts or themes that your question addresses?
• Think of a few synonyms or related terms for each keyword.
• Which words will it be useful to search together?

How to Search Databases

Mix and match your keywords - and your strategies..

Watch this quick video and click on each heading below to learn more about some useful search strategies. As you search, try a few of these strategies at the same time! These strategies can help you create complex, specific searches and gather focused information on your topic.

Is your topic a phrase or a string of words?

To search for a phrase in which word order matters, put quotation marks (" ") around your search terms.

• For example: "social media" ; "higher education" ; "reality television"

AND, OR, NOT (Boolean)

Connect your search terms.

Boolean operators  AND ,  OR , and  NOT  can help you combine and exclude terms from your searches. They're used directly in a database's search bar, between your keywords.

Some databases will have multiple search boxes so that you can split up your search terms and select a Boolean operator from a drop-down menu to combine the terms.

• For example, video games AND violence
• For example, lions OR tigers
• For example, enterprise NOT star trek

Remember Venn Diagrams? They're a great way to visualize what the Boolean operators AND, OR, and NOT can do for your research.

One step further

You can combine phrase searching and more than one Boolean operator to make complex, specific searches.

Placing parentheses () around your search terms is a way to group concepts and tell the database exactly what order to use when processing your search. It's just like the idea of order of operations in mathematics.

• (lions OR Tigers) AND poaching
• "video games" AND (violence OR aggression)
• "higher education" AND testing NOT gre

Use the terms librarians use to classify and organize information!

As you browse the catalog or a database and find a resource that looks promising, look for hyperlinked subjects , also called subject headings. These subject headings can be found in the detailed record for an article--what you get to when you click on a title from your search results list.

Use what you've already found to find more

This strategy involves tracking down the sources that an article (or any piece of information) cites, or following a citation chain . This strategy is a great example of why it's important to cite your sources - citations help your readers find information that is similar or crucial to your own arguments. When you find an article or source that is relevant to your research, take a look at the sources they're citing!

Database Tutorials

Check out these video tutorials for the three major database platforms we use at UJ: EBSCO, ProQuest, and Gale:

Basic Search tutorial for EBSCOhost databases such as Academic Search Premier, CINAHL, and ERIC.

Basic search tutorial for ProQuest databases such as PsycINFO, PsycARTICLES, and US Newsstream.

A quick overview of some features of Gale databases such as Academic OneFile and Literature Resource Center.

• << Previous: Find Sources
• Next: Search the Library Catalog >>
• Last Updated: Dec 12, 2023 10:57 AM
• URL: https://libguides.uj.edu/research

Holman Library

Library Research: A Step-By-Step Guide

• 2d. Find Articles
• Library Research: A Step-by-Step Guide
• 1a. Understand Your Assignment
• 1b. Select a Topic
• 1c. Develop Research Questions
• 1d. Identify Search Words
• 1e. Find Background Info
• 1f. Refine Your Topic
• 2a. Use Smart Search Strategies
• 2b. Find Books
• 2c. Find Audio and Video
• 2e. Find Websites
• 2f. Find Info in Holman Library One Search
• 3a. Evaluate By Specific Criteria
• 3b. Distinguish Between Scholarly/Popular Sources
• Step 4: Write
• Step 5: Cite Your Sources

Related guide

• Research Guide: Scholarly Journals by Jennifer Rohan Last Updated Mar 15, 2024 2185 views this year

Interlibrary Loan for finding articles

Can't find the full text of an article.

• Note down the author, title of article, name of the magazine, journal or newspaper, and date of publication  
• Note: Requesting electronic articles from another library often takes 1-3 business days, or up to a week for physical item requests.  
• Or Ask a Librarian for help by using the chat feature on the "Get Help" tab of this guide!
• Interlibrary Loan (ILL) Request books and articles from other libraries using ILL

Step 2d: Find articles

Why use different types of articles, different articles give you different flavors of info:.

• Scholarly or Peer-Reviewed or Academic Journal articles are good to find results of scientific or academic research.  They are written for scholars and provide in-depth analysis of a very specific area of your topic  *** For more in-depth info on scholarly journals, click:
• Scholarly Journals
• Trade Journal articles are good for finding articles written for specific professions (police officer, veterinarian...etc.)  They often analyze new trends, research, tools or techniques important to their area of work 
• Popular Magazine articles are good for summarizing information on a topic for the general public.  They often provide a background, summarize research findings, and provide some analysis of a topic
• Newspaper articles are good for facts and up-to-date information.  They often provide little analysis of a topic. 
• Evaluate articles to determine if they are credible sources for your research

Find articles in the databases

Finding articles in the databases.

The databases listed below are just a few that can help you find journal, magazine, and newspaper articles that are often not freely available through the internet.

• Holman Library Databases by Subject See all of the library's database collections, sorted by subject area. This list is a good place to see the entire list of electronic article resources available in a specific field. You will need to log in with your GRC email address and password to access off-campus.

Search Articles Using Primo One Search

Instead of searching in the databases directly, you can use the main catalog on the Holman Library homepage to search for books, ebooks, videos, and articles from journals, magazines, newspapers, and more. 

Tips: How to Use the Holman Library One Search

Find Scholarly Articles

• Scholarly articles are housed inside of journals - sometimes those journals/articles are called Academic  or Peer-Reviewed  or Refereed
• Often library article databases will help you limit your results to scholarly articles (see image below)
• The image on the left shows how and where to limit in the EBSCO databases, like Academic Search Complete and ERIC. 
• The image on the right shows how and where to limit in the ProQuest databases, like ProQuest Combined Databases or Nursing and Allied Health Source

(Click on images to enlarge)

Search strategies

Using the advanced search options in the database.

The image below shows how you can use quotation marks to limit to exact phrases 

• for example "Washington State" or "Genetically modified foods" or "stand your ground laws"
• using quotation marks around an exact title is also helpful "Gun Laws in Washington State: A Geographic Study"

The image also shows how you can use the built in Boolean tools using the drop down to change from AND, OR, NOT or how you can add those tools to the search yourself. 

(Click on image to enlarge)

Using Google Scholar to find Peer-Reviewed Research

Understanding how to use google scholar .

Google Scholar can be very useful in finding about articles on a topic. You may not always get free, immediate access to the content it shows you, but Google Scholar can certainly be a great place to get started and see what kinds of content is out there.

Here are some features as highlighted in the image below.

• You can click on the title of an article to read the  abstract and information about where the article was published.
• By clicking on the small quotation mark icon that appears under the article, you can see a list of citations , in various citation styles including MLA and APA, for the source. Be sure to check these against a style guide as they may be incorrect or incomplete.
• You can limit by date , or a date range to ensure you're finding the most relevant content - and depending on your topic, that might be important.
• If the article is freely available online, there is often a PDF icon and link off to the left. 
• And, if in your settings, you at GRC as one of your libraries, the results page will even note and link you to articles housed in the GRC library databases. 
• You can request any articles that you learn about here, but are not given full-text access to, through Interlibrary Loan . Use the links for more information about this process or talk to a librarian if you need help!

• Google Scholar Google Scholar allows you to search the web for peer-reviewed article and book citations. You can use these citations to track down the items at Green River or request them by Interlibrary Loan.
• Google Scholar - Search Settings Click on "Library Links" from the menu on the left and then search for "Green River College"
• Research Guide: Interlibrary Loan by Philip Whitford Last Updated Nov 7, 2023 12 views this year
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• Next: 2e. Find Websites >>
• Last Updated: Apr 10, 2024 8:47 AM
• URL: https://libguides.greenriver.edu/library-research

Articles & Media

Books & eBooks

How to Find Articles

How do i get started, what's in the databases, search for articles, books & more, com library databases v. google.

• More Articles
• Fewer Articles
• Grab citations for your articles. You can see step by step how to grab the citations and tweak them  in our APA and MLA guides.
• Articles can be printed, downloaded or emailed.
• You can save time by using full text time limits and more.
• You can create free personal database accounts that lat you save and organize your articles and searches. 
• Find out how to use these great database features step by step in our guides .

Our most popular databases with students and instructors are  Academic OneFile ,  Academic Search Complete   and Research Library . They have articles and article citations from thousands of journals and magazines on virtually every academic subject.

COM Library Guides collect the best databases to search for your subjects, as well as some top articles. Look for the page  Articles in the guides.

You can get started now by going Straight to the Good Stuff. 

• Medical resources and health information
• Academic reference materials
• Newspapers and magazines from around the world
• Transcripts from TV and Radio
• Research on public and private companies, here and abroad
• Consumer marketing data and emerging technology reports
• Genealogy resources
• Latest breaking news and daily updates from newspaper wire services
• Hundreds of popular periodicals, including Business Week, Rolling Stone, and Smithsonian
• Streaming media

Search OneSearch to search print books, eBooks articles and streaming media simultaneously, or select  Go!  to get started with all our databases.

Here's Why Databases Are Better

• A search engine won't turn up many websites containing full-text articles from the kind of publications your instructors are looking for.
• Sad, but true: not everything is on the Internet. Few substantive materials are on the Internet for free.
• There is no quality control for information on the Internet.
• 2/3 college students said the Internet doesn't offer a range of resources wide enough for their research needs.

--Source: The Top Ten Reasons TexShare Is Better Than Just Surfing the Internet, Texas State Library.

Wait, There's More!

Some magazine and journal publishers do publish articles on the Internet. Generally this is limited to sample articles or even just abstracts of the articles, so if you do search the Internet for articles you generally will not find many on your topic.

Since all the library's databases can be accessed at home and have thousands more journals available than what is freely available on the Internet, using the databases makes more sense. You will get you a lot more articles at the college level that your instructors expect and in less time.

• Next: More Articles >>
• Last Updated: Jul 5, 2023 1:07 PM
• URL: https://libguides.com.edu/findarticles

© 2023 COM Library 1200 Amburn Road, Texas City, Texas 77591 409-933-8448 . FAX 409-933-8030 This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License Class Poll

Library Research 101: Start Your Research

What is an article, what are the different types of articles, where can i find an article, how to access articles behind paywalls.

• Books--what are they and where are they?
• How do I choose a topic?
• How do I write a research question?
• How do I write a thesis statement?
• How do I cite?
• Glossary: Library terms

These are some of the places you can find articles. In general the library's resources (print and online journals, online databases) are best when you are looking for peer-reviewed scholarly or trade articles. 

Open web resources include things from Google or other search engines and information provided from social media sites. While it is possible to find some scholarly articles this way you will often face a paywall to access them. Also information from these sources is harder to verify for things like accuracy and may be biased.

• a library database (can search by topic for scholarly peer-reviewed and trade articles)
• One Search (scholarly peer-reviewed, trade and popular articles)
• Individual journal titles (scholarly, peer-reviewed or trade articles) 
• In a ' bound journal ' in the library (print)
• In a newspaper
• Google (best for popular and news articles, the occasional journal article)
• Google Scholar (some scholarly and peer-reviewed articles) (Hint: you can first register with Fogler through Google Scholar )
• Newspaper websites (New York Times, Wall Street Journal etc.) (newspaper articles)
• Magazine websites (Time, The Economist, etc.)

Sometimes you find an article, but can't open the full text.  If that happens, you still have several options:

• I f you are searching on the open Web (i.e. through Google), you can download the URSUS Proxy Bookmarklet. Once you have this downloaded, if you find an article you are asked to pay for, you can click on the Bookmarklet to see if Fogler Library has free access.
• If you are searching with OneSearch, or some other database, and you don't get the full text of an article, you can search for the journal title in Fogler's ejournal list .  You will need to make note of the year, volume, issue number, and pages for the article before you do this search.
• If you still can't find the full text, you can use Fogler's free Interlibrary Loan service to request a copy of the article, which generally takes 24 hours.  You first need to set up your free account, by clicking on Create an Account .  Then you choose the format of the information you want to request (i.e. New Request/Article) and fill out the form.

And, at any point in your search process, you can contact a librarian to ask for help!

• << Previous: Home
• Next: Books--what are they and where are they? >>
• Last Updated: Feb 8, 2024 9:04 AM
• URL: https://libguides.library.umaine.edu/libraryresearch101

5729 Fogler Library · University of Maine · Orono, ME 04469-5729 | (207) 581-1673

Finding scholarly, peer reviewed articles

Learn how to search for only scholarly and peer-reviewed journal articles.

Scholarly articles are written by researchers and intended for an audience of other researchers. Scholarly writers may assume that the reader already has some understanding of the topic and its vocabulary. Peer-reviewed articles are evaluated by other scholars or experts within the same field as the author before they are published, to help ensure the validity of the research being done. Learn more about the peer review process .

Many scholarly articles are peer-reviewed and vice versa, but this may not always be the case. In addition, an article can be from a peer-reviewed journal and not actually be peer reviewed. Components such as editorials, news items, and book reviews do not go through the same review process.

Many professors will require that you use only scholarly, peer-reviewed journal articles in your research papers and assignments. To simplify the research process, you can limit your search to only see peer-reviewed articles in Library Search and many library databases.

Limiting to peer-reviewed articles in Library Search

In Library Search, you can refine your results to peer-reviewed articles by selecting two filters. Under “Availability,” choose “Peer-reviewed Journals.” Under “Resource Type,” choose “Articles.” If you plan to do multiple searches, be sure to click the lock icon that says “Remember all filters” underneath “Active Filters” at the top. This will ensure your results continue to show only peer-reviewed articles even if you try different keywords. Peer-reviewed articles will display a purple icon of a book with an eye over it under their title and citation information.

Filter options in Library Search. The "Peer-reviewed Journals" and "Articles" options have filled checkboxes next to their names, which indicates these options have been selected.

Limiting to peer-reviewed articles in databases

Many databases have an option to limit your search results to peer-reviewed articles. This will usually appear either in advanced search options or in a bank of filters in the search results screen.

Search options for a database hosted in EBSCO. Under the subheading “Limit your results,” a checkbox with the words “Peer Reviewed” above it is enclosed in a red square to indicate its position on the screen.

Checking the status of your article

If you need further confirmation of whether an article comes from a peer-reviewed journal, you can follow one of the procedures below.

Search for a journal title in the library’s Journals search list. Titles that are peer reviewed will have a small purple icon of an eye above an open book with the words “Peer-Reviewed” next to it.

A small purple icon of an eye above an open book, and the words "Peer-Reviewed" are enclosed in a red rectangle.

If you don’t find a journal in the Journals’ list as described above, you can consult the UlrichsWeb database . It includes information on journals that are not owned by the University, so you might want to check a journal title there before you make an Interlibrary Loan request. When you search for a journal title in this database, you will see a small black and white referee icon. This indicates that the journal is peer reviewed. You can also check the journal publisher's website. It should indicate whether articles go through a peer-review process on a page that contains instructions for authors.

In this entry for the "Journal of Social Work," there is a small black and white "referee" icon, which indicates that the journal is peer reviewed. The "referee" icon is enclosed in a red square.

University Library

Start your research.

• Research Process
• Find Background Info
• Find Sources through the Library
• Evaluate Your Info
• Cite Your Sources
• Evaluate, Write & Cite

WHY START WITH LIBRARY SEARCH?

Library search.

► Is a search platform with ONLINE TEXTS (and print ones as well) 

► Covers a broad range of research TOPICS

► It includes academic and other sources TYPES relevant to the needs of researchers 

► Has FILTERS that make sorting through sources convenient and easy!

HOW TO USE LIBRARY SEARCH & MANAGE RESULTS

Library search has two entry points:.

Image Caption: On the left, The Library home page search box. On the right, The Library Search homepage.

Depending on where you begin your search (Library home page or the Library Search itself) this may affect how you employ the following things: 

Search . Simply enter your keywords as you would on a search engine like Google.

► Try a keyword search;

► Add or remove words as needed;

► If a word doesn't seem to be working replace it with a synonym.

► Search is iterative. The more you learn about a topic the more confident you'll become with your searches. If you're not feeling confident after a day or so, let one of us at the library know [link to appointments]  

Sign in.  This truly depends on where you start your search. Signing in provides you with access to materials that are available only to UCSC students and other affiliates. The moment you have a chance, Sign in:

► Look for the yellow banner reminding you to sign in, or

► Look for the Sign in link in the upper right hand corner.

Results.  Results can be overwhelming. Or maybe you only look at the first page of results anyway. Notice:

► The results count;

► LOAD MORE RESULTS link at the end/bottom of the results. 

Filters.  Are your friend. Use these to focus your results. Filters to make note of:

► SHOW ONLY: "Peer Review" & "Open Access"

► RESOURCE TYPES: "Articles," "Book Chapters," "Books," "Newspaper articles," "Images" and MANY OTHERS

► DATES 

Access.  Some things will be available online only and some will be available in the library only (for you to check out). Look for:

► Available online and follow the links provided

► For physical items in the library, look for a call number to be able to find these 

WHEN & HOW TO MOVE ON TO OTHER DATABASES

Library search should provide sufficient research materials for most student research projects. Reasons to use different database:

• Your Library Search results lack the depth needed for your research project.
• You're conducting searches for a paper in your major, and feel lost by the results in Library Search.
• You need sources from a disciplinary perspective, for example methods, theories, scholarly conversations, etc. 

Start by findind a database in your discipline or subject:

• All Library Subject Guides These guides are organized by Subject. They list the most relevant databases for finding journal articles and other research by subject.

Some frequently used databases include:

Database Tutorial

Take the   Academic Search Complete Tutorial!

This tutorial provides an intro to this multidisciplinary database. This database includes articles from a broad range of topics, many with full text. After completing this tutorial you'll be able to:

• conduct and focus a basic search
• view full text if available

cite and email search results to yourself

• << Previous: Find Background Info
• Next: Evaluate Your Info >>

Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License except where otherwise noted.

Land Acknowledgement

The land on which we gather is the unceded territory of the Awaswas-speaking Uypi Tribe. The Amah Mutsun Tribal Band, comprised of the descendants of indigenous people taken to missions Santa Cruz and San Juan Bautista during Spanish colonization of the Central Coast, is today working hard to restore traditional stewardship practices on these lands and heal from historical trauma.

The land acknowledgement used at UC Santa Cruz was developed in partnership with the Amah Mutsun Tribal Band Chairman and the Amah Mutsun Relearning Program at the UCSC Arboretum .

*Get Started with Research*

• Identify your topic
• Create a search strategy
• Find Books and ebooks
• Find Articles
• Find Articles in Newspapers
• Types of Sources
• Evaluate Sources
• Understanding Plagiarism

Need research assistance? Click to Meet with a Librarian

Contact the library: Call us at 401-341-2289 Email us at [email protected] Chat with us from any library web page Visit us at the information desk Find us in the staff directory

Finding the right database

To find articles at the library, you need to use databases.  Databases are organized collections of resources (articles, ebooks, music, videos, images, datasets, etc.) that are structured to make the information accessible to users.  Databases can be interdisciplinary, containing resources on many subjects and fields of study, or they can be subject-specific with resources that are especially useful for particular disciplines.  

To access the library databases available at McKillop Library, see the A-Z Databases list for an alphabetical listing of over 140 databases available to the Salve community.  

To view databases by subject, simply navigate to the "All Subjects" pull-menu.  See below.

Basic and Advanced Searching in the Databases

Basic Searching

The most basic way to begin searching for articles is to place your search statement (see Creating Search Statements ) in the first box.  If you were interested in exploring how attitudes towards tattoos have evolved in America, you could start out by search "tattoo AND America." 

Advanced Searching

In addition to basic searching, you can also use advanced search features to create a more precise search.  You can use different  Boolean operators  to build your search string.  You can also utilize the "Select a Field" option to search by a range of fields including author, title, and journal name.

*Note: All pictured examples of database searching on this page are from Academic Search Complete, an interdisciplinary database that is managed by EBSCOhost.  Other databases will likely have similar features, but they will look a little different.

Finding Relevant Subject Terms

Like the library catalog, many databases will provide subject terms for specific resources.  These may be referred to under different terminology, including subjects, subject thesaurus terms, or thesaurus terms.  Subject terms are standardized words or phrases that describe the main idea of the source you are looking at.  These terms are hyperlinked in databases, so you can select them to have the database generate a new result list with other resources that share the same subject term.  Subject terms will vary from one database to another.  Likewise, they will probably be different from the subject terms in the library catalog.  As with your keywords, you should note any especially helpful subject terms as you conduct your research (as well as which database or search tool you found them in!).  

Search for articles

Find Articles in Select Ebscohost Databases...

Google scholar: linking salve's resources to your google scholar account.

Google Scholar is a great tool for certain type of research questions that require journal articles. If you have a Google account you have a Google Scholar account. You can link this account to Salve's library to have your Google Scholar results directly link to the full-text of articles Salve subscribes to.

1. Sign into your Google account

2. Go to Google Scholar settings: https://scholar.google.com/scholar_preferences

3. Select “library links,” enter “Salve Regina” check “Salve Regina University Library – Find @ Salve,” and click Save.

5. In the results, you'll see a "Find @ Salve" link to the right of the article. 

Google Scholar does not include all of Salve’s article subscriptions in its results. If you don’t find your article there, search using the library’s journals button.

• << Previous: Find Books and ebooks
• Next: Find Articles in Newspapers >>
• Last Updated: Apr 10, 2024 12:10 PM
• URL: https://salve.libguides.com/researchbasics

• University of Michigan Library
• Research Guides

Essentials of Library Research

• Finding Articles & Journals
• Getting Started
• Choosing Your Topic
• Finding Books & Media
• Evaluating Information
• Citing Sources

Why Use Library Databases

Recommended Databases

Need articles for your library research project, but not sure where to start? We recommend these top ten article databases for kicking off your research. If you can't find what you need searching in one of these top ten databases, browse the list of all library databases by subject (academic discipline) or title .

• U-M Library Articles Search This link opens in a new window Use Articles Search to locate scholarly and popular articles, as well as reference works and materials from open access archives.
• ABI/INFORM Global This link opens in a new window Indexes 3,000+ business-related periodicals (with full text for 2,000+), including Wall Street Journal.
• Academic OneFile This link opens in a new window Provides indexing for over 8,000 scholarly journals, industry periodicals, general interest magazines and newspapers.
• Access World News [NewsBank] This link opens in a new window Full text of 600+ U.S. newspapers and 260+ English-language newspapers from other countries worldwide.
• CQ Researcher This link opens in a new window Noted for its in-depth, unbiased coverage of health, social trends, criminal justice, international affairs, education, the environment, technology, and the economy.
• Gale Health and Wellness This link opens in a new window Provides access to medical, health, and wellness information from authoritative medical sources.
• Humanities Abstracts (with Full Text) This link opens in a new window Covers 700 periodicals in art, film, journalism, linguistics, music, performing arts, philosophy, religion, history, literature, etc.
• JSTOR This link opens in a new window Full-text access to the archives of 2,600+ journals and 35,000+ books in the arts, humanities, social sciences and sciences.
• ProQuest Research Library This link opens in a new window Indexes over 5,000 journals and magazines, academic and popular, with full text included for over 3,600.
• PsycInfo (APA) This link opens in a new window Premier resource for surveying the literature of psychology and adjunct fields. Covers 1887-present. Produced by the APA.

Finding Databases

The U-M Library subscribes to hundreds of databases which gives you access to thousands of journals and articles. The following video explains how you can find the appropriate database for your research needs

In addition to finding datases, the Journal search allows you to search for journals available at U-M. If you know the title of the journal you can enter it into the search box. If you are not looking for a specific journal you can browse by discipline. If U-M doesn’t own the journal you are looking for, we can obtain copies of articles for you via interlibrary loan .

Finding & Accessing Articles Using Library Search

The U-M Library Articles Search is a gateway to discovering a wide range of library resources. Please watch the video below on how to effectively and efficiently use Library Search.

Articles & Databases

Explore our collection of hundreds of online resources and databases. Use our free online content to help with your research, whether it's finding a single article, tracing a family tree, learning a new language, or anything in between.

Featured Resources

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Not sure where to begin? From primary sources to scholarly articles, start your research with resources chosen by our expert librarians.

Homework Help

Discover the wide range of learning resources the Library has to offer students of all ages, from chemistry and history to English and math.

Newspapers and Magazines

Browse popular contemporary and historic publications including The New York Times , People magazine, and Sports Illustrated among others.

World Languages

Read e-books, newspapers, and more in languages including Spanish, Chinese, Russian, and French.

African American Studies

Explore a variety of academic, historic, and cultural resources curated by the Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture.

Performing Arts

Find materials about theatre, film, dance, music, and recorded sound selected by The New York Public Library for the Performing Arts.

New York City History

Uncover primary and secondary sources about the five boroughs, including neighborhood data, historic photos, newspaper archives, and more.

Trace ancestry information and family trees through public records, historical documents, and other genealogical archives.

Job Search and Career Development

Whether you’re looking for a new job or changing careers, these resources will help you find training tutorials, resume guides, and more.

Most Popular

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NOVELny Resources are available to all New Yorkers without a password as long as one is in New York State, via a NY driver or non-driver ID if not currently in New York State and/or via a Library Card.

A searchable, digitized archive -- from the first date of publication to the last three to five years -- of major scholarly journals in many academic fields. 

Access to this resource has been temporarily expanded to NYPL cardholders working from home, courtesy of JSTOR.

Ancestry Library Edition

Access billions of names in thousands of genealogical databases including Census and Vital Records, birth, marriage and death notices, the Social Security Death Index, Passenger lists and naturalizations, Military and Holocaust Records, City Directories, New York Emigrant Savings Bank records, and African American and Native American Records. Library version of Ancestry.com.  

***PLEASE NOTE THAT TEMPORARY REMOTE ACCESS TO THIS DATABASE HAS BEEN TERMINATED.***

Library DIY for Online and Distance Students

• Get Started
• Library Accounts and Services
• Starting Research
• Finding Articles
• Finding Ebooks
• Finding Specific Items
• Accessing Physical Items for Distance Students
• Using Databases
• Evaluating Sources
• Citing Sources

Chat with a Librarian

Finding Articles Options

I need to find peer-reviewed articles I don't know if this article is peer-reviewed I need to find newspaper articles I need to find a specific article A website wants me to pay for this article I found too many or too few articles on my topic I found one perfect article for my topic and need more like it I can't find the full-text of this article

Finding Peer-Reviewed Articles

• Finding Peer-Reviewed Articles Tutorial - PDF Version A text and image based version of the Finding Peer-Reviewed Articles tutorial for offline use.

In order to find peer-reviewed articles, first make sure you're familiar with what peer-reviewed articles are .

The most common place to find peer-reviewed articles is in library databases. Library databases have advanced search features that make finding appropriate articles easier, and provide the most options for obtaining the full text of articles. The quickest way to find the article databases is the Article Databases link under Find, Borrow, Request on the library homepage. Tutorials are available for learning how to use specific databases .

If you're not sure which database you need to be searching in, or just want to start with a very broad search, you can use the Articles Search , which is the second tab on the library's main search box. It searches several different databases at once.

You can also find scholarly articles - though not always the full-text of them - in Google Scholar. This works best if you follow the logging in instructions to set up Google Scholar to work with Bradley's library.

• How to Get Bradley Library Resources Through Google Scholar These instructions will show you how to adjust the settings in Google Scholar so that it can show you full-text options available through the library.

Many databases contain a mixture of both peer-reviewed articles and non-scholarly, non-peer-reviewed articles. Most databases also provide a filter to let you limit your results to only articles from peer-reviewed journals. Look for a checkbox or a filter option labelled "Peer-Reviewed Journals" and make sure it is checked. Sometimes it will be on the advanced search screen.

Sometimes you can apply the peer-reviewed filter after you have gotten your initial search results.

These filters apply only to peer-reviewed journals. This means that the journal has a peer-review process in place for its research articles. However, these journals may still contain other kinds of articles, such as book reviews or essays. Therefore, when you find an article that looks relevant to your topic, you still need to evaluate whether an individual article has been peer-reviewed .

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What are Peer-Reviewed Articles?

• What are Peer-Reviewed Articles - PDF Tutorial A text and image based version of the 'what are peer-reviewed articles' tutorial.

Peer-reviewed articles play an important role in the spreading of new research in a given field. These articles have the following characteristics:

• They contain original research completed by experts in the field
• Before being published, they have been reviewed both by editors and by the authors' peers, who are also experts in the field
• The review process includes questioning the content, methodology, and findings of the article
• Authors are expected to revise and improve their work based on feedback from this process before the article can be published

Peer-reviewed articles may also be referred to as research articles, scholarly articles, or academic articles. All these terms describe the same type of article.

Who publishes Peer-Reviewed Articles?

Peer-reviewed articles are normally to be found in scholarly journals. Scholarly journals are easiest to access through library databases, which often have features that can help you recognize this kind of journal. A journal that publishes peer-reviewed articles may also publish content that is not peer-reviewed, such as book reviews or opinion columns, so identifying a journal as scholarly doesn't mean everything inside it is a scholarly article. You'll need to evaluate the article by itself as well. However, confirming that the journal is scholarly and has a peer-review process in place makes it more likely that an article you find inside it will be peer-reviewed.

Here are ways you can identify a scholarly journal :

When searching in a database, search results will sometimes have icons next to them that indicate what kind of publication they come from. Here is one example from a psychology database.

Here is an example from a nursing database.

In most databases, if you click on the title of the article, and then click on the title of the journal from the item page, it will give you more information about that journal, including whether or not it uses peer-review.

How Can I Recognize Peer-Reviewed Articles?

Peer-reviewed articles often follow very specific guidelines for how they are written and formatted. These guidelines may vary based on what discipline the author is doing research in, but generally a scholarly article will have the following attributes:

• The authors' names are listed, along with any positions they may hold at academic institutions, indicating that they writing from their position as academics/researchers
• An abstract, or summary of the article's contents, is provided at the beginning of the article
• A list of references or works cited is included
• The body of the article quotes or refers to work from other scholarly articles (check the references or works cited page to see if the quoted works were published in scholarly journals!)
• The body of the article describes research performed by the authors, including their methodology or process, their results, and any conclusions they drew from their research

Articles that are not scholarly may sometimes include some of the same attributes as scholarly articles. To identify a scholarly article, look to see if the article has a majority of these characteristics.

Resources for Understanding and Identifying Peer-Reviewed Articles

• Anatomy of a Scholarly Article An interactive example from NCSU Libraries that can show you how to identify common elements of a scholarly/peer-reviewed article.

Finding Newspaper Articles

• Findings Newspaper Articles PDF Version A text and image based version of the finding newspaper articles tutorial.

If you specifically need to find newspaper articles on your topic, there are two options through the library website. Using the library website is a starting point is a good way to make sure you don't run into a paywall or have to pay unnecessarily for news articles.

Find a Specific Newspaper

If you would like to find articles from a specific newspaper, you can search for the title of the newspaper using the Journals Available search within the catalog. Even though it's called Journals Available, it includes magazines and newspapers as well.

You can find the Journals Available search within the library catalog, in the row of links at the top.

Once there, you can search for the title or ISSN of the newspaper you are interested in.  After hitting search, results will be listed below the search box. Newspapers that are available online will have links labelled Available Online underneath their title. You can click on this link to be taken directly to the database that contains the newspaper, or click on the title of the newspaper to get more information about it.

Search Inside a News Database

There are also newspaper databases that let you search the contents of many different newspapers at once. All newspaper-focused databases can be found on the Finding Articles box on the library homepage, then Listing by Subject or Category, and then News . Newspaper Source and NexisUni are the two biggest databases that contain the broadest range of newspapers. Other listed on this page contain more focused collections or single newspapers.

Once inside a newspaper database, you can search just as you would for articles in any other article database. Because these databases are focused on news sources, those are the results that you will get.

Finding Specific Articles

• Finding Specific Articles PDF Version A text and image based version of the finding specific articles tutorial, including the Articles search, A-Z Journal List, and Google Scholar.

Say you need to track down a specific article -  one that you saw mentioned in another article, or that someone has recommended to you. In order to track down the full-text, first make sure you have as complete a citation for the article as possible. That will make it easier for you to track down the article using one of the following options.

Use the Articles Search

Check the Library's Journal Collection

 To search for a specific publication, first make sure you know the name of the publication (journal, magazine, or newspaper) that the article was published in. Then click the Journals A-Z link under Find, Borrow, Request on the library homepage. Do not be discouraged by this step if your article is from a publication that isn't a journal - if the library has it, you will still be able to find it here.

Once you have clicked on the Journals A-Z link, you will see a search bar labelled Journal Search. Type in the title of your publication here - we are not searching for the actual article yet. Hit search and then look in the list of results to see if the publication you are looking for is present. If your publication is listed and there is a link underneath labelled Available Online, click on the Available Online link to see your options for accessing that publication. 

If your publication does not show up, it means the library does not hold a subscription. If this happens, or if your desired publication is only available in print, you can ask a librarian for assistance in accessing it.

Once you have clicked on an access option under the View Online section, you will be taken to a menu  for your publication inside the database. Depending on which database the publication is stored in, there are different ways that this menu/screen will look. However, any database should allow you to either search within a specific publication, browse the publication by year, or both.

If you prefer to search and the option is available, search for the title of your article. Make sure the search box indicates that you are searching within the publication and not the database as a whole - there may be multiple search boxes in different places on the page. If you don't spot it in the results, try including the author's name in your search as well.

If there is not an option to search inside the specific publication, or if searching doesn't bring you what you want, you may be able to browse to the article. For this method, it's most helpful if you know the year that the article was published, as well as the date or the volume and issue number. Use this information to move through the browsing menu until you find your specific article.

Look for a Copy in Google Scholar

If the library does not have access to a copy of your article, and it is from a scholarly journal, you can try to find a free version using Google Scholar. From within Google Scholar, search for as exact a version of the title as you can. Once you hit search and have results, make sure the article you are looking for has appeared. If it has, look to the right to see if there is  PDF or HTML link located there. If so, that means there is a copy freely available online. Click on the link to access it.

If there is no full-text link to the right, that means there is no free access to that article. If it's not in the library databases either (you can configure Google Scholar to find database articles as well), you may need to request it.

Request the Article Using ILL

If you configure Google Scholar to find database articles , you may see Get It @ Bradley links to the right of Google Scholar results, or Get Help @ Bradley links below results, hidden beneath an arrow. In library databases, when the full-text of an article is not available within the database, you may also see a Get It @ Bradley button. Any of these links or buttons will take you to the full-text or to a page where you can request an article to be sent to you.

Once you have clicked on a Get It or Get Help link, you will see a screen with more options for accessing the article. Not every option will appear for every article. The possible options are:

• Full Text Available - it turns out the full-text is available through the library and you can click here to get it!
• BU Library can buy the article and deliver to your BU email in a few hours - before you click this option, make sure you have also looked for a free copy in Google Scholar and in our databases. If it's really not there, click this link, enter your email and we'll buy it for you. Checking Google Scholar and the databases first ensures that we don't have to pay again for an article we already own.
• Search for a free copy in Google Scholar - if you haven't already searched Google Scholar, this is a handy link to do that.
• ILLiad --- Interlibrary Loan - again for articles that are not available through the databases or Google Scholar, this sends a request on your behalf to other libraries who can provide you with a PDF copy via email. You will log in with your Bradley University username and password.

Finding the Full-Text

• Finding the Full Text Tutorial - Word Version A text and image based version of the Finding the Full Text tutorial for use offline

Many of the library databases provide the full-text of the article directly from the article page.

Sometimes, as in JSTOR,  you will be shown the full text immediately after you click on the title in the results list.

In others, look for a link or icon labelled "PDF Full Text," "HTML Full Text," or "Linked Full Text." These links may be in slightly different places in different databases, but they will all take you to the full-text. Here are some examples.

If the full-text is not held within the database, you may see instead a button labelled as "Get It @ BU - Check full text availability."

Clicking on this link will take you to a page where you can find other options for accessing full-text. Not every option will be listed for every article. Whichever options appear, look for them in this order, which is listed as easiest to hardest in terms of how many steps you have to take and how long it will take to get it. 

• A link to another database where you can read the full-text.
• Search the article on Google Scholar for a free version - Google Scholar is sometimes able to find freely available copies online. Try this before trying the "buy the article" or "Interlibrary Loan" options.
• BU Library can buy the article and deliver it to your BU email in a few hours - this allows you to request the article be emailed to you as PDF.
• Request through Interlibrary Loan - for articles that are not available through any of the previous methods, this option will open up a system called ILLiad, where you can request the article to be sent to you via email from another library that has access.
• Accessing Journal Articles A PDF with instructions and visual examples of the various options for accessing the full-text of articles when they are not available directly through the database.
• Requesting Articles through ILLiad A written tutorial for how to request articles from the databases using the Interlibrary Loan system, called ILLiad.

Avoiding Paywalls

• Avoiding Paywalls Tutorial - PDF Version A text and image based version of the Avoiding Paywalls tutorial for offline use.

Occasionally on your quest for articles, you may end up on page where you are told that you must pay real money in order to access an article. You shouldn't have to pay for any articles during your time as a student at Bradley. When you see a prompt telling you to pay, there are two likely scenarios.

• The library has access to the article, but you are not logged in . Make sure you follow all the instructions on how to log in to the library , and try to access the article again through a library page or a properly set-up Google Scholar.
• The library does not have access, so you need to request it . The library collection doesn't include a subscription to every journal in the world, but we have systems in place to request individual articles outside of our subscriptions. Make note of as much of the citation information as you can, and then you can request the article through Get It @ BU or Interlibrary Loan. There is another section in this guide on how to access the full-text of articles  that describes these options.

For help with either of these circumstances, you can always contact a librarian.

Adjusting Search Results

• Adjusting Search Results Tutorial - PDF Version A text and image based version of the Adjusting Search Results tutorial for offline use.

Where should I search?

If you're not getting the results you expect to get, you might be using the wrong search tool. The best place to conduct your search depends on what kind of information you need.

• If you're still exploring potential topics or looking for background information, a general web search or a reference book, such as an encyclopedia, could be a good starting place. 
• If you need in-depth information or detailed overviews of a topic, scholarly books might be useful. You can find ebooks using the catalog .
• For the most up-to-date information from the field you're researching, as well as very detailed information about specific research topics within that field, scholarly, peer-reviewed articles are probably going to be best. You can find peer-reviewed articles using the databases .

What should I do if I got too many or too few results?

There are several different strategies you can apply if you find yourself with too many, or too few, results for your searches. 

• Make sure you are searching in an appropriate place . If you have too many results, try a more specialized search tool, such as a subject-specific database. If you have too few, try a different specialized database, or a more general, multi-disciplinary database.
• Adjust your keywords . The more keywords you use, the more specific your results will get. Use more keywords to lower the number of results. Remove keywords to get more results. You can also use more specific or more general keywords (for instance,"newborns" is more specific than "children") to narrow or broaden your search results.
• Make use of filters . Many library tools, such as the catalog and the databases, allow you to filter your results to match certain criteria. If you have too many results, you can try filtering them - perhaps by when they were published, or by items that are tagged with a subject such as "Nursing" - to narrow them down. Which filters you use depends on what you're looking for, so think carefully about what sources you want to find. If you have too few results, make sure you aren't using any filters that might remove useful results. It's better to start with a few filters and add more than to use all of them right away and have to guess which ones to remove if you don't find anything.

Using Sources to Find More Sources

• Using Sources to Find More Source - PDF Tutorial This is a text and image-based version of the using sources to find more sources.

Say you have found one really great article for your project but you need more than that. These are techniques you can use to start with one article and find similar, related articles. You can repeat these steps with each new article you find to trace your topic through the published literature about it.

Check Database Subject Headings

If you found your article inside a library database, it most likely has subject headings assigned to it. Subject headings are like tags that have been applied to an article by the people who organize the contents of the database. The subject headings give you a good idea of what the main topics of the article are. By clicking on or searching for the subject headings instead of plain keywords, you can find more articles with the same core ideas.

Subject headings are most often listed on the page of information about the article, where you would find the abstract and link to the full text. Some databases refer to their subject headings using specialized terms, such as "MeSH Terms" for health and nursing databases. If you don't see subject headings listed, see if there are any other tags or categories being used to organize articles in that database.

Mine the Citations/References/Works Cited

Most scholarly articles will have a list of works cited or references at the end. These represent the articles the authors read or drew on in order to create their own work. Scan through this list to see if any of the articles mentioned look like they might also support your topic. If a useful section from your original article contains a quote or reference from a different source, definitely look for that source in the reference list and track it down.

Investigate If The Article Has Been Cited Elsewhere

In addition to looking at what works your article has cited or quoted, you can look to see what other sources your original article has been cited in, if any. These will likely be sources that build or expand on the ideas from your original article. In order to find out where an article has been cited, search for it in Google Scholar. When your article appears in the search results, look for the Cited By link underneath the result. It does not matter if the full-text of your original article is available in Google Scholar or not. Click on the Cited By link to see a list of articles that cite your original article.

The articles that cite your original article may or may not be available in full-text through Google Scholar, but you can also search for them in library databases or order them through Interlibrary Loan/ILLiad. The Cited By list just gives you articles to look for. If your original article is very new, you may not find anything this way, because researchers will not have had enough time yet to finish work that references the article.

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Princeton University Library

• Background Information
• Find Articles
• Get the Full Text of a Journal Article
• Why Can't I Find That Article?

Library Research Methods

• Evaluating Websites
• Citing Sources
• Productivity Tools for Scholars

(Adapted from Thomas Mann, Library Research Models )

Keyword searches . Search relevant keywords in catalogs, indexes, search engines, and full-text resources. Useful both to narrow a search to the specific subject heading and to find sources not captured under a relevant subject heading. To search a database effectively, start with a Keyword search, find relevant records, and then find relevant Subject Headings. In search engines, include many keywords to narrow the search and carefully evaluate what you find.

Subject searches .  Subject Headings (sometimes called Descriptors) are specific terms or phrases used consistently by online or print indexes to describe what a book or journal article is about. This is true of the library’s Catalog as well as many other library databases . 

Look for recent, scholarly books and articles. Within catalogs and databases, sort by the most recent date and look for books from scholarly presses and articles from scholarly journals. The more recent the source, the more up-to-date the references and citations.

Citation searches in scholarly sources .  Track down references, footnotes, endnotes, citations, etc. within relevant readings. Search for specific books or journals in the library’s Catalog . This technique helps you become part of the scholarly conversation on a particular topic.

Searches through published bibliographies (including sets of footnotes in relevant subject documents).  Published bibliographies on particular subjects (Shakespeare, alcoholism, etc.) often list sources missed through other kinds of searches. BIBLIOGRAPHY is a subject heading in the Catalog , so a Guided Search with BIBLIOGRAPHY as a Subject and your topic as a keyword will help you find these.

Searches through people sources (whether by verbal contact, e-mail, etc.). People are often more willing to help than you might think. The people to start with are often professors with relevant knowledge or librarians.

Systematic browsing, especially of full-text sources arranged in predictable subject groupings . Libraries organize books by subject, with similar books shelved together.  Browsing the stacks is a good way to find similar books; however, in large libraries, some books are not in the main stacks (e.g., they might be checked out or in ReCAP), so use the catalog as well.

The advantages of trying all these research methods are that:

Each of these ways of searching is applicable in any subject area

None of them is confined exclusively to English-language sources

Each has both strengths and weaknesses, advantages and disadvantages

The weaknesses within any one method are balanced by the strengths of the others

The strength of each is precisely that it is capable of turning up information or knowledge records that cannot be found efficiently—or often even at all—by any of the others

How to Gut a (Scholarly) Book in 5 Almost-easy Steps

Evaluating sources.

From Wayne C. Booth et al., The Craft of Research , 4th ed., pp.76-79

5.4 EVALUATING SOURCES FOR RELEVANCE AND RELIABILITY When you start looking for sources, you’ll find more than you can use, so you must quickly evaluate their usefulness; use two criteria: relevance and reliability.

5.4.1 Evaluating Sources for Relevance

If your source is a book, do this:

• Skim its index for your key words, then skim the pages on which those words occur.
• Skim the first and last paragraphs in chapters that use a lot of your key words.
• Skim prologues, introductions, summary chapters, and so on.
• Skim the last chapter, especially the >rst and last two or three pages.
• If the source is a collection of articles, skim the editor’s introduction.
• Check the bibliography for titles relevant to your topic.

If your source is an article, do this:

• Read the abstract, if it has one.
• Skim the introduction and conclusion, or if they are not marked by headings, skim the first six or seven paragraphs and the last four or five.
• Skim for section headings, and read the first and last paragraphs of those sections.

If your source is online, do this:

• If it looks like a printed article, follow the steps for a journal article.
• Skim sections labeled “introduction,” “overview,” “summary,” or the like. If there are none, look for a link labeled “About the Site” or something similar.
• If the site has a link labeled “Site Map” or “Index,” check it for your key words and skim the referenced pages.
• If the site has a “search” resource, type in your key words.

This kind of speedy reading can guide your own writing and revision. If you do not structure your report so your readers can skim it quickly and see the outlines of your argument, your report has a problem, an issue we discuss in chapters 12 and 14.

5.4.2 Evaluating Sources for Reliability You can’t judge a source until you read it, but there are signs of its reliability:

1. Is the source published or posted online by a reputable press? Most university presses are reliable, especially if you recognize the name of the university. Some commercial presses are reliable in some fields, such as Norton in literature, Ablex in sciences, or West in law. Be skeptical of a commercial book that makes sensational claims, even if its author has a PhD after his name. Be especially careful about sources on hotly contested social issues such as stem-cell research, gun control, and global warming. Many books and articles are published by individuals or organizations driven by ideology. Libraries often include them for the sake of coverage, but don’t assume they are reliable.

2. Was the book or article peer-reviewed? Most reputable presses and journals ask experts to review a book or article before it is published; it is called “peer review.” Many essay collections, however, are reviewed only by the named editor(s). Few commercial magazines use peer review. If a publication hasn’t been peer-reviewed, be suspicious.

3. Is the author a reputable scholar? This is hard to answer if you are new to a field. Most publications cite an author’s academic credentials; you can find more with a search engine. Most established scholars are reliable, but be cautious if the topic is a contested social issue such as gun control or abortion. Even reputable scholars can have axes to grind, especially if their research is financially supported by a special interest group. Go online to check out anyone an author thanks for support, including foundations that supported her work.

4. If the source is available only online, is it sponsored by a reputable organization? A Web site is only as reliable as its sponsor. You can usually trust one sponsored and maintained by a reputable organization. But if the site has not been updated recently, it may have been abandoned and is no longer endorsed by its sponsor. Some sites supported by individuals are reliable; most are not. Do a Web search for the name of the sponsor to find out more about it.

5. Is the source current? You must use up-to-date sources, but what counts as current depends on the field. In computer science, a journal article can be out-of-date in months; in the social sciences, ten years pushes the limit. Publications have a longer life in the humanities: in philosophy, primary sources are current for centuries, secondary ones for decades. In general, a source that sets out a major position or theory that other researchers accept will stay current longer than those that respond to or develop it. Assume that most textbooks are not current (except, of course, this one).

If you don’t know how to gauge currency in your field, look at the dates of articles in the works cited of a new book or article: you can cite works as old as the older ones in that list (but perhaps not as old as the oldest). Try to find a standard edition of primary works such as novels, plays, letters, and so on (it is usually not the most recent). Be sure that you consult the most recent edition of a secondary or tertiary source (researchers often change their views, even rejecting ones they espoused in earlier editions).

6. If the source is a book, does it have a notes and a bibliography? If not, be suspicious, because you have no way to follow up on anything the source claims.

7. If the source is a Web site, does it include bibliographical data? You cannot know how to judge the reliability of a site that does not indicate who sponsors and maintains it, who wrote what’s posted there, and when it was posted or last updated.

8. If the source is a Web site, does it approach its topic judiciously? Your readers are unlikely to trust a site that engages in heated advocacy, attacks those who disagree, makes wild claims, uses abusive language, or makes errors of spelling, punctuation, and grammar.

The following criteria are particularly important for advanced students:

9. If the source is a book, has it been well reviewed? Many fields have indexes to published reviews that tell you how others evaluate a source.

10. Has the source been frequently cited by others? You can roughly estimate how influential a source is by how often others cite it. To determine that, consult a citation index.

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Start Your Research: Find Articles

• URL: https://library.park.edu/research
• Get Started
• Find a Topic
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Quick Search

Limiters in Pirate Search

Some of the limiters you can use in Pirate Search are:

• Full-text: Only full-text results, eliminating content that has been indexed by the publisher but isn't available through Park's subscriptions
• Scholarly, Peer-Reviewed Journals : Only content from academic journals in which the content has undergone peer-review, which is review by other scholars in the field.
• Publication date : Only material published within a certain time-frame
• Source type : Allows you specify the type of material or the format.  You can request only books, eBooks, news articles, academic articles and more depending on your information needs.
• Language : Only material produced in a certain language.  Be aware that the library and databases can't offer translation services, so you'll need to be able to read and understand the resources that you find!
• Publisher : Only bring back material from certain databases.  This is useful if your professor has assigned specific databases for you to use.
• And more...

The image below shows where you can find limiters in Pirate Search

Not sure where to start with finding articles?

Try pirate search.

What is Pirate Search?

Pirate Search is a discovery tool that searches almost all of our databases here at Park! It has journal articles, eBooks, Videos, News Articles and more! Start your research by exploring Pirate Search!

• A-Z Database List The complete list of Park University library databases accessible by title, subject, and other categorizations.

This video from Lincoln Memorial University explains how Boolean Operators work!

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Citation Databases

• Searching Scopus
• Researcher Profiles
• Researcher IDs
• Searching Web of Science
• Google Scholar
• Research Impact and Metrics

Introduction to Google Scholar

Google Scholar is the largest citation search-base in the world, though it suffers from some difficulties it is the most widely used of all such search engines. The reason for this is that author profiles in Google Scholar tend to index the entirety of an author’s output. The database is maintained by a powerful algorithm which searches the entire internet for citations, documents, and other research output. However, not all of the material which can be found in Google Scholar is peer-reviewed so remember that it is up to you to be a critical consumer of information. Google Scholar cannot sort by research field or type, browse by title, and cannot limit search results (except for by year).

Uses for Researchers

There are many use cases of Google Scholar for researchers, the most obvious cases are literature reviews and making note of research trends. Searching Google Scholar is easy, and by making use of some of the tips below you will be able to narrow your search results.

Search Tips

Here are some easy search tips for using Google Scholar.

Opening Advanced search: to open advanced search navigate to the three lines at the top left of the google scholar home page, click on that and then click on advanced search.

Using “Boolean Operators” such as ‘AND’ as well as ‘OR’ can allow you to search for things which include specific words

Using the command “intitle:” we can do an in title search, so for example “Intitle: “Romanitas”     Roman”' will search for articles with “Romanitas” in the title and the word “Roman” in the text of the article. This can help you to find articles with specific content.

Cited by References search is a powerful tool which allows you to search for articles that have cited a particular article. Search for an article and then click “cited by” under the entry.

Setting library links can be done by clicking “settings”, clicking on “library links” and then searching for “Purdue”, and finally clicking “save”. This will allow you to access materials you find on Google Scholar directly from your searches

Metrics in Google Scholar

Google Scholar maintains researcher level profiles which can be created or claimed. If you are already a prolific author, you might have an algorithmically generated profile already. These can be claimed, but others will find that they can create a profile themselves. Either way, once you have done this you can begin to access personalized metrics such as h-index and citations.

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• Last Edited: Apr 11, 2024 9:42 AM
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Your Article Library

Social research: meaning, nature and its utility.

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After reading this article you will learn about Social Research:- 1. Meaning of Social Research 2. Nature of Social Research 3. Steps 4. Utility 5. Benefits.  

Meaning of Social Research:

‘Social Research’ is again a broad term having a reference to different kinds of scientific inquiries conducted in the field of social sciences and the behavioural sciences (the distinction between social sciences and behavioural sciences is itself not very clear).

Sociological research, for example, which may be an especial concern for quite a few may be considered a part and parcel of the general category or rubric that is designated as ‘social research’. It may be said that, all sociological research is ‘social research’ but not all ‘social research’ would qualify as sociological research.

‘Social Research’ would refer to a large class of researches while sociological research may be considered a sub-class within it. In practice, i.e., during the conduct of a study, it hardly makes much difference how one labels the study.

What matters is the scientific character of one’s procedures and how successfully one can solve the difficulty (theoretical or practical) that originated the study.

Whether one calls study ‘A sociological study of old people’ or just plane, ‘A study of the old people’, it does not make much difference as long as it is a scientific study of the old people. It is not the label that by itself determines a researcher’s procedures, insights, emphases and his findings, it is rather his training and capabilities, which does it.

A rigid division of researches on the basis of the traditional division of sciences is not only not practicable but also not quite desirable. It is well to take heed of Francis Bacon’s reminder that “The divisions of sciences are not like different lines that meet in one angle but rather like the branches of trees that join in one trunk.”

Lavoisier, in 1773, stated in a Memorandum to the French Convention: All forms of knowledge are threads in one great tapestry and we are assured of one ultimate pattern and design because there in a unity behind all knowledge.

In modern times, research is often a corporate affair in as much as the complex techniques of collecting and processing data require interdisciplinary cooperation. The scholars belonging to different fields of specialised studies applying different forms and techniques work together and pool their knowledge and insights at one point to solve some common problem which initiated research.

In so far as the social or behavioural sciences differ from the natural or physical sciences in quite significant ways and also, in as much as they share among themselves certain common problems of control, measurement, quantitative analysis etc. with more or less equal intensity (so much so that at one time ‘scientific study’ of social phenomena was thought of as impossible), it would not be improper to use the term ‘social research’ to embrace all scientific inquiries within the large field of social behavioural sciences. Convenience also advises this.

It will do the subject to harm if we adopt the broad definition of research to what is generally known as ‘social research.’ By this token, social research may be defined as “a method of studying, analyzing and conceptualizing social life in order to extend, modify, correct or verify knowledge, whether that knowledge aids in construction of a theory or in practice of an art.”

It will be seen that social research is nothing more than the application of scientific procedures of manipulation (purposeful control), of analysis and of synthesis at a higher level of generality, to the social-human phenomena with a view to test, modify and enlarge systematic knowledge about social facts and social life, generally.

Thus, social research has a reference to an investigation focused on social phenomena processes and organization which aims to discover new facts about social reality or verify old ones, to analyse their sequence, interrelationships, causal connections and laws governing them by means of logical and systematized methods.

It is clear that social research does not aim at finding the ultimate truths. Rather, it aims to understand and clarify the behaviour of man, the social world he lives in, the relationships he maintains, the influences which are exerted on him and the effects these have upon him and subsequently, upon the social institutions of which he is a part and through which his behaviour is mediated.

A recent tendency to equate research with a particular method of investigation calls for comment. Such tendency stems from a misconception of scientific method, resulting in the setting up of a criterion which ignores its many important contributions to knowledge.

It hardly needs to be over-emphasized that a “A study is scientific when its data are subjected to a logical analysis resulting in the development of a theory whether those data are secured by experiment, by statistics or common sense.”

The fact that experiment cannot be performed in a particular case does not negate the possibility of scientific study. The term ‘ experiment’ is sometimes used in a more restricted sense, to apply only to situations in which objects or events involved can be deliberately manipulated by the investigator.

This amounts to assuming that manipulation is just about the only method of control. An astronomer cannot manipulate the stars and the planets and yet he can conduct controlled enquiries into their relationship because he knows the values of the variables.

So also can the social- scientist study the miniature social systems in a controlled manner if he is able to determine the significant properties of these systems (i.e., groups).

The historic reason why manipulation is sometimes confused with control is that at one time manipulation was necessary to reduce the number of variables to just two, thus making them amenable to mathematical treatment.

The development of methods of ‘multivariate analysis’ has removed the necessity of manipulation and laboratory. Though control is not synonymous with manipulation, some scientists, Ackoff tells us, consider it useful to make a distinction between the general class of controlled manipulation. This special class they call ‘experimentation’ while the general class is designated as ‘research’.

This practice has had the unfortunate consequence of according to the non-manipulative inquiries a status lower than the manipulative ones. In fact, the emphasis ought not to be on manipulation but on control, where it belongs. For our purposes, research would also involve experimentation.

Nature of Social Research :

The distinctive nature and character of social research derives in a significant measure from the real and supposed nature of the social phenomena which poses certain difficulties when it comes to application of the sophisticated scientific procedures characterizing the natural science to social phenomena. It does not mean, of course, that social sciences are not science in any real sense.

We may like to see what the typical limitations of social science research are:

In case of the softer social sciences so little spontaneous guidance is afforded by the subject matter than in some of the natural sciences which have a logic of their own unobtrusively pointing the way that substantive research often yields place to repetition discussion on methodology.

A natural scientist need not worry about his laboratory experiment getting vitiated by his mood or by declaration of a foreign policy and other social events, however, his breath may affect the chemical elements in the course of a chemical experiment while all these and many more such factors need to be carefully controlled lest a social scientist should foul up his work.

Also, certain properties of the subject-matter that social scientists deal with give rise to special problems.

The results of social science inquiry are statistical, that is, presented in probability terms. They are never strictly categorical and clear cut. A certain new technique of advertising may work better than the conventional method with a certain proportion of the manufacturing while, the conventional method would appear to suit the rest.

In other words, the differences between two or more categories within a social system may be so small that nothing can be said conclusively on the basis of comparison.

Besides, more than one important variable is generally involved in social science problem. Quite often it is nearly impossible to segregate or disentangle the different variables to ascertain their effects individually.

This difficulty is nearly insurmountable when these different variables operate jointly and also are not amenable to experimentation. For example, when people are less educated they usually have lower income too. Hence, it is difficult to determine whether less educated people are less mobile than other people because of their education or because of their income operative together or because of both.

Furthermore, the researcher himself, being a human being a member of groups a buyer etc., frequently affects the subject matter and in effect changes the whole situation. Again, as contrasted with the natural sciences the social sciences can barely construct a complete system.

A physicist can discuss and set up equations for the entire system in which electrons flow in a circuit. But interactions among human beings cannot be so described for the human ‘systems’ get punctured so often and so easily that predicting a long-term sequences of events becomes well nigh impossible since a number of new influences enter with each interchange among human being; the system is never really closed.

Quite too often, the social scientists are criticized for labouring hard to contribute snake bites of knowledge. In all fairness to the critics it may be said that they are not far wrong when they make lead a criticism of this order. Conceivable, two factors can explain the poor output of social scientists.

There is no denying the fact that many a serious problem of the world has barely been scratched. What causes war? What will ensure peace? Why so much of dehumanization? Social science may, of course, be said to have made some gains in certain fields, especially in the economic discipline, but many a huge human problem still remains untouched.

However, we are used to learning much about our social world in a very simple way. Most social questions can be answered seemingly very easily. Why people in slums suffer from ailments? Because they are poor. Why don’t many women seek legal redressal of their genuine grievances? Because they feel it is unbecoming of women as a class to do so; on and on.

Such and many other questions can be answered quite well (we feel) by consulting our own experience, by relying on our habits of thinking or by asking other people. These questions are not trivial but most of these have no single clear answer. In each case, some third factor is held responsible for what happens. But in the social sciences, it is a major task to unravel even such problems.

The behaviour of human beings is affected by diverse influences such as environmental, temporal, biological, psychological and sociocultural, all of them affecting it contemporaneously. The complexity of human or social data may be largely attributed to this.

It is difficult for an observer to see the underlying uniformities in the profuse diversity of human behaviour which is in a sense unique for each person. Hence, it is a formidable task for a scientist to discover another order principle which would apply to all men or the bewilderingly complex human data.

In social sciences, the laboratory is the society and the objects in the main are conscious and active human beings.

“The observer and observed both being similar become so confused that an objective approach is really difficult to make. Moreover, except in totalitarian society, a controlled experiment in the laboratory of society with free men as objects … sine qua non of an empirical science, is well nigh impossible in social science, generally.”

At this stage, it may be well to answer the emphasis on the distinctive features of Social Sciences. For instance, the complexity of social data is not so well founded. In the midst of the apparent chaos, there is indeed some pattern. If social life were so utterly complex, it would be unlivable.

All social interactions are based upon expectations of behaviour, it may be an interaction between thousands of people in highly complex groups or an interaction in small cohesive groups.

This means that a reasonable prediction about people’s behaviour is possible — nay, it is an important aspect of social life. Talking of complexity, we should realize that complexity is a relative term. Social phenomena are complex to us, because our knowledge of them is inadequate and our tools of study have developed a little beyond infancy.

It has been pointed out above that as contrasted with the physical sciences, the social sciences lack the power of exact prediction. This is attributed to the ‘erratic, idiosyncratic and irregular’ nature of human behaviour.

It must be said that the case of unpredictability of social behaviour is a gain, not so well-founded. While individual behaviour may be unpredictable, one can predict with quite a high degree of accuracy the behaviour of a whole group (on the basis of knowledge of the pattern).

Lundberg has rightly pointed out that the low predictive potential of social sciences is due mainly to our limited knowledge of relevant variables operative in the groups.

“As our knowledge of the variables increases and we will be able to judge the effort of various varieties involved, it will be possible for us to predict social events with much greater accuracy.”

Whereas the physical phenomena may be known directly through senses, the social phenomena are known only symbolically through words or terms referring to such phenomena, e.g., tradition, custom, values and the whole range of the subjective world, which makes verification of conclusions very difficult.

It may be pointed out in this connection that there has come about a standardization of concepts connoting social facts, and also that techniques have been developed to measure many of the so-called subjective items in objective terms, e.g., anthropometrics or sociometric measures.

Lundberg feels that most of the subject-matter of social science so qualitative and does not admit of quantitative measurement.

This contention leaves some ground for criticism for, qualitative and quantitative measurements are only different stages in the growth of a science and it is not as though some data are by nature quantitative and others qualitative as science develops, what were previously thought of as a qualitative data may be transformed as quantitative ones.

Secondly, we should not forget that qualitative expressions and analyses have their own place of importance in a social inquiry.

It has been argued that social phenomena compared to the physical ones are categorized by greater heterogeneity. Even if we accept this, it is possible by adequate stratification or classification effected in terms of certain traits or poverties, to ensure a fairly high degree of internal homogeneity within each stratum or class. Thus, social research may reach conclusions of broad applicability.

It has to be conceded that most physical sciences also known as exact sciences, allow for controlled laboratory experiments, hence their exactness. The social sciences suffer from this handicap, although to a limited extent laboratory experiments are possible here too. As social sciences develop, a number of human problems may hopefully be brought within the reach of laboratory experiments.

One of the characteristics of the social phenomena is that cause and effect (better still the producer and product) are hard to be segregated or disentangled clearly. In social sciences, it does not many a time, make sense to ask which is the cause and which is the effect (e.g., poverty and lack of skill). It is obvious that unless we realize this fact, we could be asking wrong questions and finding wrong answers.

The readers would have realized in the light of the above exposition that social data typically pose certain problems when it comes to these being treated by the highly developed quantitative methods of the physical sciences. It should be now clear also that quite a few critiques of the stature of social science research do not hold much water. At least the difficulties are not insurmountable.

The difficulties which appear to preclude the possibility of a ‘science of society’ derive from our underdeveloped techniques and methodology of study and our consequent unfamiliarity with data rather than from the inherent differences between the data related to these two types of sciences.

It is an acknowledged fact that social sciences in their present state of development are far behind the physical science.

Says R. K. Merton, “We, social scientist, happen to live at a time when some of the physical sciences have achieved comparatively great precision of theory and an abundance of technical by-product … many social scientists take as a standard of self-appraisal … they want to compare biceps with their bigger brothers. But this is to ignore the distinctive fore history of each: between 20 th century physics and 20 th century sociology stand billions of man-hours of sustained, disciplined and cumulative research.”

Merton advises social scientist not to despair and harbour doubt whether a science of society is really possible, but, with the present limitations in view, “develop special theories applicable to limited ranges of data” and slowly build their way up toward more general theories of broader applicability.

Major Steps in Social Research :

It should be borne in mind that designating certain steps as ‘major’ only implies that each of such steps subsumes under it a set of interrelated operations, each of which is important in its own way in affecting the value of the research results and their worth.

Thus, ‘major’ steps should advisedly be considered as groupings or classes of operations or activities hundreds of which are involved in research, each corresponding to some requirement of research.

For example, ‘data collection’ phase subsumes decisions about the kinds of data needed, the most efficient way of collecting them, the activities to be carried out in the development and pre-testing of the data collection instruments etc.

In addition, such decisions as constitute responses to the practical requirements of research are also covered, i.e., planning of budget, procurement and administration of funds, selection of personnel, training of personnel (e.g., interviewers), strategies of eliciting co-operation from people who are to be respondents and so on.

It is obvious that each one of these operations will have some effect on the quality of research. A small omission anywhere will affect as adversely the quality of the study, just as a small lapse, even in the manner it is catered will affect the satisfaction people get from a recipe as it is served.

Topics prompted by intellectual concerns differ from those mooted by practical ones in that the former are less likely to involve the study of specific situations primarily as objects of interest in themselves. The specific situations have only an illustrative relevance, i.e., they are studied as specimens of some larger class of structure or processes in which the researcher evinces theoretic interest.

The researcher’s decision as to what his-general area of interest is going to be, i.e., problem formulation, i.e., the topic, hardly puts him in a position to start considering the procedures for data collection and analysis of data in right earnest, since at this stage, he does not know precisely what specific questions within his general area of interest he would want to be answered.

Hence, the researcher needs to formulate a specific problem from within his general area of interest before he can take any decision relating to collection and analysis of data. Many a time, investigators may be tempted to jump immediately from the selection of a general topic to the collection of data.

But this only means that they would have to face the task of formulating a problem at some later stage when only the lucky ones may be able to produce a worthwhile scientific inquiry.

Obviously, without a problem the heaps of data would hardly mean anything. The meaningfulness of data collected can be assessed only after their scrutiny and organization with a view to finding out how these data would answer a specific problem. The problem is, indeed, the organizing principle for the processing and organization data of.

At first glace, it would seem fairly easy to see and pose a problem for study. But the experience of scientists is summed up in the adage:

“It is often more difficult to find and to formulate a problem than to solve it.”

In most scientific work the difficulty lies in framing problem or questions rather than in finding their solution. The researcher has to put a great deal of thought into the formulation of problems if he expects to get anything worthwhile from his efforts to solve them.

Cohen and Nagel aptly remark:

“No enquiry can get under way until and unless some difficulty is faced in a practical or theoretic situation. It is the difficulty or problem which guides the search for some order among facts in terms of which the difficulty is to be removed.” In point of fact, research really begins when the researcher experiences a difficulty or a challenge which is the basic component of a research problem.

The formulation of a specific research problem is the first material step in a scientific inquiry must be influenced basically by the requirements of scientific procedure.

There is no surefooted and infallible principle which can guide an investigator in posing some conditions which have over the years proved very helpful in formulating significant problems for research.

A careful study of literature having some bearing on the general area of the researcher’s interest, systematic immersion into the subject-matter, analysis of ‘insight stimulating’ cases, etc., are some of these conditions. Formulation of problem for research, sensibly, involves on the plane of practice, researcher’s concern for reducing the research task to a manageable size.

The problem, thus delimited to make it more specific and manageable, the researcher proceeds to take several interrelated steps, e.g., formulation of hypotheses (where feasible), explication of concepts that enter into the hypotheses and consideration of methods for relating the study to other studies using similar or kindred concepts.

These steps are so closely intertwined that they cannot be worked on, one at a time. The suggested explanations or solutions to the problem formulated as propositions are called hypotheses. Such tentative explanations, i.e., hypotheses, may be the solutions to the problem. The inquiry is directed at finding out whether they really are the solutions to the problem.

Whether or not explicit hypotheses are proposed at this stage, the researcher needs to define the concepts which would be used in organizing the data. Such definitions include formal definitions that are designed to convey the general nature of the process or phenomenon.

But no matter how simple or elaborate a researcher’s formal definition of concept, he cannot usually proceed without devising some way of translating them into observable events or referents. In other words, the researcher has to devise some operations that yield data which will serve as satisfactory tangible indicators or referents of the given concepts.

Threaded through all these processes is the concern for generality of finding of the study and their relation to other knowledge, which means that the researcher is required to study critically the work already done in the field and formulate his problem in terms so general and abstract as to make clear its relation to other knowledge and permit replication of study in other concrete situations.

Once the research problem is formulated in clear-cut terms such that the types of information needed to answer it is clearly indicated, the researcher turns to the task working out a design for the study.

A study/research design is a plan comprising the researcher’s decisions about the procedures of sampling, data collection and analysis of data in respect of a given study, which aims to fulfill the objects or purpose of the study without wasteful expenditure of time, energy and money.

If one can anticipate problems or difficulties that he may have to face subsequently, that is, before he actually conducts a given inquiry, to that extent he is in a position to face them as and when they arise, to decide beforehand what can be done to overcome them.

This way, a researcher can increase his chance of deliberate anticipation directed towards bringing some expected situation under control. The researcher in the process of making decisions is also required to evaluate the methodological basis for making such decisions.

Designing a research ensures researcher against its failure. It is economical in the long run, because it forestalls the possibility of fruitless inquiry and its intractable failures. The researcher engaged in formulating a research design prepares, advisedly, an idealized research design, which is concerned with laying down the optimal research procedure that would be followed if there were no practical restrictions.

However, every researcher has to work in a practical situation characterized by varied constraints. Hence, he is required to take up the task of translating the idealized design into a reliable working procedure, i.e., the practical research design.

The practical requirements of a study are designed in such a manner that compromises between the ideal and the practical aspects are accomplished without much damage to its scientific merit.

The research designs differ according to the research purpose:

Research purposes may be grouped into four broad categories, viz.,

(1) Exploration,

(2) Description,

(3) Diagnosis, and

(4) Experimentation.

Design requirements would understandably vary for different kinds of studies. For example, the studies whose purpose is exploration, require a flexible research design, whereas those aiming at description and diagnosis would warrant a more rigid design.

The process of working out a research design involves, as has been pointed out, making decisions (with reference to the research problem or purpose) about the techniques to be employed for collection of relevant data, the safeguards to be employed in the interest of validity, reliability and precision of the instrument of data collection, the mode of drawing the sample from the ‘universe’ and the size of the sample that would best serve as a basis for drawing fairly acceptable inferences about the population of which the sample is a part, organizing or analyzing the data, interpreting the results of analysis and effecting ‘compromises’ prompted by practical exigencies, without adversely affecting the quality of work beyond a tolerable limit, etc.

The researcher engaged thus, has to anticipate the field situation which goes a long way toward helping himself to get prepared and armed against future hazards. ‘To be forewarned is to be forearmed’ is indeed an old and wise dictum. Through designing the research, the investigator ensures that he will most probably achieve his research objective without having to spend prohibitive amounts of time, money and energy.

With the completion of the designing phase, researcher turns to the implementation aspect of it. Thus, he addresses himself to the task of formulating the instruments or tools of data collection, such as the questionnaire, interview schedule and observation guide, etc.

The task of formulating these measuring instruments is not an easy one by any reckoning. Usually, considerable preparation in terms of a deep understanding of the research problem, discussions with experienced and knowledgeable persons, systematic study of pertinent literature, reflection and imaginative ‘role-taking’ etc. has to go underway before the researcher is in a position to formulate meaningful and effective measuring instruments.

These tentatively formulated instruments have to be ‘pretested’ with a view to detecting their shortcomings before their final deployment in the field.

The choice of techniques to be utilized for collection of data and the form in which these are to be pressed into service, depend on such considerations as: who are to be the respondents, what is sought to be known from them, when, where and how.

Some techniques have a distinct advantage over others in certain kinds of situations. Certain techniques are especially suited to certain kinds of respondents and information whereas other techniques are virtually inapplicable in such situations.

Certain situations and problems require that not one but two or more techniques be used for obtaining the information. Different forms of the same technique may be used with differing degrees of efficiency and advantage in different situations and settings.

Alongside with the formulation of measuring instrument, the researcher defines the ‘population’ or ‘universe’ of his study, i.e., the total number of items/objects/people of a specified class which is directly related to or covered by the research problem.

It is rarely necessary and feasible (also, sometimes even undesirable) to study all the items which constitute the ‘universe’ or ‘population’ in order to provide an accurate and reliable estimate of its characteristics. More often, a sample of the ‘population’ under study is enough to afford a reliable base and it will closely match those that would have been obtained had the ‘universe’ in toto been studied.

The researcher thus selects sample, in such a way that there is a probability that the selected sample, for the purpose at hand, is sufficiently representative of the ‘universe’, i.e., the conclusions based or the sample would by and large be the same as one would be arrived at, by studying each and every item, person, family, groups comprising the population or universe.

There are times, however, when the time incurred in drawing a sample would be higher than what it would be if the entire ‘population’ was studied. In such a situation the researcher investigates the ‘universe’ in its totality. The basic distinction in the sampling theory is between the probability sampling design and the non-probability sampling design.

It is only by recourse to the probability sampling plan that the researcher can specify for each element of the ‘population’ the probability or chance of its being included in the sample and on this basis, estimate the extent to which the inference based on the sample may be accepted as one virtually based on the study of the ‘universe.’

While the non-probability sampling design does not afford a basis for making such estimates. It is utilized for reasons of convenience and economy. The researcher may in certain cases adopt a mode of sampling that combines certain ingredients of the probability and non-probability sampling procedures.

Having drawn a suitable and numerically adequate sample from the ‘universe’ the researcher proceeds to administer the measuring instruments or tools of data collection on the items comprising the selected sample.

In order to ensure that the data are reliable and free from bias, the researcher needs to consider what mode of administering the instruments or tools of data collection would be most desirable in view of the kinds of responses sought and the nature of the objects or persons covered by the study.

The administration of the data generating instruments brings to the fore the need for recording responses or Measurement presents difficulties all its own. Faulty recording of responses, understandably, has serious implications for the ultimate worth of the study.

In fact, the recorded responses comprise the data. The researcher proceeds to examine them for completeness, comprehensibility, consistency and reliability.

The data collecting phase over, the researcher turns to the task of analysing them. The process of data-analysis subsumes a number of closely related operations. The overall purpose of data-analysis is to summarize the completed observations in such a manner that they yield answer to the research questions.

Heaps of collected data would not mean anything unless these were organized in manner that conclusions or answers having a bearing on the problem of research can be arrived at. It goes without saying that the concern of analysis of data enters each of the earlier phases of study in a variety of ways. In fact, the analysis-plan of a study is shaped to a considerable extent even before the data are collected.

The broad task of analysing data may be viewed as comprising various specific sub- tasks such as the establishment of analytical categories, the application of these categories to raw data through coding, tabulation and drawing of statistical inferences, etc.

A partial obligation relating to the task of analyzing the data requires that the researcher classify the raw data into certain purposeful and usable categories. Classification or categorization facilitates the tabulation operations to be undertaken subsequently.

Coding operation has a reference to the technical procedure by which the data are categorized. Through coding the categories of data are transformed into symbols that may be tabulated and counted. Editing is a procedure involved in data analysis which is employed to improve the quality of the data for coding.

Although in certain cases it is the respondent himself who assigns his response to a particular category (e.g., in poll- type questions), the categorization and coding of complex data are usually taken up after the entire data are in. The researcher has to install safeguards against factors which might operate to make the judgment of the coders unreliable.

With coding, the data are ready for tabulation. Tabulation is a part of the technical procedure involved in the statistical analysis of data. The essential operation involved in tabulation is counting to determine the frequencies or numerical strength of different categories of data.

As was just indicated tabulation is just one part of the statistical analysis of data. Further statistical computations are needed in a study of any complexity.

The researcher may need to work out central tendencies, deviations, correlations etc., to describe and summarize the data obtained on the sample based conclusions. He may also be required to utilize methods of sampling statistics to safeguard against drawing unjustified inferences.

With this, the stage is now set for restating the initially-stated hypotheses (if any were stated explicitly) against the generalizations or conclusions drawn on the basis of data with a view to testing their accord with these.

Here retention or discarding of the hypotheses in if any, are formulated is bound to take place. In case an hypothesis fits the findings, the theory or perspective which suggested the hypothesis would be proved.

If the hypothesis is disproved, the blow of disproof will pass on to theory which originated the hypothesis. In some cases, sometimes the blow may not be so severe and the theory may still survive with modification prompted by the research findings.

If the researcher had no hypothesis to start with, the generalizations established on the basis of data may be stated as hypotheses to be tested by subsequent researches. If the researcher had not proposed any hypothesis to start with, he might seek to explain his findings on the basis of some theory.

This whole operation is geared to the search for broader meanings of given research findings through seeing linkages between the findings and some existing theory or established knowledge. This is termed as interpretation. The process of interpretation quite often triggers off new questions, prompting in turn further researches.

Although research is a continuous process, as limited to specific problem or issue the researcher has by now nearly reached the end of his journey. But he has an important scientific obligation to fulfill, i.e., reporting the research. The research exercise is not really complete till such time as the researcher has faithfully reported it.

Science is public institution and in the interest of its growth on the right lines, every scientist is duty-bound (except in certain situations) to make his findings as also the method by which he arrived at these, known to the public.

Reporting the research, to be sure, requires an order of skills somewhat different from those needed in the earlier phases of research. The chief purpose of a report is communication with an audience.

It is expected that the research report will enlighten the readers on the following aspects:

(a) The problem of research.

(b) The research procedures consisting of the study design, method of manipulation (in experiment), sample, techniques of data collection and analysis.

(c) The results or outcome of the research.

(d) The theoretical and practical implications of the findings.

The social research often necessitates the services of any persons or categories of person; each person or category of persons is specially trained and skilled in a particular aspect of the research process.

For example, a large- scale research programme involves various categories of persons such as investigators, samplers, coders, etc., with the researcher or scientist as the person directing or supervising their operations. He is, so to say, the brain behind the project and articulates the specialized operations to get to the solution of the problem.

We have, in describing the major steps, opted for a model of inquiry in which the researcher scientist alone has to perform all those operations but the research process detailed above is equally applicable to inquiries in which many specialized categories of persons are involved as collaborators.

Quite a few fruitful analyses of the process of inquiry have been made and as a result, our understanding of inquiry is now expanded. Those analysing an inquiry from the point of view of science have generally conceived as problem solving process. Social scientists looking at the process of inquiry as a complex of interactions between individuals and environment have come to view it as a communicative process.

R. L. Ackoff has offered a model representing the process of inquiry which illustrates both its problem solving and communicative phases.

The communication model of inquiry involves four communicants:

(1) The consumer, who has a problem;

(2) The scientist/researcher who purports to solve it;

(3) The observer; and

(4) The observed.

We will do well to remember that these four communicants need not be four distinct individuals, rather they refer to four communicative roles. All four roles may be performed by a single person. Regardless of the number of people involved, one or hundreds, these roles are present in every inquiry.

The communicative operations involving these four roles may be depicted in a diagrammatic form as under:

This formulation of the communication aspects of inquiry also serves a very useful purpose in pointing out the potential sources of research error. It is clear that each of these roles may be a possible source of error.

The diagrammatic representation makes it quite clear that the problem solving phases of inquiry are:

(1) Existence of a problem;

(2) Formulation of the problem and designing a methodological strategy for solving it;

(3) Movement into or creation of the environment in which observations are to be made (i.e., data-collection);

(4) Recording of data;

(5) Treatment of data (analysis and interpretation);

(6) Action based on the reported results to solve the problem.

It is not difficult to see that the communication and the problem solving aspects of research exhibit the very same pattern that was presented in the preceding pages.

Utility of Social Research :

To the question “what use is social research?” one may reply “of what use is a new­born child?” in the manner of Benjamin Franklin who replied thus, when asked the utility of his findings about the relationship between thunderclouds and electricity.

This means that new knowledge like the new-born baby, holds great potential of worth and maturity. Also like the new-born child, it gives us pleasure. It gives us satisfaction of knowing the unknown.

This points to a value that the scientist is committed to, i.e., the self-justifying goodness of’ new knowledge’ about anything big or small. “Social research is persistently opening our eyes to the social reality, simplifying the mysterious within the seemingly common place in social life and shattering its garments of make-believe by which pious hands have hidden their uglier features.

The obvious function of research is to add new knowledge to its existing store, but its power of cleansing our minds of cliches and removing the rubbish of inapplicable theory are equally notable. Scientific research is a cumulative process. It is also a rejective process, especially in social sciences … understanding can be (advanced) not only by gains in knowledge but also by discarding outworn assumptions.”

A social researcher is interested in the discovery and interpretation of social processes, patterns of behaviour, similarities and dissimilarities that apply to typical social phenomena and social systems, generally.

That is the social researcher is concerned with types and classes of social situation, persons or groups of which the unit he is studying at the time, is a specimen or an instance. His facts are selected and related according to their intrinsic nature and the susceptibility to organization into a logical system.

This search for knowledge has a definite relation to people’s basic needs and welfare. The social scientist assumes that all knowledge is potentially useful in the end. It must be remembered, however that science and society have a two way relationship. There is a give and take between science and social conditions. Science helps to create social conditions; social conditions recharge the accumulators of science.

In concrete developmental parlance the major possibilities of utilizing social science research may be identified as under:

(a) Social research may afford valuable background data to be capitalized by social planners for assessing the existing state of affairs; particularly the magnitude, complexity and ramifications of the problem they are expected to grapple with; the critical may be illuminated by analytical studies.

The observed and hidden dimensions of the problem thrown up by such studying may be expected to proffer certain measure of foresight to planners to deal with the problem effectively.

(b) Such social science exercise may provide a basis for testing the validity of certain assumptions that our planners are prone to make in laying down their short-term and long-term goals. These researches conceivably, may help the planner to anticipate the consequences and cost of alternative strategies which may be pressed into operation for achieving the settled goals.

(c) Social science researches may bring into sharp focus the varied influences and factors that contribute to the failure of certain projects. Hence the policy planners may stand forewarned about these.

(d) If social science research finding becomes a part of public knowledge, a general awareness about the situation and challenges, as also, the desired policy to meet them squarely may result.

This would prepare people for accepting a particular policy and for exerting popular pressure for reformulation of amending current policies, or rejecting of modifying them. Let us now consider the utility of social research, especially, for a developing country like ours.

Benefits of Social Research:

In a general way, some of the direct practical benefits and theoretic implications of social research may be listed as follows:

(1) Social research has a crucial role to play in guiding social planning. Adequate social planning depends for its success on a systematic knowledge above the social resources and liabilities, of the people and their culture; of their similarities and differences, of organizations and operative controls, of their needs, hopes, aspirations and problems.

Any effort at social planning is bound to fail of it is based on fictitious assumptions of planners in relation to what the consumers of planning need, what their problems are, what they want remedied, and what kind of system they want as an emergent product of planning.

Social planning, or for that matter any planning, requires a store of reliable, factual knowledge on the basis of which a blue-print may be designed and the difficulties in its implementation anticipated and guarded against.

Nor is it all; such a foundation of scientifically gathered knowledge affords a basis for evaluation the net gains of planning for the social system in question. Social research is of immense help in securing such knowledge.

It happens so often, that the overly zealous practical men with a programmatic orientation consider social research an unnecessary expense only to realize subsequently that the factual data would have helped them avoid the vast wasteful expenditure of money; time and energy occasioned by the failure of their designs on the place of practice. Social research is generally worth much more than the costs incurred over it.

(2) Since knowledge is a particular kind of power, social research, by affording first­hand knowledge about the organization and working of society and its institutions, gives us a greater power of control over the social phenomena and action. Thus, social research may be visualized as having practical implications for formal and informal types of leadership, patterns on influence and reform in different spheres of society.

(3) It is a very apt saying that knowledge is enlightenment. It dispels the thrust of outworn assumptions, superstitions and stereotypes. Social research thus, may be expected at-least to afford a more solid basis for people to hold whatever opinions they do.

Some authors have claimed that social researches may have the effect of promoting better understanding and social cohesion, since it brings to light the underlying oneness in the midst of a bewildering variety or diversity of human societies. But this is claiming too much for one side and ignoring the other possibility; social research may also unravel diversity in the midst of apparent unity.

(4) It is obvious that social research has direct implications for social welfare. By virtue of the deeper understanding of the casual nexus underlying various social ‘maladies’, social research provides a secure basis for effective remedial measure.

Social researchers analyse the problem basis for effective remedial measure. Social researchers analyse the problem in the ‘total context’ (this is desirable) and as such are in a better position to identify social structural anomalies and ambivalences that get reflected in the form of these problems and hence, structural changes would be necessitated.

The ‘remedies’ suggested by research are thus deep going. They hit where they must. Many of the laymen reformer’s ‘remedies’ create other new problem or ‘side effect.’ Scientific social research provides sound guidelines for appropriate measures of welfare of reform. It is no accident that a large portion of legislation and reformative measures own its origin to reports of social surveys.

(5) A researcher is charged with the responsibilities of asserting some order among facts. Thus research affords a considerably sound basis for prediction. Despite the admittedly low predictive potential of social research, reasonably reliable predictions, perhaps ‘culture-bound’ or ‘context-bound’, can be made.

These have the effect of setting our efforts at social planning and control on a sounder footing. The success of planning for social development depends to a great extent on our intimate knowledge of our own society as also of other societies. Thus, social research has the effect of initiating and guiding social growth on proper lines and towards the cherished goals.

(6) Every scientist is obliged to effect constant improvements in the tools and techniques of his trade, i.e., research. The social researcher, in so far as he has to work in reference to different spatial-temporal contexts, each challenging his attack, is constantly faced with the need to improve upon his tools or if need be, to fashion new tools to match his skills with the task prompted by the exigencies of the situation.

Samuel Stouffer and his associates working on the adjustment problem in the context of racial prejudice to cite only one instance out of the many had to effect modifications in the prevailing techniques of research and when occasion demanded, to invent new ones to take the best out of the situation.

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Research , Social Research , Introduction to Social Research

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