greek architecture research paper

Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History Essays

Architecture in ancient greece.

Marble column from the Temple of Artemis at Sardis

Marble akroterion of the grave monument of Timotheos and Nikon

Lion felling a bull, from a marble pediment

Terracotta architectural tile

Colette Hemingway Independent Scholar

October 2003

Ancient Greek architects strove for the precision and excellence of workmanship that are the hallmarks of Greek art in general. The formulas they invented as early as the sixth century B.C. have influenced the architecture of the past two millennia. The two principal orders in Archaic and Classical Greek architecture are the Doric and the Ionic. In the first, the Doric order, the columns are fluted and have no base. The capitals are composed of two parts consisting of a flat slab, the abacus, and a cushionlike slab known as the echinus. On the capital rests the entablature, which is made up of three parts: the architrave, the frieze, and the cornice. The architrave is typically undecorated except for a narrow band to which are attached pegs, known as guttae. On the frieze are alternating series of triglyphs (three bars) and metopes, stone slabs frequently decorated with relief sculpture. The pediment, the triangular space enclosed by the gables at either end of the building, was often adorned with sculpture, early on in relief and later in the round. Among the best-preserved examples of Archaic Doric architecture are the temple of Apollo at Corinth, built in the second quarter of the sixth century B.C., and the temple of Aphaia at Aegina, built around 500–480 B.C. To the latter belong at least three different groups of pedimental sculpture exemplary of stylistic development between the end of the sixth and beginning of the fifth century B.C. in Attica.

In the Ionic order of architecture, bases support the columns, which have more vertical flutes than those of the Doric order. Ionic capitals have two volutes that rest atop a band of palm-leaf ornaments. The abacus is narrow, and the entablature, unlike that of the Doric order, usually consists of three simple horizontal bands. The most important feature of the Ionic order is the frieze, which is usually carved with relief sculpture arranged in a continuous pattern around the building.

In general, the Doric order occurs more frequently on the Greek mainland and at sites on the Italian peninsula, where there were many Greek colonies. The Ionic order was more popular among Greeks in Asia Minor and in the Greek islands. A third order of Greek architecture, known as the Corinthian, first developed in the late Classical period, but was more common in the Hellenistic and Roman periods. Corinthian capitals have a bell-shaped echinus decorated with acanthus leaves, spirals, and palmettes. There is also a pair of small volutes at each corner; thus, the capital provides the same view from all sides.

The architectural order governed not only the column, but also the relationships among all the components of architecture. As a result, every piece of a Greek building is integral to its overall structure; a fragment of molding often can be used to reconstruct an entire building. Although the ancient Greeks erected buildings of many types, the Greek temple best exemplifies the aims and methods of Greek architecture. The temple typically incorporated an oblong plan, and one or more rows of columns surrounding all four sides. The vertical structure of the temple conformed to an order, a fixed arrangement of forms unified by principles of symmetry and harmony. There was usually a pronaos (front porch) and an opisthodomos (back porch). The upper elements of the temple were usually made of mud brick and timber, and the platform of the building was of cut masonry. Columns were carved of local stone, usually limestone or tufa; in much earlier temples, columns would have been made of wood. Marble was used in many temples, such as the Parthenon in Athens, which is decorated with Pentelic marble and marble from the Cycladic island of Paros. The interior of the Greek temple characteristically consisted of a cella, the inner shrine in which stood the cult statue, and sometimes one or two antechambers, in which were stored the treasury with votive offerings.

The quarrying and transport of marble and limestone were costly and labor-intensive, and often constituted the primary cost of erecting a temple. For example, the wealth Athens accumulated after the Persian Wars enabled Perikles to embark on his extensive building program, which included the Parthenon (447–432 B.C.) and other monuments on the Athenian Akropolis. Typically, a Greek civic or religious body engaged the architect, who participated in every aspect of construction. He usually chose the stone, oversaw its extraction, and supervised the craftsmen who roughly shaped each piece in the quarry. At the building site, expert carvers gave the blocks their final form, and workmen hoisted each one into place. The tight fit of the stones was enough to hold them in place without the use of mortar; metal clamps embedded in the stone reinforced the structure against earthquakes. A variety of skilled labor collaborated in the raising of a temple. Workmen were hired to construct the wooden scaffolding needed for hoisting stone blocks and sculpture, and to make the ceramic tiles for the roofs. Metalworkers were employed to make the metal fittings used for reinforcing the stone blocks and to fashion the necessary bronze accoutrements for sculpted scenes on the frieze, metopes, and pediments. Sculptors from the Greek mainland and abroad carved freestanding and relief sculpture for the eaves of the temple building. Painters were engaged to decorate sculptural and architectural elements with painted details.

Hemingway, Colette. “Architecture in Ancient Greece.” In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–. http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/grarc/hd_grarc.htm (October 2003)

Further Reading

Avery, Catherine B., ed. The New Century Handbook of Greek Art and Architecture . New York: Appleton–Century–Crofts, 1972.

Hornblower, Simon, and Antony Spawforth, eds. The Oxford Classical Dictionary . 3d ed., rev. New York: Oxford University Press, 2003.

Lawrence, A. W. Greek Architecture . 4th ed., rev. by R. A. Tomlinson. Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1983.

Pedley, John Griffiths, Greek Art and Archaeology . 2d ed. New York: Harry N. Abrams, 1998.

Pomeroy, Sarah B., et al. Ancient Greece: A Political, Social, and Cultural History . New York: Oxford University Press, 1999.

Robertson, Martin. A History of Greek Art . 2 vols. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1975.

Additional Essays by Colette Hemingway

• Hemingway, Colette. “ Art of the Hellenistic Age and the Hellenistic Tradition .” (April 2007)
• Hemingway, Colette. “ Greek Hydriai (Water Jars) and Their Artistic Decoration .” (July 2007)
• Hemingway, Colette. “ Hellenistic Jewelry .” (April 2007)
• Hemingway, Colette. “ Intellectual Pursuits of the Hellenistic Age .” (April 2007)
• Hemingway, Colette. “ Mycenaean Civilization .” (October 2003)
• Hemingway, Colette. “ Retrospective Styles in Greek and Roman Sculpture .” (July 2007)
• Hemingway, Colette. “ Africans in Ancient Greek Art .” (January 2008)
• Hemingway, Colette. “ Ancient Greek Colonization and Trade and their Influence on Greek Art .” (July 2007)
• Hemingway, Colette. “ Greek Gods and Religious Practices .” (October 2003)
• Hemingway, Colette. “ The Art of Classical Greece (ca. 480–323 B.C.) .” (January 2008)
• Hemingway, Colette. “ The Labors of Herakles .” (January 2008)
• Hemingway, Colette. “ Athletics in Ancient Greece .” (October 2002)
• Hemingway, Colette. “ The Rise of Macedon and the Conquests of Alexander the Great .” (October 2004)
• Hemingway, Colette. “ The Technique of Bronze Statuary in Ancient Greece .” (October 2003)
• Hemingway, Colette. “ Women in Classical Greece .” (October 2004)
• Hemingway, Colette. “ Cyprus—Island of Copper .” (October 2004)
• Hemingway, Colette. “ Music in Ancient Greece .” (October 2001)
• Hemingway, Colette. “ Ernest Hemingway (1899–1961) and Art .” (October 2004)
• Hemingway, Colette. “ Etruscan Art .” (October 2004)
• Hemingway, Colette. “ Prehistoric Cypriot Art and Culture .” (October 2004)
• Hemingway, Colette. “ Sardis .” (October 2004)
• Hemingway, Colette. “ Medicine in Classical Antiquity .” (October 2004)
• Hemingway, Colette. “ Southern Italian Vase Painting .” (October 2004)
• Hemingway, Colette. “ Theater in Ancient Greece .” (October 2004)
• Hemingway, Colette. “ The Kithara in Ancient Greece .” (October 2002)
• Hemingway, Colette. “ Minoan Crete .” (October 2002)

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A Review Analysis of Ancient Greek Architecture

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The architecture of Ancient Greece is the architecture produced by the Greek-speaking people (Hellenic people) whose culture flourished on the Greek mainland and Peloponnesus, the Aegean Islands, and in colonies in Asia Minor and Italy for a period from about 900 BC until the 1st century AD, with the earliest remaining architectural works dating from around 600 BC. Ancient Greek architecture is best known from its temples, many of which are found throughout the region, mostly as ruins but many substantially intact. The second important type of building that survives all over the Hellenic world is the open-air theatre, with the earliest dating from around 350 BC. Other architectural forms that are still in evidence are the processional gateway (propylon), the public square (agora) surrounded by storied colonnade (stoa), the town council building (bouleuterion), the public monument, the monumental tomb (mausoleum) and the stadium.

Keywords: Ancient Greece , Greek architecture

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Conservation of Greek Neoclassical Facade Elements Through Their Integration in a HBIM Library

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• Elias Sakellaris 10 ,
• Konstantina Siountri 10 , 11 &
• Christos-Nikolaos Anagnostopoulos 11  

Part of the book series: Communications in Computer and Information Science ((CCIS,volume 1574))

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The term HBIM (Heritage Building Information Modelling) refers to recording, modelling and managing monuments and buildings of cultural interest and so far gathers more academic interest than practical application. HBIM models of architectural elements can be fully parametric, meaning that typologies can be produced by them. Those elements can be integrated in digital libraries, which is a systematic way of capturing and storing architectural elements as “smart” data. In this paper, photogrammetry and laser scanning is used to capture primitive data of Greek neoclassical architecture elements. Subsequently, the way of designing, parameterizing and documenting of these elements is presented, through the creation of HBIM models. These models are integrated in a digital library consisted of neoclassical period typologies, ideal for their digital conservation. Additionally, the parameterization of a standard neoclassical facade which includes the library elements is investigated, based on the synthetic principles that define its architectural period. This research leads to conclusions in relation to the advantages of the HBIM methodology, setting the basis of a parametric HBIM library to be extended over other parts of the building or architectural periods.

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Elias Sakellaris & Konstantina Siountri

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Sakellaris, E., Siountri, K., Anagnostopoulos, CN. (2022). Conservation of Greek Neoclassical Facade Elements Through Their Integration in a HBIM Library. In: Moropoulou, A., Georgopoulos, A., Doulamis, A., Ioannides, M., Ronchi, A. (eds) Trandisciplinary Multispectral Modelling and Cooperation for the Preservation of Cultural Heritage. TMM_CH 2021. Communications in Computer and Information Science, vol 1574. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-20253-7_9

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Greek Art and Architecture Art History 220/620 Classical Studies 220 AAMW 620

Research Paper

Go to the Rodney S. Young Gallery, The Ancient Greek World , in the Mediterranean Section of the University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology and select three objects that are of interest to you. You may choose any objects you wish but keep in mind that each should be something that you can pursue some detailed research about. You may choose a decorated vase, a piece of sculpture, a coin, a terracotta, a bronze or a piece of jewelry.

Send me an email with your three objects in the order in which you would like to work on them. Include the following information about each object:

- Name of the piece - Inventory number - Date - Brief description - Why you would want to research this object

I will email you back the name and number of the object that you can work on.

The research paper should be 10-15 pages in length including drawings, illustrations and photographs. The research paper must include footnotes that should go at the foot of each page. Your paper must also include a full bibliography. The following are the topics to be considered by you.

1. Detailed description of the object, including discussion of shape, size, decoration and use. Are there other objects like it in the gallery? Which ones? Are there other examples that you can find in books, journals, internet? Is there a myth depicted? What is the myth? If there are other scenes depicted what is going on? 2. Information about the artist and the technique. How was the object manufactured? 3. Where was the object made? If for instance the object is made in Athens what do we know about the history of the city when the object was made? 4. What is the history of the object? 5. What is the importance of the object and why is it on display? 6. How does it relate to other objects in the exhibit?

Include drawings, photographs, maps as well as comparative pieces. How is your piece the same or different from similar pieces? Use the virtual exhibit of the gallery for information.

There is a reserve list of books in the University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology Library (3rd floor) that can be of assistance to you as you begin your research. There are also many books that can be of help to you that are not on reserve! For reference to footnote and bibliographic style I recommend Kate L. Turabian, A Manual for Writers of Term Papers, Theses and Dissertations , Chicago, 7th edition, 2007.

Organization of your paper is extremely important. Please create an outline of your paper before you begin. You need to submit a progress report to me about your term paper by November 15 . The term paper is due December 4 .

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Greek Architecture: Everything You Need to Know

By Katherine McLaughlin and Elizabeth Stamp

We have a lot to thank ancient Greece for—the  Olympics, Western medicine, democracy, and, of course, Greek architecture. The ancient civilization, which encompassed the mainland, the Greek islands, and other areas along the Mediterranean (from modern-day Slovenia to western Turkey), produced precise and monumental buildings that have influenced thousands of years of architecture. These designs emphasized perfection over innovation, creating simple yet beautiful structures that are still referenced in modern designs. In this guide from  AD , learn about the architectural style developed in ancient Greece, study classical orders, and discover some of the most important examples of Greek architecture, from the Acropolis of Athens to a collection of temples in Italy.

What is Greek architecture?

Generally speaking, Greek architecture refers to the ancient buildings designed and developed by the ancient Greek cities and civilizations that existed throughout the Greek mainland, Peloponnese, Aegean Islands, and Greek colonies in Anatolia and Italy. These buildings were constructed as early as 900 BCE all the way until the first century CE, though most of the earliest remaining works from the period date to around 600 BCE. “Ancient Greek architecture is a broad field of study that encompasses everything from monumental stone temples to domestic houses built of timber and mud brick,” says Jessica Paga , PhD, a professor at William & Mary College specializing in Greek archaeology and history.

History of Greek architecture

The Temple of Segesta

The legacy of ancient Greece is profound—it was a period of achievement for countless disciplines, including philosophy, politics, art, science, and of course architecture for thousands of years. Because of its notable length, scholars typically divide the era into multiple periods, including the Mycenaean Age (1600 to 1100 BCE), the Greek Dark Age (1200 to 800 BCE), the Greek Archaic period (800 to 479 BCE), the Greek Classical Age (500-336 BCE), and the Hellenistic period (336 to 146 BCE).

Each period brought certain changes and advancements to Greek architecture. During the Greek Dark Ages, collections of farming villages—eventually city-states—started to form, which brought forth the existence of the agora (a marketplace) and central meeting place. The archaic period encompassed some of the more significant architectural contributions, including settlements organized around Greek temples, city centers, and open-air markets. It was also during this time that the Greeks started developing columns, sloped roofs, and porticoes. The Classical Period represented the maturation of Greek design, and welcomed some of the most notable structures of the era including the Parthenon.

Greek architecture is considered a part of classical architecture, which also encompasses Roman architecture. The Greek style was defined by its uniformity, simplicity, proportions, and harmony. Many of the most iconic designs from this time include stone edifices, though other materials such as wood and brick were also employed. “Some of the earliest Greek temples were built of mud brick and timber, but they gradually started to be built in stone during the seventh to sixth century BCE, and by the fifth century BCE almost all temples were built in stone,” Dr. Paga explains.

The Greeks built various types of public buildings, including theaters and stadiums, though perhaps the most notable structures were the multiple temples built to honor the Olympic gods. “Greek temples, though, despite how iconic and numerous they seem, were often not a necessary part of Greek worship,” Dr. Paga adds. The most important element for the ancient religion was the altar, which were located outside of the temple since offerings were burnt on them. A temple was mostly necessary if it housed a statue for a cult god. “Temples were also depositories of votives, or gifts, brought to the god as thank-you offerings and to ask for their favor. These objects, especially those made of precious materials like bronze or gold, would be stored inside the temple to protect them,” Dr. Paga explains.

Though an untrained eye may see any ancient Greek building as similar—perhaps a rectangular floor plan with a row of columns along the facade as basic characteristics—there are three distinct styles of Greek architecture known as the classical orders. Each order—the Doric, Ionian, and Corinthian—uses a different style of column, proportions, and decorative details.

“The Doric and Ionic orders, to the best of our knowledge, emerged around the same time that temples began to be built in stone, in the seventh and sixth centuries BCE,” Dr. Paga says. “The Corinthian order, on the other hand, developed later, towards the end of the fifth century BCE.”

The classical orders from left to right: Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian.

The architectural orders are most easily identifiable based on the type of column present and the entablature, which is the superstructure of moldings and bands that lies horizontally across the columns. The entablature can be further subdivided into three parts: the architrave (a lintel or beam that lies on the columns), the frieze (a band along the middle of the entablature often used for decorative purposes), and the cornice (horizontal molding that crowns the building).

The Doric order is more easily recognizable by simple, unadorned columns that sit directly on the stylobate—the top step of a temple’s platform—without an additional base. “The Doric order is characterized by its thick columns and spreading capital, which looks a bit like a mushroom or a squished marshmallow,” Dr. Paga says. Doric columns are fluted and typically stocky. “Broadly speaking, the Doric order was used mostly in mainland Greece and areas to the west—such as Sicily and Southern Italy—where many Greek cities sent colonies in the eighth to sixth century BCE.”

The Ionic order gets its name from the place it originated, Ionia, a coastal region in what is now Turkey. The Ionic order is notable for its graceful proportions, and the buildings often have a slender and graceful profile. Ionic architecture is most easily identifiable by paired volutes on the columns—spiral, scroll-like ornaments—and a base that separates the columns from the stylobate. “The frieze course for the Ionic order is one continuous horizontal band, an area that was sometimes decorated with relief sculpture and sometimes left blank,” Dr. Paga says.

“The Corinthian order began to be favored more and more during the Hellenistic period (the period after the exploits and death of Alexander the Great), and the Romans especially loved it,” Dr. Paga explains. “So if you go to Italy now, you’ll primarily see the Corinthian order, and it is also the order most commonly seen today in Europe and the United States.” The columns of the Corinthian order are among the most ornate and sleek of the classical orders. The most identifiable feature is a decorative capital—the very top of the column—which includes carved acanthus leaves.

“Some of the most intriguing things present in ancient Greek architecture, particularly the temples, are the existence of what scholars often refer to as ‘optical refinements,’” Dr. Paga says. “These were documented and recognized even in antiquity by people like ancient Roman architect Vitruvius, but they still cause some befuddlement today. Two of the most widely used ‘refinements’ are entasis and curvature.”

Temple of Concordia

Entasis was mostly frequently used in the Doric order and involved a slight convex or swelling in the middle of the shaft. “Entasis is quite noticeable in earlier temples of the sixth and early fifth century BCE, but it gradually becomes more and more subtle, to the point where you barely notice it or it is only detectable using scientific tools,” Dr. Paga adds. Curvature, on the other hand, refers to a principle by which no straight lines exist in monumental stone Greek architecture. “Every single horizontal element—like the steps, podium, frieze, and cornice—curves slightly upwards in the middle,” Dr. Paga says. “An exaggerated drawing of this would make the entire building look like it’s springing upwards from the middle.” The main vertical elements, like columns, are inclined slightly inward.

Though this may seem counter to the fact that Greek architecture is generally known for its crisp, straight lines, it’s actually these refinements that make this assumption possible. “There was a widespread idea in antiquity that, when presented with a straight horizontal line, the eye sees it as sagging in the middle, hence curvature ‘corrects’ this optical distortion,” Dr. Paga says. “Similarly, they thought that a vertical line was seen to be diminishing in diameter as it stretched upwards, so entasis was thought to help counter this problem.” Modern scholars acknowledge this explanation, while also noting that these refinements enliven the architecture.

Defining elements and characteristics of Greek architecture

To better understand Greek architecture, consider the common architectural elements that are often seen in ancient Greek buildings. Though not exhaustive, consider the following list:

• Tall columns
• Square or rectangular floor plans
• Stone structures

Famous Greek Architecture Examples and Architects

The Acropolis of Athens

The Acropolis is a fortified complex of buildings—many of which designed to honor the Greek gods—built in the fifth century BCE atop a hill in Athens. The site includes the Propylaia, the Erechtheion, the Temple of Athena Nike, and the Parthenon—a temple to the goddess Athena. “The Parthenon is rightly famous, although it is one of the most enigmatic and strange Greek temples ever built,” says Dr. Paga. “Almost every element of the Parthenon is ‘weird.’” For example, the structure features eight Doric columns along the front, while the majority of Greek temples only had six columns on the short end. It also includes an Ionic frieze (despite its Doric columns) as well as a back room. Additionally, Dr. Paga says that despite the Parthenon’s lasting legacy, the Erechtheion was actually the most important building to the Greeks at the time.

Temple of Zeus at Olympia

Located at the home of the Olympic games, Dr. Paga says this temple is a fairly “standard” example of Greek design, though built on a much larger scale than others.

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Temple of Neptune

The ancient city of Paestum, or Poseidonia, which was founded on the coast of Southern Italy around 600 BCE, is home to a number of well-preserved Doric temples, including the Temple of Hera, the Temple of Athena, and a second Temple of Hera (also called the Temple of Neptune or Poseidon), seen above.

Temple of Apollo

Located at the lower slope of Greece’s Mount Parnassus, the sanctuary of Delphi was one of the most important places in the ancient world. The site comprises the Temple of Apollo, constructed in 510 BCE; the Athenian Treasury; the Sanctuary of Athena Pronaia, which includes the circular Tholos; a theater; and a gymnasium.

Terrace of the Naxian Lions

In Greek mythology, the island of Delos was the birthplace of the gods Apollo and Artemis. The ancient commercial center was notable for its elaborate homes, the Temple of Apollo, and the Terrace of the Naxian Lions.

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Mathematics in Ancient Greek Architecture Research Paper

Ancient Greek architecture remains an illustration of ancient Greeks’ beliefs concerning chaos and cosmos and their desire to achieve the highest degree of perfection. Ancient Greeks tried to ensure the reign of harmony in all areas of human existence. The Parthenon, as well as many other temples, are still regarded as a marvel created by human civilization. One of the pillars of the art of architecture has been mathematics, and the development of this science in Ancient Greece enabled Ancient Greek architects to create beautiful buildings (Wilson, 2015).

Geometry provided architects with the tools necessary for proper design and construction (Leonardis, 2016). Such concepts as the golden ratio, proportion, and grid, as well as the ability to generalize, were instrumental in the development of Ancient Greek architecture. This paper unveils some of the central mathematical concepts that led to the evolvement of architecture in ancient Greece.

Ancient Greeks placed considerable value on order and harmony in many aspects of their life. Pythagoras, influenced by Persian and Egyptian mathematical advances, developed the concept of proportion that was employed in Ancient Greek architecture. Symmetry was one of the architects of the significant principles followed, which enabled Ancient Greeks to create numerous outstanding buildings. It is essential to add that numerical symbolism, which was created within the field of mathematics, contributed significantly to the development of Ancient Greek architecture.

Pythagoras played a significant role in the development of concepts that were later used in various spheres. For example, the Parthenon is a conspicuous example of the way symmetry was utilized in architecture (Leonardis, 2016). The temple construction was based on the use of such ratios as 2:3 and 4:9. Moving from more minor parts to more significant amounts was the fundamental strategy based on the essence of symmetry. This design led to the construction of buildings characterized by such concepts as symmetry and harmony.

The concept of symmetry and proportion was further refined, which led to the development of a mathematical proportion widely employed in architecture. The use of the golden ratio became a manifestation of Ancient Greeks’ focus on harmony. The golden ratio is credited to Pythagoras, but it is believed that the Ancient Greek mathematician developed his theorem based on the knowledge he gained in the Near East (Leonardis, 2016). Ancient Greeks adopted many rules and concepts, but they were specifically interested in proportions and ratios due to their search for harmony.

The Parthenon is one of the most famous temples that can be regarded as an illustration of the benefits of mathematical symbolism for architecture development. This is the temple where the use of the golden ratio is exemplary (“Optical refinements at the Parthenon,” 2018). The value of this ratio is approximately 1.618, and it is calculated as follows: (√5+1)/2 (“Optical refinements at the Parthenon,” 2018).

The façade of the Parthenon is characterized by the use of the golden ratio, which makes the temple seem perfectly symmetrical. The golden ratio was used for the construction of columns that were especially common in the Doric period (Leonardis, 2016). Ancient Greeks divided the top surface of a column drum by radius, which can be seen in Parthenon. The floor plan of this grand building also has several examples of the way this mathematical concept was incorporated into the design and construction process.

In addition, Ancient Greek architecture benefited from the use of the grid. Euclid, a renowned Greek mathematician, and his followers developed the concept that helped them to create an abstract representation of space (Leonardis, 2016). It is noteworthy that Ancient Greek mathematicians contributed considerably to the development of abstractions and generalizations from particular to the whole (Gamwell, 2015).

This ability was instrumental in creating magnificent buildings, as architects were able to develop specific plans and collaborate with other stakeholders during the construction process. Thousands of temples, including the Parthenon, were designed using this grid that contributed to the creation of a sense of harmony (Leonardis, 2016). Rectangular rooms in temples and other buildings were standard and helped Ancient Greek architects to create the effect of the order. Moreover, the streets of Ancient Greek cities were also characterized by the utilization of the grid as the roads were at right angles to one another. The town of Olynthus is one of the brightest illustrations of the use of the grid in city design. The grid made it possible to make the city layout neat and easy to navigate.

In conclusion, it is necessary to note that Ancient Greek architects managed to achieve high mastery of mathematical concepts and principles, which resulted in the development of architecture. Pythagoras and other mathematicians refined or further developed the ideas of numerical symbolism, the golden ratio, symmetry, proportion, and grid. Significantly, the knowledge these philosophers used was accumulated throughout the centuries.

These concepts were adopted by architects who designed buildings that could astound people, which was specifically crucial for the ruling elite. Therefore, such grand architectural artworks as the Parthenon, as well as many other temples, theatres, and buildings, were created in strict adherence to the rules and conventions.

Gamwell, L. (2015). Mathematics: Geometries of beauty. Nature, 528 , 476-477.

Leonardis, R. (2016). The use of geometry by Ancient Greek architects. In M. M. Miles (Ed.), A companion to Greek architecture (pp. 92-104). Malden, MA: Springer.

Optical refinements at the Parthenon . (2018). Web.

Wilson, J. M. (2015). Ancient architecture and mathematics: Methodology and the Doric temple. In K. Williams & M. Ostwald (Eds.), Architecture and Mathematics from Antiquity to the future (pp. 31-58). New York, NY: Birkhäuser.

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The Contributions of Ancient Greek Art and Architecture

This essay about the enduring legacy of Ancient Greek art and architecture, highlighting their profound impact on human creativity and civilization. It explores the Greeks’ reverence for naturalism and idealism in their art, as well as their innovative approaches to architectural design. From the majestic sculptures to the iconic temples, the Greeks’ commitment to excellence continues to inspire generations. Their influence extends beyond aesthetics, shaping literature, philosophy, and politics, leaving an indelible mark on the development of Western civilization. Through their artistic ingenuity and cultural contributions, the Greeks have bestowed upon us a rich heritage that continues to resonate in the modern world.

How it works

Embark on a journey through the annals of time and immerse yourself in the resplendent world of Ancient Greek art and architecture. Within the hallowed halls of history, the Greeks forged a legacy that transcends mere artistic expression, shaping the very essence of human creativity for millennia to come. From the rugged peaks of Mount Olympus to the sun-kissed shores of the Aegean Sea, the spirit of Greek ingenuity continues to echo through the ages.

At the heart of Ancient Greek art lies a profound reverence for the human form, an obsession with capturing the essence of beauty in its purest form.

From the sinewy contours of a marble statue to the delicate brushstrokes of a fresco, each artistic endeavor was a testament to the Greeks’ unwavering commitment to perfection. It was in the sanctuaries of Olympia and Delphi that these masterpieces found their true purpose, serving as tributes to the gods and goddesses who watched over the mortal realm.

Yet, it was not only in the realm of art that the Greeks left their mark, but also in the realm of architecture. In the bustling agora of Athens and the serene countryside of Corinth, the Greeks erected monuments that stood as testaments to their ingenuity and vision. The Parthenon, with its majestic columns and intricate friezes, remains a symbol of Greek dominance in the field of architecture, a beacon of enlightenment amidst the chaos of antiquity.

Moreover, the influence of Ancient Greek art and architecture transcends mere aesthetic appreciation, permeating every facet of human civilization. It is in the halls of academia and the chambers of government that the echoes of Hellenic culture continue to reverberate, shaping the very fabric of our modern world. From the principles of democracy to the pursuit of knowledge, the Greeks bequeathed to us a legacy that is as enduring as it is profound.

In essence, the contributions of Ancient Greek art and architecture are a testament to the boundless potential of the human spirit. Through their unparalleled creativity and unwavering dedication to excellence, the Greeks have bestowed upon us a cultural inheritance that will continue to inspire and enrich generations to come. So let us raise our glasses to the artisans and architects of antiquity, whose brilliance illuminates the path to a brighter future for all mankind.

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Ancient Greece Research Paper Topics

This page is an exhaustive guide to ancient Greece research paper topics , catering primarily to history students embarking on their research journey. It kicks off with an extensive list of 100 research paper topics, meticulously divided into ten categories, each encapsulating a distinctive facet of ancient Greek history. The guide further equips students with valuable tips on how to select the most suitable ancient Greece research paper topic and provides a step-by-step approach to writing a compelling research paper. This page also introduces iResearchNet’s customized writing services, enabling students to order a bespoke research paper on any topic related to ancient Greece.

Ancient Greece offers a rich and captivating history that has greatly influenced various aspects of modern society. From its remarkable achievements in art, literature, philosophy, and politics to its epic myths and legends, Ancient Greece provides a vast array of intriguing research paper topics. This comprehensive list will explore ten different categories, each containing ten unique research paper topics, allowing students to delve into the fascinating world of Ancient Greece and contribute to the body of knowledge surrounding this remarkable civilization.

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Ancient Greek Architecture

• The Evolution of Greek Temples: From the Doric to Ionic Styles
• The Parthenon: A Masterpiece of Classical Greek Architecture
• The Role of Architectural Proportions in Greek Temples
• Greek Theaters: Design, Acoustics, and Performances
• The Significance of Greek Architectural Orders in Public Buildings
• Urban Planning in Ancient Greece: The Design of Cities
• Greek Architectural Influence on Roman and Neoclassical Styles
• Temples of Ancient Greece: Sacred Spaces and Religious Rituals
• The Sanctuary of Delphi: A Center of Ancient Greek Worship
• The Architecture of Ancient Greek Agoras: Public Spaces and Political Life

Ancient Greek Mythology and Religion

• The Twelve Olympian Gods and Their Roles in Greek Mythology
• The Heroic Deeds of Heracles: Legends and Symbolism
• The Myth of Prometheus: Rebellion, Punishment, and Humanity
• The Journey of Odysseus: Adventures and Lessons in Homer’s Odyssey
• The Stories of Greek Tragic Heroes: Oedipus, Medea, and Antigone
• The Significance of Greek Creation Myths: Origins of the World
• The Cult of Dionysus: Rituals, Festivals, and Wine in Greek Society
• Greek Oracles and Prophecies: Delphi, Dodona, and Beyond
• Greek Funeral Rites and Beliefs about the Afterlife
• The Cult of Demeter and the Eleusinian Mysteries: Secrets of Initiation

Ancient Greek Literature and Philosophy

• The Works of Homer: The Iliad and The Odyssey
• The Philosophy of Socrates: Ideas, Influence, and Legacy
• The Dialogues of Plato: Exploring Philosophical Concepts
• Aristotle’s Contributions to Philosophy and Science
• The Tragedies of Sophocles: Themes, Symbolism, and Morality
• Euripides and the Complexities of Greek Tragedy
• The Poetry of Sappho: Love, Desire, and Feminine Expression
• Greek Historiography: Herodotus and Thucydides
• The Hellenistic Period: Literature and Philosophy
• The Influence of Ancient Greek Literature on Western Culture

Ancient Greek Art and Sculpture

• Classical Greek Sculpture: Beauty, Idealism, and Naturalism
• Black-figure and Red-figure Pottery: Techniques, Styles, and Themes
• The Iconography of Greek Vases: Mythology, Daily Life, and Rituals
• The Kouros and Kore Sculptures: Representations of Youth and Beauty
• The Development of Greek Bronze Sculpture: Techniques and Subjects
• Greek Mosaic Art: Techniques, Designs, and Symbolism
• Hellenistic Sculpture: Realism, Emotion, and Dramatic Expression
• The Greek Influence on Roman Statuary and Portraiture
• The Function and Symbolism of Greek Architectural Sculpture
• The Artistic Legacy of Ancient Greece in Modern Times

Ancient Greek History and Politics

• The Rise of the City-States: Athens, Sparta, and Thebes
• The Persian Wars: Causes, Battles, and Outcomes
• The Golden Age of Athens: Democracy, Leadership, and Cultural Flourishing
• The Peloponnesian War: Causes, Strategies, and Impacts
• Alexander the Great: Conquests, Empire, and Legacy
• The Hellenistic Kingdoms: Ptolemaic, Seleucid, and Antigonid Empires
• Greek Colonization: Expansion, Trade, and Cultural Exchange
• The Life and Reign of Pericles: Influence and Achievements
• Greek Democracy: Origins, Principles, and Limitations
• The Role of Women in Ancient Greek Society and Politics

Ancient Greek Science and Mathematics

• Archimedes and his Contributions to Mathematics and Physics
• Hippocrates and the Birth of Western Medicine
• Euclid’s Elements: Geometry and Mathematical Principles
• The Scientific Achievements of Thales, Anaximander, and Anaximenes
• The Concept of Atomism: Leucippus and Democritus
• Pythagoras and the Pythagorean Theorem: Mathematics and Philosophy
• Aristarchus of Samos: Heliocentrism and Early Astronomy
• Greek Medicine and Healing Practices: Asclepius and the Cult of Health
• Greek Engineering and Inventions: Contributions to Architecture and Warfare
• The Legacy of Ancient Greek Science in Modern Society

Ancient Greek Society and Daily Life

• The Greek Polis: Society, Governance, and Citizenship
• Slavery in Ancient Greece: Origins, Roles, and Treatment
• Education in Ancient Greece: Philosophical and Practical Aspects
• The Role of Women in Ancient Greek Society
• Ancient Greek Festivals and Religious Celebrations
• Greek Sports and Athletics: The Olympic Games and Beyond
• Ancient Greek Cuisine: Food, Drink, and Banquets
• Clothing and Fashion in Ancient Greece
• The Influence of Greek Music and Dance on Culture
• The Ancient Greek Family: Structure, Roles, and Values

Ancient Greek Warfare and Military Strategies

• The Spartan Military System: Training, Discipline, and Values
• The Battle of Marathon: Tactics, Heroes, and Significance
• The Hoplite Warfare: Phalanx Formation and Strategies
• The Peloponnesian War: Naval Warfare and Strategies
• The Macedonian Phalanx: Innovations in Ancient Warfare
• Siege Warfare in Ancient Greece: Methods and Technologies
• Alexander the Great’s Military Campaigns: Strategies and Conquests
• The Role of Mercenaries in Ancient Greek Warfare
• Naval Power in Ancient Greece: The Trireme and Naval Battles
• The Legacy of Ancient Greek Warfare in Military History

Ancient Greek Philosophy and Intellectual Movements

• The Pre-Socratic Philosophers: Exploring the Nature of Reality
• The Philosophy of Plato: Ideal Forms and the Theory of Forms
• Aristotle’s Ethics: Virtue, Happiness, and the Golden Mean
• The Stoic Philosophy: Principles and Practices for a Virtuous Life
• The Epicurean Philosophy: Pursuit of Pleasure and Freedom from Fear
• The Skepticism of Pyrrho: Doubt, Suspense, and Epistemic Inquiry
• Cynicism and Diogenes of Sinope: Rejecting Conventional Values
• The Hellenistic Philosophies: Eclecticism and Syncretism
• The Influence of Ancient Greek Philosophy on Western Thought
• Philosophy and Its Impact on Ancient Greek Society

Ancient Greek Art and Aesthetics

• Greek Pottery: Styles, Techniques, and Symbolism
• The Beauty and Harmony of Greek Sculpture: Idealized Human Form
• The Greek Art of Mosaics: Colors, Patterns, and Narrative
• Architectural Sculpture in Ancient Greece: Ornamentation and Function
• The Technique of Greek Vase Painting: Black-figure and Red-figure
• Greek Coinage: Artistic Representations and Political Symbols
• The Use of Color in Ancient Greek Art and Architecture
• Greek Frescoes: Wall Paintings and Decorative Arts
• Greek Jewelry and Adornment: Materials, Designs, and Symbolism
• Greek Textile Art: Weaving, Dyeing, and Pattern-making

The comprehensive list of ancient Greece research paper topics provides students with a wide range of fascinating subjects to explore within the realm of Greek history, culture, and civilization. From the realm of art, literature, and philosophy to politics, warfare, and daily life, these topics offer ample opportunities for in-depth research and scholarly inquiry. By delving into these captivating areas of study, students can gain a deeper understanding of Ancient Greece and contribute to the body of knowledge surrounding this extraordinary civilization.

Ancient Greece: Exploring the Range of Research Paper Topics

Ancient Greece is renowned for its rich history, culture, and enduring legacy. The study of Ancient Greece offers a vast array of research paper topics that delve into various aspects of this fascinating civilization. From its mythology and philosophy to its politics and art, Ancient Greece provides ample opportunities for in-depth exploration and scholarly inquiry. This section aims to explore the diverse range of research paper topics available in Ancient Greek history, offering students a glimpse into the breadth and depth of this captivating field of study.

• Greek Mythology : Explore the significance of Greek mythology in Ancient Greek society, examining the gods, heroes, and mythical narratives that shaped their religious beliefs, rituals, and cultural practices. Topics could include the role of gods in human affairs, the portrayal of women in mythology, or the connections between myth and historical events.
• Athenian Democracy : Investigate the development, functioning, and significance of Athenian democracy, focusing on key institutions such as the Assembly, Council, and courts. Examine topics such as the role of citizenship, political participation, and the impact of democracy on Athenian society.
• Greek Philosophy : Dive into the world of Greek philosophy and explore the works and ideas of influential thinkers such as Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle. Topics may include the nature of knowledge and reality, ethical theories, or the role of philosophy in shaping Ancient Greek society.
• Greek Theater : Analyze the origins, evolution, and cultural significance of Greek theater, examining prominent playwrights such as Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides. Topics could explore theatrical conventions, the portrayal of women in Greek drama, or the role of theater in Athenian democracy.
• Olympic Games : Investigate the origins, rituals, and cultural impact of the Ancient Greek Olympic Games. Topics may include the role of athletes in society, the connection between sport and religious festivals, or the political significance of the Games.
• Ancient Greek Warfare : Explore the military strategies, tactics, and technologies employed by the Ancient Greeks, focusing on notable battles and conflicts. Topics could include the rise of hoplite warfare, naval warfare in the Peloponnesian War, or the military legacy of Alexander the Great.
• Hellenistic Period : Examine the Hellenistic period that followed the conquests of Alexander the Great, exploring the political, social, and cultural developments of the successor kingdoms. Topics may include the spread of Greek culture, the impact of Hellenistic art and architecture, or the role of women in Hellenistic society.
• Greek Art and Architecture : Delve into the world of Greek art and architecture, studying iconic structures such as the Parthenon and the sculptures of the Classical period. Topics could explore the symbolism in Greek art, the evolution of architectural styles, or the influence of Greek art on later civilizations.
• Spartan Society : Investigate the unique society of Sparta, focusing on its military culture, social structure, and political system. Topics may include the Spartan education system, the role of women in Spartan society, or the Spartan military ethos.
• Alexander the Great : Analyze the life, achievements, and legacy of Alexander the Great, examining his military campaigns, empire-building strategies, and cultural impact. Topics could explore his leadership style, the blending of Greek and Eastern cultures, or the political implications of his conquests.

The study of Ancient Greece offers a vast array of research paper topics that cover a wide range of disciplines and themes. From mythology and philosophy to politics, art, and warfare, the world of Ancient Greece is ripe with opportunities for exploration and scholarly inquiry. This section has provided a glimpse into the diverse range of research paper topics available, showcasing the richness and significance of Ancient Greek history. Whether you are drawn to the mythical realm of gods and heroes or fascinated by the political systems and cultural achievements of the Greeks, there is a captivating research topic awaiting your exploration. Delve into the wonders of Ancient Greece and uncover its enduring legacy through the lens of your research paper.

Choosing Ancient Greece Research Paper Topics

Choosing a research paper topic on Ancient Greece can be an exciting yet challenging task. With such a vast and diverse history, it’s essential to select a topic that is engaging, relevant, and allows for comprehensive exploration. This section aims to provide expert advice and guidance on how to choose the perfect research paper topic in Ancient Greece. By following these tips and considerations, students can narrow down their options and select a topic that aligns with their interests and academic goals.

• Understand Your Interests : Reflect on your personal interests and passions within the field of Ancient Greece. Are you drawn to a particular aspect, such as art, philosophy, politics, or warfare? Identifying your interests will help you select a topic that resonates with you and keeps you motivated throughout the research process.
• Conduct Preliminary Research : Before finalizing a topic, conduct preliminary research to familiarize yourself with the existing literature and scholarly discussions in Ancient Greek history. This will help you identify gaps in knowledge or areas that require further exploration, which can serve as potential research paper topics.
• Narrow Down Your Focus : Ancient Greece encompasses a wide range of time periods, regions, and themes. Narrow down your focus by selecting a specific time period or geographical region that interests you the most. For example, you may choose to focus on the Classical period, the city-state of Athens, or the impact of Greek colonization.
• Consider Unexplored Topics : While popular topics in Ancient Greece have been extensively researched, consider exploring lesser-known or under-researched areas. This can include examining marginalized groups in Greek society, lesser-known historical figures, or specific aspects of daily life that have received limited scholarly attention.
• Engage with Primary Sources : Dive into primary sources, such as ancient texts, inscriptions, or archaeological findings, to discover intriguing research paper topics. Analyzing primary sources allows for a deeper understanding of Ancient Greek culture and can lead to unique research questions and interpretations.
• Consult with Your Professor or Advisor : Seek guidance from your professor or academic advisor. They can offer valuable insights, suggest potential research paper topics based on your academic goals, and provide additional resources to support your research.
• Brainstorm and Refine Your Topic : Engage in brainstorming sessions to generate a list of potential research paper topics. Consider the feasibility, scope, and availability of sources for each topic. Refine your ideas by narrowing down the focus, formulating clear research questions, and ensuring the topic aligns with the requirements of your assignment.
• Consider Comparative Approaches : Explore topics that allow for comparative analysis between Ancient Greece and other civilizations or time periods. Comparative approaches can provide a fresh perspective and contribute to a broader understanding of Ancient Greek history and its interconnectedness with the wider world.
• Explore Interdisciplinary Connections : Ancient Greece has influenced various disciplines, including literature, philosophy, art, politics, and science. Consider exploring interdisciplinary connections by incorporating elements from other fields into your research paper topic. This can lead to innovative and multi-dimensional analyses.
• Stay Current with Scholarly Debates : Stay updated with the latest scholarly debates and discussions in the field of Ancient Greek history. Familiarize yourself with the current trends, research methodologies, and emerging topics of interest. Engaging with ongoing debates can inspire new research paper topics or offer opportunities for critical analysis and contribution to the academic discourse.

Choosing an ancient Greece research paper topic requires careful consideration, engagement with primary and secondary sources, and a clear understanding of your academic interests. By following the expert advice provided in this section, students can select a captivating and well-focused research topic that allows for in-depth exploration and contributes to the understanding of Ancient Greek history. Remember to consult with your professor or advisor for guidance and support throughout the research process. With the right topic, diligent research, and a passion for the subject, you can embark on a rewarding journey of uncovering the wonders of Ancient Greece.

How to Write an Ancient Greece Research Paper

Writing a research paper on Ancient Greece offers an exciting opportunity to delve into the captivating world of this ancient civilization. From its mythology and philosophy to its politics and art, Ancient Greece provides a wealth of topics for exploration and analysis. This section aims to provide you with a comprehensive guide on how to write an effective and engaging research paper on Ancient Greece. By following these tips and strategies, you can navigate the research process with confidence and produce a well-crafted paper that showcases your knowledge and critical thinking skills.

• Choose a Specific Topic : Start by selecting a specific topic within the realm of Ancient Greece that interests you the most. Narrow down your focus to a particular aspect, time period, or theme to ensure that your research remains manageable and focused.
• Conduct In-Depth Research : Begin your research by consulting a variety of reputable sources, including books, scholarly articles, and academic journals. Utilize both online and offline resources to gather a comprehensive understanding of your chosen topic.
• Develop a Strong Thesis Statement : Craft a clear and concise thesis statement that presents the main argument or central idea of your research paper. Your thesis should be specific, arguable, and supported by evidence from your research.
• Organize Your Research : Create a well-structured outline to guide your writing process. Organize your main points, arguments, and supporting evidence in a logical manner. This will help you maintain a coherent flow throughout your paper.
• Analyze Primary and Secondary Sources : Engage with a combination of primary and secondary sources to support your arguments and provide historical context. Primary sources can include ancient texts, artifacts, and inscriptions, while secondary sources offer scholarly interpretations and analysis.
• Engage with Different Perspectives : Consider various viewpoints and interpretations of your chosen topic. Engaging with different perspectives will enhance the depth and breadth of your research and demonstrate your ability to critically evaluate historical evidence.
• Utilize Proper Citations : Ensure that you properly cite all sources used in your research paper. Follow the appropriate citation style, such as MLA or APA, and adhere to the guidelines for both in-text citations and the bibliography or references page.
• Develop Strong Arguments : Structure your paper around well-developed arguments supported by evidence from your research. Present a clear line of reasoning and critically evaluate the sources to strengthen your arguments.
• Include Visuals and Illustrations : Consider incorporating visuals such as maps, diagrams, or images related to your topic. Visuals can enhance the understanding of complex concepts and provide visual evidence to support your arguments.
• Revise and Edit : Set aside ample time for revising and editing your research paper. Check for clarity, coherence, grammar, and punctuation errors. Ensure that your paper flows smoothly and effectively communicates your ideas.

Writing a research paper on Ancient Greece offers a fascinating journey into the world of this ancient civilization. By following these tips and strategies, you can navigate the research process with confidence and produce a well-crafted paper that showcases your knowledge and critical thinking skills. Remember to choose a specific and engaging topic, conduct in-depth research, develop a strong thesis statement, and organize your paper effectively. Engage with different perspectives, utilize proper citations, and develop strong arguments supported by evidence. With careful planning, thorough research, and diligent writing, you can create an exceptional research paper that illuminates the wonders of Ancient Greece for your readers.

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A biography of Vincent Scully documents the historian’s life, work, and American architecture from the postwar period to the present

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Vincent Scully: Architecture, Urbanism, and a Life in Search of Community by A. Krista Sykes | Bloomsbury | $115

In 1983, a stereotypically professorial man—60-something, ruddy complexion, tweed blazer—led public television audiences on a leisurely two-hour stroll through a history of American art. New World Visions: American Art and the Metropolitan Museum, 1650–1914 began in the galleries of the famed New York museum but often cut away to significant locations beyond the gallery walls. There, the genial, polymathic host waxed poetic over architectural achievements in Manhattan’s financial district, sleek rowing sculls in Philadelphia, faint battle scars still etched into the landscape at Gettysburg, and the noble Neoclassicism of the National Mall in Washington, D.C.  

By the time the two-part special aired on PBS, the host was widely celebrated in academic and cultural circles. Eight years earlier, People magazine had declared him one of “12 Great U.S. Professors.” Nine years before that, he had graced the cover of Time magazine as one of ten “Great Teachers.” And roughly a decade after the release of New World Visions, my own sister, who, near as I could tell, was majoring in Jimmy Buffett at the University of Miami and never once displayed an interest in architecture, found herself captivated by a gifted professor she still affectionately refers to as “Vince.”  

Just how Vincent J. Scully, Jr. (1920–2017) rose to such heights of academic celebrity is the subject of A. Krista Sykes’s intelligently researched and smartly written biography , Vincent Scully: Architecture, Urbanism, and a Life in Search of Community (Bloomsbury, 2023), in which Sykes traces Scully’s life from his childhood in New Haven, Connecticut, through his school days at Yale, his military service during World War II, and his rapid rise to fame in postwar academia.  

As Sykes recounts, Scully was born an only child to a working-class family. A precocious student and voracious reader, he won early admission to Yale, where he helped pay his way by serving meals to his well-heeled classmates. The war years left Scully with a new wife, a young family, and psychological wounds that plagued him for the rest of his life. He sought solace in the study of art history at Yale, and soon fell under the sway of Henry-Russell Hitchcock, whose 1932 book The International Style: Architecture Since 1922 , coauthored with Philip Johnson to accompany their groundbreaking exhibition at the Museum of Modern Art, had introduced mainstream American audiences to European modern architecture.  

Studying design at the Yale School of Architecture alongside his coursework in art history, Scully was trained in an environment largely convinced of the rightness of European modernism. However, as his mentor Hitchcock had done, he soon turned his attention to the earlier work of Frank Lloyd Wright and then to American architecture more generally, eventually producing a dissertation on the American cottage style of the 19th century. Reworked for publication as The Shingle Style: Architectural Theory and Design from Richardson to the Origins of Wright (1955), Scully’s research was well received and helped secure his place on the Yale faculty, even as some critics chastised the “extravagant phraseology” and “near evangelical furor” of his lively prose.  

That unbridled enthusiasm for his subject matter became a hallmark of Scully’s famous lectures on the history of art and modern architecture. He brought a similar enthusiasm to later works on an almost irresponsibly broad range of topics. He followed The Shingle Style with monographic studies of Frank Lloyd Wright and Louis Kahn, surveys of modern architecture and American urbanism, analyses of sacred sites in ancient   Greece and the American Southwest, a treatment of Andrea Palladio’s villas, and a sweeping presentation of the relationship of built form to the surrounding landscape in his last major book, Architecture: The Natural and the Manmade, in 1991.  

Sykes traces these investigations alongside Scully’s development of his celebrated courses at Yale and his increasingly influential voice in both contemporary architecture and historic preservation. These efforts cemented his reputation on the world stage even as his willingness to wander into neighboring academic fields sometimes drew harsh criticism. The drubbing he received from archaeologists who reviewed The Earth, the Temple, and the Gods (1962), for example, stung him deeply and likely moved him to cancel a planned sequel to his study of Greek sacred architecture. Even so, in Sykes’s Churchillian phrasing, “Scully’s driving conviction [was] that architecture and society share a give-and-take relationship—society shapes and is shaped by the architecture it creates.”  

At the same time, Scully shaped and was shaped by the architectural and political culture around him. His early enthusiasm for the work of his friend Robert Venturi led him to proclaim the architect’s now-canonical book Complexity and Contradiction in Architecture (1966) “probably the most important writing on the making of architecture since Le Corbusier’s Vers une Architecture , of 1923.” The claim seemed outlandish when it first appeared; with time, it proved eerily prescient. Scully’s advocacy of Venturi’s work helped create a receptive context for the architect’s iconoclastic ideas, just as his support of Robert A. M. Stern and the so-called “gray” architects of the 1970s helped set the tone for the discourse on postmodern architecture in the United States.  

After retirement from Yale, Scully took a visiting position at the University of Miami in Florida, which placed him in close contact with his former students Andrés Duany and Elizabeth Plater-Zyberk, key players in the development of the New Urbanism. He spent many of his remaining years advocating for (and occasionally criticizing) New Urbanism’s “architecture of community,” which embraced the American vernacular he had studied in his youth and the small-town feel of places like his beloved New Haven, which remained dear to him to the end.  

Drawing on interviews she conducted with Scully during his lifetime, unprecedented access to his personal papers, and a deep familiarity with the architectural culture of the 20th century, Sykes treats these and other episodes in Scully’s long career with intelligence, compassion, and admirable clarity. Anyone interested in the historian’s life and work or in the development of American architecture from the postwar period to the present will find much of value here, though some specialized readers may wish for closer analysis of Scully’s texts or more contextualization of his work with that of his peers.  

While Sykes briefly examines Scully’s relationship with Colin Rowe and Reyner Banham, for example, a more sustained comparison with these two close contemporaries could be of interest. And though his friend and Yale colleague Harold Bloom figures strongly, I waited in vain for a discussion of Scully’s connection to the theory hothouse that burgeoned at Yale in the 1970s: One of the aims of deconstruction as developed by the so-called “Yale Critics” (Bloom, Paul de Man, Geoffrey Hartman, and J. Hillis Miller) was to destabilize exactly the sort of grand narratives the historian elaborated throughout his career.  

Sykes, who previously assembled two informative anthologies of architectural theory, surely knows this, just as she knows that the sort of meticulous close reading such an analysis would require would run counter to her broader ambitions here. For in the end, Vincent Scully is a work of biography, not historiography. Sykes exhibits a preference for clear vistas across the narrative forest over scrutiny of individual trees. I suspect she does so in deference to intelligent general readers, like my sister and the countless students from outside the architectural ken who sat rapt in Scully’s lectures. As is the case with Scully’s texts, Sykes’s engaging style and first-person involvement does not detract from her scholarly achievement. Rather, it offers a laudable model for contemporary scholars looking to expand the reach of their efforts and a valuable portrait of one of the most important American architectural historians of the 20th century.  

Todd Gannon is a professor of architecture at the Ohio State University.  

Billie Faircloth, former KieranTimberlake partner and research director, is joining Cornell AAP

Dr. Bing Wang, a GSD associate professor, files lawsuit against Harvard, MRE director Jerold Kayden, and dean Sarah Whiting

MIT Museum exhibits original works by Zaha Hadid, Arata Isozaki, Bernard Tschumi, and other postmodernists this spring

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New AI method captures uncertainty in medical images

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In biomedicine, segmentation involves annotating pixels from an important structure in a medical image, like an organ or cell. Artificial intelligence models can help clinicians by highlighting pixels that may show signs of a certain disease or anomaly.

However, these models typically only provide one answer, while the problem of medical image segmentation is often far from black and white. Five expert human annotators might provide five different segmentations, perhaps disagreeing on the existence or extent of the borders of a nodule in a lung CT image.

“Having options can help in decision-making. Even just seeing that there is uncertainty in a medical image can influence someone’s decisions, so it is important to take this uncertainty into account,” says Marianne Rakic, an MIT computer science PhD candidate.

Rakic is lead author of a paper with others at MIT, the Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, and Massachusetts General Hospital that introduces a new AI tool that can capture the uncertainty in a medical image.

Known as Tyche (named for the Greek divinity of chance), the system provides multiple plausible segmentations that each highlight slightly different areas of a medical image. A user can specify how many options Tyche outputs and select the most appropriate one for their purpose.

Importantly, Tyche can tackle new segmentation tasks without needing to be retrained. Training is a data-intensive process that involves showing a model many examples and requires extensive machine-learning experience.

Because it doesn’t need retraining, Tyche could be easier for clinicians and biomedical researchers to use than some other methods. It could be applied “out of the box” for a variety of tasks, from identifying lesions in a lung X-ray to pinpointing anomalies in a brain MRI.

Ultimately, this system could improve diagnoses or aid in biomedical research by calling attention to potentially crucial information that other AI tools might miss.

“Ambiguity has been understudied. If your model completely misses a nodule that three experts say is there and two experts say is not, that is probably something you should pay attention to,” adds senior author Adrian Dalca, an assistant professor at Harvard Medical School and MGH, and a research scientist in the MIT Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory (CSAIL).

Their co-authors include Hallee Wong, a graduate student in electrical engineering and computer science; Jose Javier Gonzalez Ortiz PhD ’23; Beth Cimini, associate director for bioimage analysis at the Broad Institute; and John Guttag, the Dugald C. Jackson Professor of Computer Science and Electrical Engineering. Rakic will present Tyche at the IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition, where Tyche has been selected as a highlight.

Addressing ambiguity

AI systems for medical image segmentation typically use neural networks . Loosely based on the human brain, neural networks are machine-learning models comprising many interconnected layers of nodes, or neurons, that process data.

After speaking with collaborators at the Broad Institute and MGH who use these systems, the researchers realized two major issues limit their effectiveness. The models cannot capture uncertainty and they must be retrained for even a slightly different segmentation task.

Some methods try to overcome one pitfall, but tackling both problems with a single solution has proven especially tricky, Rakic says. 

“If you want to take ambiguity into account, you often have to use an extremely complicated model. With the method we propose, our goal is to make it easy to use with a relatively small model so that it can make predictions quickly,” she says.

The researchers built Tyche by modifying a straightforward neural network architecture.

A user first feeds Tyche a few examples that show the segmentation task. For instance, examples could include several images of lesions in a heart MRI that have been segmented by different human experts so the model can learn the task and see that there is ambiguity.

The researchers found that just 16 example images, called a “context set,” is enough for the model to make good predictions, but there is no limit to the number of examples one can use. The context set enables Tyche to solve new tasks without retraining.

For Tyche to capture uncertainty, the researchers modified the neural network so it outputs multiple predictions based on one medical image input and the context set. They adjusted the network’s layers so that, as data move from layer to layer, the candidate segmentations produced at each step can “talk” to each other and the examples in the context set.

In this way, the model can ensure that candidate segmentations are all a bit different, but still solve the task.

“It is like rolling dice. If your model can roll a two, three, or four, but doesn’t know you have a two and a four already, then either one might appear again,” she says.

They also modified the training process so it is rewarded by maximizing the quality of its best prediction.

If the user asked for five predictions, at the end they can see all five medical image segmentations Tyche produced, even though one might be better than the others.

The researchers also developed a version of Tyche that can be used with an existing, pretrained model for medical image segmentation. In this case, Tyche enables the model to output multiple candidates by making slight transformations to images.

Better, faster predictions

When the researchers tested Tyche with datasets of annotated medical images, they found that its predictions captured the diversity of human annotators, and that its best predictions were better than any from the baseline models. Tyche also performed faster than most models.

“Outputting multiple candidates and ensuring they are different from one another really gives you an edge,” Rakic says.

The researchers also saw that Tyche could outperform more complex models that have been trained using a large, specialized dataset.

For future work, they plan to try using a more flexible context set, perhaps including text or multiple types of images. In addition, they want to explore methods that could improve Tyche’s worst predictions and enhance the system so it can recommend the best segmentation candidates.

This research is funded, in part, by the National Institutes of Health, the Eric and Wendy Schmidt Center at the Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, and Quanta Computer.

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• Marianne Rakic
• Adrian Dalca
• John Guttag
• Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory
• Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science
• Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard

Related Topics

• Computer science and technology
• Artificial intelligence
• Health care
• Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory (CSAIL)
• Electrical Engineering & Computer Science (eecs)
• Broad Institute
• National Institutes of Health (NIH)

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