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Essay on Prevention is Better than Cure

An introduction.

It is always better to be safe about things than to be sorry later. Below there is an essay on prevention is better than cure. In this essay, we will be touching upon the meaning of the phrase and trying to understand it using examples from various parts of our lives. The essay also includes why prevention is better than cure altogether, using examples from our daily lives. The most common one we all see is that our moms tell us to wear warmer clothes in winter to prevent catching a cold.

Long Essay on Prevention is Better than Cure

There is a phrase ‘prevention is better than cure’ and it applies to many different facets of our lives. We use this phrase most commonly when we are talking about our health. In the winter season, our mother usually tells us to put on a sweater or a warm jacket because we might catch a cold or flu. These suggestions given by our mothers are the best ways to prevent getting us sick from cold and flu. Hence, it is better to take appropriate preventive measures before you catch a cold or flu then after it has already ensued.

To put this idiom in context with current world affairs, let’s understand ‘prevention is better than cure’ through the same. Considering the current situation of the Coronavirus pandemic,  we have been consistently told to practice social distancing, wear masks, and sanitise or wash hands frequently in order to protect yourself from infection. If we become infected with Covid-19, we will be sick for many days, and so many people have also died or spent days on the ventilator. Thus, if humans have adopted preventive measures to prevent getting sick from covid 19, they would not have had to deal with the consequences of contracting it in the first place. The same can be said about many other diseases, such as avoiding smoking to prevent cancer, avoiding sweets to prevent diabetes, etc. are better than having to live with or find cures for cancer and diabetes.

This is what we mean when we say that prevention is better than cure. It is a lot better to avoid something bad in the first place, rather than have to deal with its consequences later. Similarly, this same concept of prevention is better than cure can be applied to various strata of life. For example, a simple thing such as submitting an assignment for school on time prevents the consequences of getting into trouble if you had not submitted it. It has been said that, once you have said something, you can never take it back. This can be applied here, too - if you get into an argument with your friend ensure not to use any harsh words which eventually hurts your friends feelings and emotions

Simply put, prevention is better than cure because prevention leaves you with certainty that something bad will not happen. On the other hand, the need to find a cure can often leave your life in a lurch, where you don't know what may or may not happen. Isn’t it better knowing what life has in store for you rather than waiting around to see what will or won’t happen?

A Short Note on Prevention is Better than Cure

In the simplest words, ‘prevention is better than cure’ is a way to tell us that it is better to avoid contracting an illness than to have to go around and look for a way to get rid of it. These things that we avoid or indulge in allow us to not have to deal with the dire consequences of unwanted circumstances. Hence, we should consciously avoid performing certain things that we know will be harmful for us in the long run.

For example, exercising every day and having a balanced diet keeps you healthy. On the other hand, if we avoid exercise, and  indulge in habits like smoking, eating lots of junk food, etc. then we will end up getting sick. These are consequences that we wouldn’t need to deal with if we just take precautions to avoid the same. Thus, prevention is much better than cure.

Importance of this Proverb “Prevention is Better than Cure” in our Daily Lives

The proverb “Prevention is Better than Cure” has a special place in various aspects of our lives. Understanding it and acting according to this proverb can be proven helpful for a person in staying away from various kinds of ailments. The proverb teaches us to adopt a healthy lifestyle and healthy eating habits. One should practice the habit of eating healthy food and eating it at the right time. One should maintain proper sleeping timings, and should not be awake for late-nights, which might put stress on your eyes and might attract eye disorders, so by letting oneself sleep at the right time, one is preventing eye disorders to come one's way, which might have required a proper Treatment (cure), that comes with a lot of suffering. Hence the person will be able to protect himself from the suffering that comes with the cure, just by following this proverb. 

It teaches us to plan and do everything in advance, which will save us from last moment harassment. We should plan all our activities, which are already decided to be done in the future. Planning them will help a person prevent all the hazards that one might have to face due to the irregularity in our daily lifestyle. For example: if a student does not prepare for their exams early on, then they have to face the stress just before the exam time, so students should prepare for their exams gradually throughout the year in order to not face the last moment harassment.

Prevention and Cure

“Prevention” and “Cure” both are two separate words and also carry different meanings. Prevention means following various measures, which will lower the risk of getting any kind of ailment in the first place, while the cure is done only once you get a certain ailment to get rid of the ailment.

However, prevention is considered better in many aspects, rather than the cure via medicines or other medical procedures. Prevention is said to be the best available way to remain away from any kind of problem or disease. A person just needs to maintain a well-disciplined and healthy lifestyle throughout their life, while a careless and unhealthy life might lead to certain issues, which requires cure using medical science. There are also some ailments, cure to which is still not available like HIV AIDS, preventive methods is the only way to protect ourselves from such diseases.

When we say that prevention is better than cure, it essentially means that it is better to stop something before it happens instead of having to repair it or deal with its consequences after it has already been done. It is mostly applied in healthcare matters but also falls into other parts of our life as well. Prevention is better than cure is an important idiom that we should all remember.

FAQs on Prevention is Better than Cure Essay

1. What does ‘Prevention is better than cure’ mean?

Prevention is better than cure means that it is better to be safe than to be sorry, which is also another idiom. It means that we should be safe in life and take all kinds of measures to prevent any unwanted circumstances coming in our lives. When there are such circumstances, we have to find a way out of them, which can be quite difficult sometimes. Thus, it is better to do things that will ‘prevent’ these unforeseen circumstances than to have to find the ‘cure’ for the same.

2. Where can we apply ‘Prevention is better than cure’?

As mentioned in the essay about prevention is better than cure, there are many places where we can apply the concept of the same. When we refer to the idiom, we are generally referring to it in terms of our health and the medical field. Taking precautions to avoid getting a disease, or even mildly sick, is much better than having to go and find a cure for that disease or illness. For example, wearing enough warm clothes in winter is a precaution so that you do not catch a cold, for which you will need a cure.

3. How is this proverb applicable to a person's health?

There are many diseases in existence, a cure to which is not yet found by medical science, so the only thing a person can do for these diseases is to follow prevention methods.

By following the prevention methods, one can assure that the disease will not do any major damage but Cure cannot provide 100% assurance of side effects. If one follows a healthy lifestyle and prevention methods, most diseases cannot find their way to the person. Having a healthy lifestyle and avoiding bad habits such as consumption of alcohol or smoking tobacco, can positively affect one's health, which this proverb wants to tell the reader about.

4. How can you say that prevention is better than cure?

When a person says the proverb “Prevention is Better than Cure Essay”, it means that it is better to stop something or start doing something, before something bad happens, which requires proper cure and time, not to forget the suffering that comes with it. Mostly, it applies in the medical fields, like if someone gives up on smoking, they will have a lower chance of getting respiratory diseases. But in conditions that are out of our control, this proverb does not fit well.

5. How does this Proverb affect our Lives?

The proverb “Prevention is Better than Cure Essay” has a great significance in our lives. Prevention measures help us to avoid difficulties and struggle in our lives and lead a peaceful life. If people do not discipline themselves, then they might have to suffer from many difficulties. Cure to some of which is not available. For Example, if a person stops drinking alcohol and smoking tobacco, then he/she will have lower chances of having liver failure or respiratory-related diseases and will be able to safeguard themselves from the expensive cure (treatment) and suffering that comes along with it.

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The Importance of Disease Prevention

November 8, 2023

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Ambitious efforts to prevent diseases like AIDS or malaria and pandemics like influenza or Ebola have substantially improved the lives of people around the world. These initiatives by public health officials, government-sponsored programs, and nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) have done more than simply advance global citizens’ health and well-being, however.

Discover how global disease prevention efforts improve health while strengthening national security, increasing economic stability, and promoting human rights. This article will highlight:

CDC: Global Health Security Agenda

CDC: Global Disease Detection Program

USAID: Emerging Pandemic Threats Program

WHO: Global Influenza Programme

WHO: Global Malaria Programme

UNAIDS: 90-90-90 Initiative

Transatlantic Taskforce on Antimicrobial Resistance

UNICEF: Immunization Programme

How Public Health Experts Guide Disease Prevention Efforts

While many government programs and NGOs lead these global disease prevention efforts, they all share a common trait. Knowledgeable, innovative, and dedicated public health officials guide each initiative in identifying goals, developing solutions, and making breakthroughs.

To become an expert in the field, public health professionals typically need both graduate-level education and extensive experience. Earning a master of public health degree from the University of Southern California and specializing in global health or health services and policy could help future officials have an impactful career in global disease prevention.

While diseases spread in the United States can certainly affect American citizens’ health, well-being, and quality of life, the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) understand that the wide-ranging effects of many diseases can easily extend beyond borders. By participating in the Global Health Security Agenda (GHSA), the agency focuses on improving both national and international security through disease prevention efforts.

To increase security around the globe, the CDC and the GHSA rely on a three-pronged effort. The initiative aims to prevent disease outbreaks and the emergence of harmful organisms, detect threats using biosurveillance methods, and respond to incidents with its worldwide network of operations centers. In just five years, the CDC strives to protect up to 4 billion people in 30 nations around the world.

To further amplify global disease prevention efforts, the CDC also oversees the Global Disease Detection Program (GDD). This international initiative strives to address outbreaks when and where they happen, with the ultimate goal of preventing global epidemics and increasing global health security.

The GDD operates out of 10 centers around the globe, where it focuses on creating effective public health systems that can detect diseases early and respond to outbreaks rapidly. The program strives to develop high-tech laboratories and train skilled workers, improve communications with partner organizations, and pursue research that can guide public health policy. In 10 years, the GDD has effectively responded to more than 2,000 outbreaks, detected 11 new disease strains, and established nearly 400 diagnostic tests to contribute to better health and improved health security around the globe.

Worldwide epidemics are not new phenomena, but if left unchecked, they could create increasingly dangerous threats to populations around the world. Globally focused public health organizations such as the U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) recognize that as nations and populations become increasingly connected, opportunities for viruses to spread can rise exponentially. An isolated outbreak could eventually impact the agricultural security, economic growth, and even education policy in multiple nations.

USAID’s Emerging Pandemic Threats Program (EPT-2) pursues policies and research that seek to identify and mitigate pandemics, especially those that animals transmit. According to USAID, three-quarters of new diseases in humans result from microbes in animals, making this a vital focus area. To realize the program’s goals and maximize its impact, USAID actively seeks partnerships with national, international, private, and bilateral organizations.

For centuries, influenza has threatened human health around the world. Since the spread of this virus has the potential to become a global epidemic, or pandemic, influenza could easily endanger national security and the global economy.

To prevent the spread of this virus, the World Health Organization (WHO) directs the Global Influenza Programme (GIP), which organizes detection, strategy, and support around the globe. The GIP focuses on surveillance and monitoring strategies, coordinating the production of vaccines, and providing risk management guidance for public health officials. National efforts such as the U.S. Office of Pandemics and Emerging Threats contribute to global disease prevention with response efforts, leadership support, and policy development.

The Global Fund considers the global effort to eradicate malaria an incredible success, as it lowered the number of malaria-related deaths by 50 percent worldwide between 2000 and 2015. Efforts to eliminate malaria completely are far from over, however. According to the WHO, an estimated 216 million malaria cases and 445,000 malaria-related deaths persisted in 2016, indicating that disease prevention efforts still have much to accomplish.

The WHO’s Global Malaria Programme, the Global Fund, and USAID partner with other national and international organizations to educate people about malaria and prevent its spread by using mosquito nets and diagnosing and treating the disease quickly and effectively. As USAID explains, eliminating malaria can improve the health of at-risk populations in sub-Saharan Africa and the Mekong Delta as well as encourage economic growth and political stability in communities around the globe.

Over 40 years, the Joint United Nations Programme on HIV and AIDS (UNAIDS) estimates that HIV has infected nearly 80 million people, resulting in 35 million deaths from AIDS-related effects. Since 1996, UNAIDS has pioneered HIV and AIDS detection, prevention, and treatment with a combination of advocacy, support, and leadership. The organization strives to promote human rights by increasing knowledge of AIDS and providing better access to HIV treatment.

By 2030, UNAIDS aims to eradicate AIDS and eliminate it as a public health threat. To meet this goal, the organization’s 90-90-90 initiative focuses on achieving three key objectives before 2020. By this date, UNAIDS plans to ensure that 90 percent of those with HIV understand their status, 90 percent of those diagnosed with HIV receive antiretroviral therapy, and 90 percent of those receiving therapy also have viral suppression.

Considered one of the most serious public health issues of the 21st century, antimicrobial resistance (AMR) reflects the growing number of infections and diseases that do not respond to antibiotic treatments. The U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) estimates that AMR affects 2 million American citizens each year and results in more than 23,000 deaths annually.

Since AMR’s effects extend far beyond American borders and could impact how public health officials prevent diseases around the globe, the U.S. joined the European Union, Canada, and Norway to form the Transatlantic Taskforce on Antimicrobial Resistance (TATFAR). This multinational organization focuses on methods for preventing AMR-related infections, usage of existing microbial drugs, and strategies for developing new antimicrobial drugs. Along with the WHO’s Global Action Plan on AMR, TATFAR aims to improve the efficacy of antimicrobial drugs and mitigate AMR spread worldwide.

Although the United Nations Children’s Emergency Fund (UNICEF) focuses its efforts primarily on children, the organization also strives to improve women’s health and well-being. UNICEF considers immunization to be a basic right for all women and children, as vaccines can prevent both disease and poverty. According to UNICEF, vaccines generally save up to 3 million lives annually, yet about 1.5 million children lose their lives each year to diseases that immunizations could prevent.

Vaccines aren’t readily available everywhere, but UNICEF strives to provide them to the communities that need them most. Through its Immunization Programme, the organization partners with NGOs and government agencies to vaccinate children in both remote and easy-to-reach locations, lower the price of key vaccines, invest in new health technology, and eradicate debilitating diseases.

How Global Disease Prevention Is Changing the World

• An estimated 75 percent of the new diseases humans experience result from microbes that animals transmit. To stop disease spread and prevent pandemics, organizations like USAID partner with many other organizations to guide health, agricultural, education, and economic policy.
• AMR could be the most significant infectious disease threat today, according to HHS. Its global impact has already been substantial, but the growing reach of TATFAR reflects a multinational commitment to eradicating this serious public health concern.
• Preventing disease through routine vaccination can improve both health and economic stability. “Increased investments on immunization in low- and middle-income countries could avert up to 36 million deaths and 24 million cases of impoverishment due to medical costs,” UNICEF reports.

Leading global disease prevention efforts can give ambitious public health professionals the opportunity to make a positive impact around the world. Visit the Keck School of Medicine of USC Online MPH degree to learn more about how this graduate program could help shape a rewarding career path.

The Global Fund

Joint United Nations Programme on HIV and AIDS

U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services

World Health Organization

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Essay on Diseases

Students are often asked to write an essay on Diseases in their schools and colleges. And if you’re also looking for the same, we have created 100-word, 250-word, and 500-word essays on the topic.

Let’s take a look…

100 Words Essay on Diseases

Understanding diseases.

Diseases are health conditions that cause discomfort or pain. They can be caused by various factors like germs, unhealthy lifestyle, or genetics.

Types of Diseases

Prevention of diseases.

Prevention is better than cure. Healthy habits like eating balanced meals, exercising regularly, and maintaining hygiene can prevent diseases.

Treatment of Diseases

Treatment depends on the type of disease. Some need medicines, others need lifestyle changes, and some may need surgery. Always consult a doctor for treatment.

250 Words Essay on Diseases

Introduction.

Diseases can be broadly categorized into infectious and non-infectious. Infectious diseases are caused by pathogens such as bacteria, viruses, and parasites. They are transmissible, often leading to epidemics or pandemics, such as COVID-19. On the other hand, non-infectious diseases, including heart disease and diabetes, are typically caused by genetic predispositions, lifestyle choices, or environmental factors.

Impact of Diseases

The impact of diseases extends beyond the individual, affecting families, communities, and entire nations. They can cripple economies, strain healthcare systems, and disrupt social structures. Moreover, diseases often exacerbate existing inequalities, disproportionately affecting vulnerable populations.

Prevention and Treatment

Prevention and treatment of diseases involve a multi-pronged approach. This includes public health measures, medical interventions, and individual behaviors. Vaccination, sanitation, and education are crucial in preventing infectious diseases. Lifestyle modifications and medications play a significant role in managing non-infectious diseases.

In conclusion, diseases are a significant challenge to global health, necessitating concerted efforts for prevention, treatment, and management. The study of diseases, therefore, is not just a biological or medical endeavor, but also a social and political one.

500 Words Essay on Diseases

Diseases, broadly defined, are conditions that impair normal tissue function. They can be caused by a variety of factors, including genetic anomalies, environmental toxins, and infectious agents, among others. Understanding the nature and mechanics of diseases is crucial in developing effective prevention, diagnosis, and treatment strategies.

Classification of Diseases

Non-infectious diseases, on the other hand, are not caused by infectious agents and are not transmissible. They can be caused by a variety of factors, including genetic predisposition, lifestyle choices, and environmental factors. Examples include heart disease, diabetes, and cancer.

Pathogenesis of Diseases

The pathogenesis of a disease refers to the biological mechanism that leads to the diseased state. It involves studying the interaction between the host’s cellular functions and the damaging agent. Understanding the pathogenesis of a disease is crucial for identifying potential targets for therapeutic intervention.

Prevention and Control of Diseases

Vaccination is a highly effective method of preventing infectious diseases. It involves the administration of a vaccine, which stimulates the body’s immune system to recognize and fight off specific pathogens.

That’s it! I hope the essay helped you.

If you’re looking for more, here are essays on other interesting topics:

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Students’ Essays on Infectious Disease Prevention, COVID-19 Published Nationwide

As part of the BIO 173: Global Change and Infectious Disease course, Professor Fred Cohan assigns students to write an essay persuading others to prevent future and mitigate present infectious diseases. If students submit their essay to a news outlet—and it’s published—Cohan awards them with extra credit.

As a result of this assignment, more than 25 students have had their work published in newspapers across the United States. Many of these essays cite and applaud the University’s Keep Wes Safe campaign and its COVID-19 testing protocols.

Cohan, professor of biology and Huffington Foundation Professor in the College of the Environment (COE), began teaching the Global Change and Infectious Disease course in 2009, when the COE was established. “I wanted very much to contribute a course to what I saw as a real game-changer in Wesleyan’s interest in the environment. The course is about all the ways that human demands on the environment have brought us infectious diseases, over past millennia and in the present, and why our environmental disturbances will continue to bring us infections into the future.”

Over the years, Cohan learned that he can sustainably teach about 170 students every year without running out of interested students. This fall, he had 207. Although he didn’t change the overall structure of his course to accommodate COVID-19 topics, he did add material on the current pandemic to various sections of the course.

“I wouldn’t say that the population of the class increased tremendously as a result of COVID-19, but I think the enthusiasm of the students for the material has increased substantially,” he said.

To accommodate online learning, Cohan shaved off 15 minutes from his normal 80-minute lectures to allow for discussion sections, led by Cohan and teaching assistants. “While the lectures mostly dealt with biology, the discussions focused on how changes in behavior and policy can solve the infectious disease problems brought by human disturbance of the environment,” he said.

Based on student responses to an introspective exam question, Cohan learned that many students enjoyed a new hope that we could each contribute to fighting infectious disease. “They discovered that the solution to infectious disease is not entirely a waiting game for the right technologies to come along,” he said. “Many enjoyed learning about fighting infectious disease from a moral and social perspective. And especially, the students enjoyed learning about the ‘socialism of the microbe,’ how preventing and curing others’ infections will prevent others’ infections from becoming our own. The students enjoyed seeing how this idea can drive both domestic and international health policies.”

A sampling of the published student essays are below:

Alexander Giummo ’22 and Mike Dunderdale’s ’23  op-ed titled “ A National Testing Proposal: Let’s Fight Back Against COVID-19 ” was published in the Journal Inquirer in Manchester, Conn.

They wrote: “With an expansive and increased testing plan for U.S. citizens, those who are COVID-positive could limit the number of contacts they have, and this would also help to enable more effective contact tracing. Testing could also allow for the return of some ‘normal’ events, such as small social gatherings, sports, and in-person class and work schedules.

“We propose a national testing strategy in line with the one that has kept Wesleyan students safe this year. The plan would require a strong push by the federal government to fund the initiative, but it is vital to successful containment of the virus.

“Twice a week, all people living in the U.S. should report to a local testing site staffed with professionals where the anterior nasal swab Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) test, used by Wesleyan and supported by the Broad Institute, would be implemented.”

Kalyani Mohan ’22 and Kalli Jackson ’22 penned an essay titled “ Where Public Health Meets Politics: COVID-19 in the United States ,” which was published in Wesleyan’s Arcadia Political Review .

They wrote: “While the U.S. would certainly benefit from a strengthened pandemic response team and structural changes to public health systems, that alone isn’t enough, as American society is immensely stratified, socially and culturally. The politicization of the COVID-19 pandemic shows that individualism, libertarianism and capitalism are deeply ingrained in American culture, to the extent that Americans often blind to the fact community welfare can be equivalent to personal welfare. Pandemics are multifaceted, and preventing them requires not just a cultural shift but an emotional one amongst the American people, one guided by empathy—towards other people, different communities and the planet. Politics should be a tool, not a weapon against its people.”

Sydnee Goyer ’21 and Marcel Thompson’s ’22  essay “ This Flu Season Will Be Decisive in the Fight Against COVID-19 ” also was published in Arcadia Political Review .

“With winter approaching all around the Northern Hemisphere, people are preparing for what has already been named a “twindemic,” meaning the joint threat of the coronavirus and the seasonal flu,” they wrote. “While it is known that seasonal vaccinations reduce the risk of getting the flu by up to 60% and also reduce the severity of the illness after the contamination, additional research has been conducted in order to know whether or not flu shots could reduce the risk of people getting COVID-19. In addition to the flu shot, it is essential that people remain vigilant in maintaining proper social distancing, washing your hands thoroughly, and continuing to wear masks in public spaces.”

An op-ed titled “ The Pandemic Has Shown Us How Workplace Culture Needs to Change ,” written by Adam Hickey ’22 and George Fuss ’21, was published in Park City, Utah’s The Park Record .

They wrote: “One review of academic surveys (most of which were conducted in the United States) conducted in 2019 found that between 35% and 97% of respondents in those surveys reported having attended work while they were ill, often because of workplace culture or policy which generated pressure to do so. Choosing to ignore sickness and return to the workplace while one is ill puts colleagues at risk, regardless of the perceived severity of your own illness; COVID-19 is an overbearing reminder that a disease that may cause mild, even cold-like symptoms for some can still carry fatal consequences for others.

“A mandatory paid sick leave policy for every worker, ideally across the globe, would allow essential workers to return to work when necessary while still providing enough wiggle room for economically impoverished employees to take time off without going broke if they believe they’ve contracted an illness so as not to infect the rest of their workplace and the public at large.”

Women’s cross country team members and classmates Jane Hollander ’23 and Sara Greene ’23 wrote a sports-themed essay titled “ This Season, High School Winter Sports Aren’t Worth the Risk ,” which was published in Tap into Scotch Plains/Fanwood , based in Scotch Plains, N.J. Their essay focused on the risks high school sports pose on student-athletes, their families, and the greater community.

“We don’t propose cutting off sports entirely— rather, we need to be realistic about the levels at which athletes should be participating. There are ways to make practices safer,” they wrote. “At [Wesleyan], we began the season in ‘cohorts,’ so the amount of people exposed to one another would be smaller. For non-contact sports, social distancing can be easily implemented, and for others, teams can focus on drills, strength and conditioning workouts, and skill-building exercises. Racing sports such as swim and track can compete virtually, comparing times with other schools, and team sports can focus their competition on intra-team scrimmages. These changes can allow for the continuation of a sense of normalcy and team camaraderie without the exposure to students from different geographic areas in confined, indoor spaces.”

Brook Guiffre ’23 and Maddie Clarke’s ’22  op-ed titled “ On the Pandemic ” was published in Hometown Weekly,  based in Medfield, Mass.

“The first case of COVID-19 in the United States was recorded on January 20th, 2020. For the next month and a half, the U.S. continued operating normally, while many other countries began their lockdown,” they wrote. “One month later, on February 29th, 2020, the federal government approved a national testing program, but it was too little too late. The U.S. was already in pandemic mode, and completely unprepared. Frontline workers lacked access to N-95 masks, infected patients struggled to get tested, and national leaders informed the public that COVID-19 was nothing more than the common flu. Ultimately, this unpreparedness led to thousands of avoidable deaths and long-term changes to daily life. With the risk of novel infectious diseases emerging in the future being high, it is imperative that the U.S. learn from its failure and better prepare for future pandemics now. By strengthening our public health response and re-establishing government organizations specialized in disease control, we have the ability to prevent more years spent masked and six feet apart.”

In addition, their other essay, “ On Mass Extinction ,” was also published by Hometown Weekly .

“The sixth mass extinction—which scientists have coined as the Holocene Extinction—is upon us. According to the United Nations, around one million plant and animal species are currently in danger of extinction, and many more within the next decade. While other extinctions have occurred in Earth’s history, none have occurred at such a rapid rate,” they wrote. “For the sake of both biodiversity and infectious diseases, it is in our best interest to stop pushing this Holocene Extinction further.”

An essay titled “ Learning from Our Mistakes: How to Protect Ourselves and Our Communities from Diseases ,” written by Nicole Veru ’21 and Zoe Darmon ’21, was published in My Hometown Bronxville, based in Bronxville, N.Y.

“We can protect ourselves and others from future infectious diseases by ensuring that we are vaccinated,” they wrote. “Vaccines have high levels of success if enough people get them. Due to vaccines, society is no longer ravaged by childhood diseases such as mumps, rubella, measles, and smallpox. We have been able to eradicate diseases through vaccines; smallpox, one of the world’s most consequential diseases, was eradicated from the world in the 1970s.

“In 2000, the U.S. was nearly free of measles, yet, due to hesitations by anti-vaxxers, there continues to be cases. From 2000–2015 there were over 18 measles outbreaks in the U.S. This is because unless a disease is completely eradicated, there will be a new generation susceptible.

“Although vaccines are not 100% effective at preventing infection, if we continue to get vaccinated, we protect ourselves and those around us. If enough people are vaccinated, societies can develop herd immunity. The amount of people vaccinated to obtain herd immunity depends on the disease, but if this fraction is obtained, the spread of disease is contained. Through herd immunity, we protect those who may not be able to get vaccinated, such as people who are immunocompromised and the tiny portion of people for whom the vaccine is not effective.”

Dhruvi Rana ’22 and Bryce Gillis ’22 co-authored an op-ed titled “ We Must Educate Those Who Remain Skeptical of the Dangers of COVID-19 ,” which was published in Rhode Island Central .

“As Rhode Island enters the winter season, temperatures are beginning to drop and many studies have demonstrated that colder weather and lower humidity are correlated with higher transmissibility of SARS-CoV-2, the virus that causes COVID-19,” they wrote. “By simply talking or breathing, we release respiratory droplets and aerosols (tiny fluid particles which could carry the coronavirus pathogen), which can remain in the air for minutes to hours.

“In order to establish herd immunity in the US, we must educate those who remain skeptical of the dangers of COVID-19.  Whether community-driven or state-funded, educational campaigns are needed to ensure that everyone fully comprehends how severe COVID-19 is and the significance of airborne transmission. While we await a vaccine, it is necessary now more than ever that we social distance, avoid crowds, and wear masks, given that colder temperatures will likely yield increased transmission of the virus.”

Danielle Rinaldi ’21 and Verónica Matos Socorro ’21 published their op-ed titled “ Community Forum: How Mask-Wearing Demands a Cultural Reset ” in the Ewing Observer , based in Lawrence, N.J.

“In their own attempt to change personal behavior during the pandemic, Wesleyan University has mandated mask-wearing in almost every facet of campus life,” they wrote. “As members of our community, we must recognize that mask-wearing is something we are all responsible and accountable for, not only because it is a form of protection for us, but just as important for others as well. However, it seems as though both Covid fatigue and complacency are dominating the mindsets of Americans, leading to even more unwillingness to mask up. Ultimately, it is inevitable that this pandemic will not be the last in our lifespan due to global warming creating irreversible losses in biodiversity. As a result, it is imperative that we adopt the norm of mask-wearing now and undergo a culture shift of the abandonment of an individualistic mindset, and instead, create a society that prioritizes taking care of others for the benefit of all.”

Shayna Dollinger ’22 and Hayley Lipson ’21  wrote an essay titled “ My Pandemic Year in College Has Brought Pride and Purpose. ” Dollinger submitted the piece, rewritten in first person, to Jewish News of Northern California . Read more about Dollinger’s publication in this News @ Wesleyan article .

“I lay in the dead grass, a 6-by-6-foot square all to myself. I cheer for my best friend, who is on the stage constructed at the bottom of Foss hill, dancing with her Bollywood dance group. Masks cover their ordinarily smiling faces as their bodies move in sync. Looking around at friends and classmates, each in their own 6-by-6 world, I feel an overwhelming sense of normalcy.

“One of the ways in which Wesleyan has prevented outbreaks on campus is by holding safe, socially distanced events that students want to attend. By giving us places to be and things to do on the weekends, we are discouraged from breaking rules and causing outbreaks at ‘super-spreader’ events.”

An op-ed written by Luna Mac-Williams ’22 and Daëlle Coriolan ’24 titled “ Collectivist Practices to Combat COVID-19 ” was published in the Wesleyan Argus .

“We are embroiled in a global pandemic that disproportionately affects poor communities of color, and in the midst of a higher cultural consciousness of systemic inequities,” they wrote. “A cultural shift to center collectivist thought and action not only would prove helpful in disease prevention, but also belongs in conversation with the Black Lives Matter movement. Collectivist models of thinking effectively target the needs of vulnerable populations including the sick, the disenfranchised, the systematically marginalized. Collectivist systems provide care, decentering the capitalist, individualist system, and focusing on how communities can work to be self-sufficient and uplift our own neighbors.”

An essay written by Maria Noto ’21 , titled “ U.S. Individualism Has Deadly Consequences ,” is published in the Oneonta Daily Star , based in Oneonta, N.Y.

She wrote, “When analyzing the cultures of certain East Asian countries, several differences stand out. For instance, when people are sick and during the cold and flu season, many East Asian cultures, including South Korea, use mask-wearing. What is considered a threat to freedom by some Americans is a preventive action and community obligation in this example. This, along with many other cultural differences, is insightful in understanding their ability to contain the virus.

“These differences are deeply seeded in the values of a culture. However, there is hope for the U.S. and other individualistic cultures in recognizing and adopting these community-centered approaches. Our mindset needs to be revolutionized with the help of federal and local assistance: mandating masks, passing another stimulus package, contact tracing, etc… However, these measures will be unsuccessful unless everyone participates for the good of a community.”

A published op-ed by Madison Szabo ’23 , Caitlyn Ferrante ’23 ran in the Two Rivers Times . The piece is titled “ Anxiety and Aspiration: Analyzing the Politicization of the Pandemic .”

John Lee ’21 and Taylor Goodman-Leong ’21 have published their op-ed titled “ Reassessing the media’s approach to COVID-19 ” in Weekly Monday Cafe 24 (Page 2).

An essay by Eleanor Raab ’21 and Elizabeth Nefferdorf ’22 titled “ Preventing the Next Epidemic ” was published in The Almanac .

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Noncommunicable Diseases, Risk Factors and Prevention Essay

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Modifiable behavioral risk factors

Metabolic risk factors, noncommunicable disease among adolescents, prevention of noncommunicable disease.

Noncommunicable diseases (NCDs) or chronic diseases are not spread from person to person. They are long in duration and tend to progress slowly. Many non-communicable diseases have common risk factors to which everyone – children, adults, and the elderly – are vulnerable. They include smoking, alcohol and drug use, low physical activity; they are called intermediate risk factors that can lead to NCDs. However, these are modifiable behavioral risk factors, i.e., when giving up bad habits, one can significantly improve health and reduce the risk of developing NCDs (Gbadamosi & Tlou, 2020). The experience of some developed countries taking vigorous measures to limit the prevalence of risk factors for noncommunicable diseases strongly suggests that the result is an increase in the population’s average life expectancy.

Tobacco dependence is a chronic disease that often requires long-term treatment and repeated quitting attempts. Nicotine in tobacco is recognized as a substance that causes drug addiction. Tobacco smoking is the most common cause of respiratory disease; smokers have a six times higher risk of developing chronic obstructive pulmonary disease – COPD (Sim et al., 2017). Every 10th smoker develops lung cancer; on average, people who smoke reduce their lives by 10-15 years (Karthik, 2021). Smoking causes great harm to the body of a pregnant woman and a fetus (Lockhart et al., 2017). Children of mothers who smoke during pregnancy are often born prematurely. They usually have signs of hypotrophy, often get sick, and lag in development from their peers.

The body of a person who drinks alcohol wears out several times faster than a healthy person who does not drink. The human brain suffers the hardest from alcohol, as this substance sticks together red blood cells in the blood, leading to blood clots (Woodyatt, 2021). Without exception, it affects all systems and organs, weakens the immune system, and leads to frequent diseases. Alcohol changes the structure of the genetic code of DNA – it contains information about a person and his descendants (Dugué et al., 2021). People who abuse alcoholic beverages give birth to children with mental and congenital disabilities.

Alcohol use is a significant preventable risk factor for noncommunicable diseases such as cirrhosis of the liver, certain types of cancer and cardiovascular disease, and injury from violence and road clashes and collisions. It has been proven that alcohol consumption in hazardous amounts to health is the cause of diseases and injuries, leading to significant disability, premature death, and other socio-economic negative consequences (Oladipo., 2019). Strategies for preventing and reducing dangerous alcohol consumption should improving legislative and regulatory information, treatment, and rehabilitation measures (Esser & Jernigan, 2018). It is already known that only public education is ineffective; legislative, regulatory and legal acts and mechanisms for their implementation, early diagnostic and effective treatment and rehabilitation interventions are needed.

Drug addiction has a devastating effect on almost every human body organ, but the brain, cardiovascular and endocrine systems are most affected by addiction. Stimulants, euphoretics, depressants affect the body differently; however, they all contribute to a deterioration of the body systems (Jabeen et al., 2018). However, almost any drug, especially the “designer” type ones, leads to the development of the most severe pathologies.

There is brain damage, toxic encephalopathy, psychoses and neuroses, and polyneuropathy on the part of the nervous system (Luethi & Liechti, 2020). It is expressed as minor nervous system disorders, and paralysis, and paresis. The liver’s fatty degeneration occurs in the hepatobiliary system, including irreversible processes leading to cirrhosis. Continuous smoking of marijuana leads to psychomotor delays (Prashad & Filbey., 2017). Memory deteriorates, a person becomes inhibited, and a problem with cognitive functions and the ability to focus on work processes. Methamphetamine and cocaine lead to the development of toxic encephalopathy, tooth enamel is destroyed (Clague et al., 2017). Although each drug affects a person differently, many diseases are common to almost all addicts.

Such pathologies characterize drug addicts as tachycardia and hypertension, cardiomyopathy, ischemic heart disease, heart failure. Some disorders are reversible; some, such as cirrhosis or heart failure, are not. However, drug addiction treatment will stop the destructive processes and provide the patient with long-term remission. It is vital to prevent the onset of irreversible consequences that cannot be cured in any way and the situation when it is only possible to maintain life with special supportive treatment (Jordan & Andersen, 2017). There are no safe drugs; their recreational use leads to severe dependence, both physical and psychological, and dependence – to the development of diseases, including irreversible ones.

These risk factors are amenable to adjustment – any person can overcome addiction and switch to a healthier lifestyle. However, in some cases, medical attention is required for a smooth release from the influence of bad habits. Despite the availability of information on the dangers of smoking, alcohol, and drugs, many people ignore doctors’ recommendations. Government intervention is required to disseminate information on the risks of these substances and to combat their use.

Metabolism is a chain of chemical reactions in the body that ensure the normal functioning of a person. People get all the necessary substances from the external environment, mainly from food. A metabolic disorder is a malfunction of the body that affects the state of human health. Such risk factors contribute to four significant metabolic changes that increase the risk of NCDs: high blood pressure, overweight/obesity, hyperglycemia (high blood glucose), hyperlipidemia (high blood lipids).

High blood sugar weakens the body’s resistance -infectious diseases, especially those with fever, can dramatically worsen the condition of diabetics – even those whose illness is well controlled with medication. Nevertheless, with diabetes mellitus, not only is carbohydrate metabolism disturbed. The disease can affect blood vessels and affect the state of internal organs, subjecting them to additional stress (Dong et al., 2018). Then, it becomes much more difficult for the immune system to protect the body from foreign and harmful interference. An imbalance in the content of glucose and insulin in the blood plasma leads to a radical metabolic disorder, stimulates hypertension, develops vascular atherosclerosis, and increases the risk of heart attack or stroke (Khan et al., 2019). Many people with diabetes die of heart attacks before they develop vision, leg, or kidney problems.

Hypertension is considered one of the leading causes of death on our planet. It also increases the risk of developing diseases of the cardiovascular system, brain, and other conditions (Singh et al., 2017). High blood pressure leads to damage to arterial vessels and affects the work of the heart, which is forced to be in a state of overload (Martinez-Quinones et al., 2018). This can lead to the development of severe cardiovascular diseases and, as a result, weaken the body’s resistance to viruses and other infections.

High blood lipids do not usually cause symptoms. At very high levels, fat builds up in the skin and tendons and forms bumps called xanthomas. Occasionally, patients develop dull white or gray rings along the edge of the cornea. Very high triglyceride levels can cause an enlarged liver or spleen, tingling or burning sensations in the hands and feet, shortness of breath, and confusion, increasing the risk of pancreatitis (Laufs et al., 2020). Pancreatitis can cause abdominal pain and is sometimes fatal.

The cardiovascular system suffers primarily from obesity; fat is deposited around the heart and in the walls of blood vessels. The ability of the heart muscle to push blood into large vessels gradually decreases, and fatty degeneration develops (Hruby et al., 2016). Obese patients cannot inhale deeply; their breathing is shallow. This, in turn, is a risk factor for the development of bronchitis and pneumonia (Mafort et al., 2016) – the symptoms are most severe in smokers. Reduced oxygen supply to the blood leads to oxygen starvation of the brain, pathological drowsiness develops.

Due to the stretching and weakness of the anterior abdominal wall, all abdominal organs, mainly the stomach, go down and stretch. Intestinal motility suffers, hence flatulence and constipation. The skeleton, ligaments, and muscles experience additional, sometimes even double, stress. Diseases associated with malnutrition of bones and cartilage, osteochondrosis, arthritis develop (Sheng et al., 2017). The most effective way to combat obesity is to combine diet and vigorous regular exercise. At the same time, it must be remembered that a doctor should be involved in diagnosing and treating obesity. Only he will find out the exact reason for weight gain, adjust the diet and give recommendations for lifestyle changes.

When genetic factors influence the course of the disease, it is more difficult to control the development and spread of the disease, but this is not a reason not to engage in disease prevention. It is essential to keep in mind that there are technologies that allow one to regulate pressure, blood sugar levels, and other risk factors at the current stage of medical development (Milani et al., 2016). The diversity of risk factors can cause short aggravations of the condition that do not lead to chronic exacerbations. Temporary disorders are possible against the background of micronutrient deficiencies, dehydration, overhydration of the body, severe illness, overheating, hypothermia, and other unfavorable factors. Complex medical care is needed if the pathological process arose long ago, provoked by genetic factors. Depending on the type of disorder, the patient can be prescribed a special diet, and a complex of vitamins and minerals; however, with serious complications, more intense medical intervention is possible.

It should be emphasized that an official definition of the exact age for adolescents does not yet exist. Therefore, adolescence is determined differently depending on a particular country and even its regions, cultural and national characteristics, gender. In most publications on age periodization, it is noted that it lasts from 13 to 16 for boys and from 12 to 15 years for girls. At the same time, early adolescence is 10-13 years old, middle adolescence – 14-17 years old, and late adolescence – from 18 to 21 years. There may be some differences between boys and girls due to the gender influence on the intensity of an organism’s development. Each of these periods is characterized by its features which affect the course and outcome of noncommunicable diseases.

Noncommunicable diseases, also known as chronic diseases, tend to be long-term and result from a combination of genetic, physiological, environmental, and behavioral factors. The main types of NCDs are cardiovascular diseases (such as heart attacks and strokes), cancers, chronic respiratory diseases (such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and asthma), and diabetes. The burden of NCDs is disproportionately high in low- and middle-income countries, which account for more than three NCD deaths worldwide.

Adolescents are likely to need extra help to control asthma because they are at greater risk of misusing inhalers and engaging in activities that can worsen asthma (such as smoking). At present, sufficient evidence has been accumulated that the transformation of childhood asthma into adulthood occurs precisely at puberty (Withers & Green, 2019). It makes the problem of adolescent bronchial asthma especially urgent. The clinical course of this disease in adolescents can interfere with various factors, which affect the onset and further progression of the disease, inadequate response to treatment, compliance, control over BA, etc.

Diabetes mellitus in adolescents is characterized primarily by worse glycemic control, higher, as a rule, dangerous glucose levels, and many reasons lead to this. They include poor self-control, lack of adherence to dietary recommendations, insulin therapy (Temneanu et al., 2016). In general, adolescents do not devote enough time to their diabetes, as they have many other interests and tend to be independent. However, such inattention to the problem can negatively affect the health of the child. In adolescents with diabetes, more often than not, protest turns into a protest against diabetes because their parents always control this process.

In recent years, heart ailments are rapidly “getting younger,” affecting children, juveniles, and young people. It is worth emphasizing that the clinical symptoms at the initial phase of cardiac pathologies in the young generation are often insignificant or absent altogether. Therefore, it is possible to identify changes in the work of the heart only through laboratory and neuroimaging diagnostic methods.

Rapidly progressive disease at a young age is hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. This pathology is characterized by an abnormal thickening of the left ventricle wall; lesions of the right or both sections are rarely observed. Mutations in specific genes cause this disease. Their functions are the coding for the synthesis of myocardial proteins. It leads to a change in the location of muscle fibers in the heart muscle.

Problems arise if adolescents do not visit doctors on time in case of heart ailments.

This is especially true if there is a tendency to heart defects in the family. It should be noted that the leading cause of death among children and adolescents was precisely congenital malformations not diagnosed in time, with the greatest risk group being young men who are actively involved in playing sports. There are a number of symptoms that indicate a malfunction of the heart. Ignoring them during sports or in free time can lead to an exacerbation of the disease.

Timely contacting health professionals and following their recommendations will reduce the risk of complications due to noncommunicable diseases. It is also essential to adhere to a healthy lifestyle and not give up on the necessary treatment. An illness that emerged or worsened during adolescence can significantly impair the health indicators of young people as they grow up. At all stages, parental support and supervision are necessary to avoid situations where adolescents neglect treatment.

Noncommunicable diseases (NCDs) are the leading cause of death in the world. There are four main groups of noncommunicable diseases – cardiovascular disease, cancer, chronic lung disease, and diabetes. Premature deaths from NCDs can be prevented by actively involving healthcare providers, but their impact alone is insufficient. Not all people adhere to simple rules for maintaining health, and therefore the state should make more efforts to convince the population to follow doctors’ recommendations. The fight against cardiovascular diseases and diabetes requires separate steps on the part of the government.

Primary prevention is a complex of medical and non-medical measures aimed at preventing deviations in health and preventing diseases common to the entire population and individual (regional, social, age, professional and other) groups and individuals. This stage includes forming a paradigm of a healthy lifestyle by creating a permanent information and propaganda system. It also requires an increase in the level of knowledge of the population about the impact of negative factors on health and reducing their impact and sanitary and hygienic education (Kisling & Das, 2021). Measures are needed to prevent mental illnesses and injuries, accidents, disability and mortality from external causes, road traffic injuries.

Secondary prevention is a set of medical, social, sanitary, hygienic, psychological, and other measures aimed at early detection and prevention of exacerbations and complications of diseases and a set of steps to prevent a decline in working capacity, including disability premature mortality. Medical institutions are faced with the task of introducing holistic methodological approaches to assessing research results in the course of preventive measures and diagnosis. It is also necessary to organize and control of high-quality and effective monitoring of patients’ health. Secondary prevention measures allow early detection of conditions when they are asymptomatic, and timely treatment can stop their development (Kisling & Das, 2021). Most of the secondary prevention activities are carried out in health care settings using screening methods.

Since 2011 UN General Assembly adopted the Political Declaration on Noncommunicable Diseases, WHO has developed a global monitoring system to track progress on prevention and control (World Health Organization, 2012). This system includes nine global goals; it is recommended for adoption by the Member States. Once adopted, Member States are encouraged to consider developing national NCD targets and indicators. The mortality target is a 25% reduction in premature mortality from noncommunicable diseases by 2025(World Health Organization, 2012). The monitoring system provides the basis for advocacy, awareness-raising, political commitment, and global action to tackle these deadly diseases. The monitoring system will also help shape a new development agenda that encompasses three dimensions of sustainable development: economic development, environmental sustainability, and social inclusion.

Regular measurement of blood pressure, blood sugar, and cholesterol levels, knowledge of body mass index allows one to keep abreast of what is happening with the body. It also helps to understand the risks of developing diseases and know what actions should be taken to reduce them. Regular and age-appropriate physical activity is also essential, as well as rejection of bad habits, routine checkups, and stress reduction.

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Non-communicable Diseases: Their Causes, and Implications for Intervention and Prevention

This essay investigates social determinants of health, specifically looking at non-communicable diseases, and argues that structural interventions in the economy and society are necessary to reduce the prevalence of non-communicable diseases (NCDs). Sociologists study health demographics because patterns of health change across classes, cultures, genders and countries. Disease does not have solely biological causes, but is also determined by factors such as the socio-cultural environment, economic status, living and working conditions and government legislation. Many NCDs, defined as diseases which cannot be passed from person to person, have such characteristics. Cardiovascular diseases, chronic respiratory diseases, cancers and diabetes are the four most prevalent NCDs, and the four biggest risk factors are alcohol use, tobacco use, unhealthy diets and a less active lifestyle. When looking at the causes of NCDs, this essay argues that people engage in unhealthy activities not because they lack the willpower to abstain, but because they are placed in a social and economic construct which constrains the choices that they are able to make, encourages unhealthy behaviour and prevents them from disengaging from those activities. Governmental and civil society organisations are therefore placed with the responsibility to intervene.

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"Prevention is better than cure". Researching and treating diseases is too costly so it would be better to invest in preventative measures. To what extent do you agree.

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Art classes, such as painting and drawing, are as important to child's development as other subjects, so it should be compulsory in high schools. To what extent do you agree or disagree?

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• Treatment and Prevention of Diseases

Have you heard the phrase, “Prevention is better than cure”? It sure is. We get sick every now and then due to many reasons. In such a case, we take medicines or visit a doctor. But prevention of diseases is possible. Yes! We can prevent falling ill by taking care of our health. But sometimes it’s too late and we can only treat a disease. So let’s learn about the treatment and prevention of diseases.

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What is health.

The World Health Organisation (WHO) gave the following definition of health in 1948. “Health is a state of complete physical, mental and social well being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity”. The WHO definition of health recognizes three dimensions of health i.e. physical, mental and social. In 1978, another thing was included in this definition. It is the ability to lead a “Socially and economically productive life”.

It is rightly said that Health is Wealth. There are various factors which influence health. These factors lie both within the individual and also in the society in which he or she lives. The internal factors are basically the genetic make-up of an individual while external factors lie in the environment to which he/she is exposed.

Browse more Topics under Why Do We Fall Ill

• Health and Its Significance
• Disease and its Manifestation

Factors to Help Maintain Community Health

Personal health is a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being. Community health comprises of maintaining, improving and protecting the health of the entire community. The various factors that help in maintaining community health are:

• Maintaining proper hygienic and sanitary conditions of the environment.
• Providing good socio- economic conditions.
• Providing health care services .
• Imparting health education and promoting public awareness.
• Providing proper facilities for preventing diseases.

Basic Conditions for Good Health

‘A sound mind in a sound body’ is an old saying and expresses the importance of good health. There are some common points that you must follow to ensure that you enjoy a good health. These include:

• Have a balanced diet
• Maintain personal hygiene
• Keep your surroundings clean
• Consume clean food and water
• Keep your environment and air clean
• Maintain a proper schedule of exercise and relaxation
• Keep away from any kind of addictions like alcohol or drugs

Distinctions between Healthy and Disease-free

Too often we confuse being healthy with being disease free. However, it is not the same thing at all! There is a lot of difference between the two. Below we will look at the basic differences between the two.

Now we move on to look at the principles of treatment and prevention.

Principles of Treatment

The immune system is a major factor that determines the number of microbes surviving in the body. There are two ways to treat an infectious disease, i.e.,

• to reduce the effects of the disease
• to kill the cause of the disease

In the first case, treatment reduces the symptoms which are due to inflammation. A doctor gives medicine to the patient so as to bring down fever, reduce pain or loose motions. One must also take bed rest so that he/she can conserve his/her energy. This will enable him/her to have more energy to focus on healing.

How do the Medicines Work?

To cure the disease, the microbes have to be killed by the use of medicine. As you know, we can classify microbes into different categories. They are viruses, bacteria, fungi or protozoa. Each of these groups of organisms will have some essential biochemical life processes, which is peculiar to that group and not shared with the other groups.

These processes may be pathways for the synthesis of new substances or respiration. For example, our cells may make new substance by a mechanism different from that used by bacteria. Therefore, the drug that can block the bacterial synthesis pathway without affecting our own, is used to cure a bacterial disease. The antibiotic drugs work on the same principle. Similarly, there are drugs that kill protozoa such as malarial parasite without affecting our body.

Viruses have only a few biochemical mechanisms of their own. This is the reason why making antiviral medicines is difficult than making antibacterial medicines. The viruses enter the host cells and use host’s machinery for their life processes. Therefore, there are relatively few virus drugs, which check a number of viral diseases including HIV infection.

Prevention of Diseases

There are two ways for prevention of diseases.

• Specific to a disease

In general, we can prevent exposure to diseases by providing good living conditions like drinking safe water and having a clean environment. In the specific prevention, we have an immune system in our body which normally fights off microbes. We have cells that specialise in killing infecting microbes.

These cells go into action when microbes enter into the body. The immune cells manage to kill off the infection long before it assumes major proportions. The functioning of the immune system will be good if proper and sufficient nourishment and food are available. There are some specific ways also for preventing infections like a vaccination for a particular disease.

A Solved Question for You

Q: What do you mean by a vaccine?

Answer:   A vaccine is a preparation of weakened infectious agents or their products. It is injected or given orally for the prevention of diseases specifically.

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Why Do We Fall ill?

• Disease and Its Manifestation

6 responses to “Health and Its Significance”

Thanks for the post.best article

Fantastic article, Thank you

I wish they would add the authors, I want to add them to my references.

These teachers are really teaching well online and thanks for the information on the importance of health.

Nice Article…Keep Writing and update us.

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Fecal Microbiota Transplantation for Treatment of Parkinson Disease : A Randomized Clinical Trial

• 1 Department of Neurology, Helsinki University Hospital, Helsinki, Finland
• 2 Clinicum, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
• 3 Human Microbiome Research Program, Faculty of Medicine, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
• 4 Lääperi Statistical Consulting, Helsinki, Finland
• 5 Department of Pharmacology, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
• 6 Department of Clinical Medicine - Nuclear Medicine and Positron Emission Tomography, Aarhus University, Denmark
• 7 Department of Gastroenterology, Päijät-Häme Central Hospital, Lahti, Finland
• 8 Department of Neurology, Tampere University Hospital and University of Tampere, Tampere, Finland
• 9 Clinical Neurosciences, University of Turku and Neurocenter, Turku University Hospital, Turku, Finland
• 10 Department of Gastroenterology, Helsinki University Hospital, Helsinki, Finland
• Editorial Fecal Microbiome Transplants For Parkinson Disease Timothy R. Sampson, PhD JAMA Neurology

Question   Is fecal microbiota transplantation (FMT) safe and does it improve symptoms in Parkinson disease (PD)?

Findings   In this randomized clinical trial including 45 patients with PD, FMT was linked to mostly transient gastrointestinal adverse events without clinically meaningful improvements; in the placebo group, dopaminergic medication increased faster, and there was some clinical improvement. While FMT induced stronger, donor dependent, microbiota changes, dysbiosis resolved more frequently after placebo.

Meaning   FMT was safe but did not improve PD symptoms more than placebo; improvements and microbiome changes after placebo warrant further research on FMT and bowel cleansing in PD.

Importance   Dysbiosis has been robustly demonstrated in Parkinson disease (PD), and fecal microbiota transplantation (FMT) has shown promising effects in preclinical PD models.

Objective   To assess the safety and symptomatic efficacy of colonic single-dose anaerobically prepared FMT.

Design, Setting, and Participants   This was a double-blind, placebo-controlled, randomized clinical trial conducted between November 2020 and June 2023 with a follow-up period of 12 months at 4 hospitals in Finland. Patients with PD aged 35 to 75 years in Hoehn & Yahr stage 1-3 with a mild to moderate symptom burden and dysbiosis of fecal microbiota were included. Of 229 patients screened, 48 were randomized and 47 received the intervention. One patient discontinued due to worsening of PD symptoms. Two further patients were excluded before analysis and 45 were included in the intention-to-treat analysis.

Intervention   Participants were randomized in a 2:1 ratio to receive FMT or placebo via colonoscopy.

Main Outcomes and Measures   The primary end point was the change of Movement Disorder Society Unified Parkinson’s Disease Rating Scale parts I-III (part III off medication) at 6 months. Safety was assessed by recording adverse events (AEs).

Results   The median (IQR) age was 65 (52.5-70.0) years in the placebo group and 66 (59.25-69.75) years in the FMT group; 9 (60.0%) and 16 (53.3%) patients were male in the placebo group and the FMT group, respectively. The primary outcome did not differ between the groups (0.97 points, 95% CI, −5.10 to 7.03, P  = .75). Gastrointestinal AEs were more frequent in the FMT group (16 [53%] vs 1 [7%]; P  = .003). Secondary outcomes and post hoc analyses showed stronger increase of dopaminergic medication and improvement of certain motor and nonmotor outcomes in the placebo group. Microbiota changes were more pronounced after FMT but differed by donor. Nevertheless, dysbiosis status was reversed more frequently in the placebo group.

Conclusions and Relevance   FMT was safe but did not offer clinically meaningful improvements. Further studies—for example, through modified FMT approaches or bowel cleansing—are warranted regarding the specific impact of donor microbiota composition and dysbiosis conversion on motor and nonmotor outcomes as well as medication needs in PD.

Trial Registration   ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT04854291

• Editorial Fecal Microbiome Transplants For Parkinson Disease JAMA Neurology

Read More About

Scheperjans F , Levo R , Bosch B, et al. Fecal Microbiota Transplantation for Treatment of Parkinson Disease : A Randomized Clinical Trial . JAMA Neurol. Published online July 29, 2024. doi:10.1001/jamaneurol.2024.2305

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How on Earth Is There a Syphilis Epidemic in 2024?

By Ina Park

Dr. Park is a professor of family and community medicine at the University of California, San Francisco.

Nobody should be dying of syphilis in 2024. That’s the credo of Elizabeth Glaser, a public health nurse for the Indian Health Service, who drives thousands of miles throughout the Navajo Nation searching for community members with the infection. Once they’re found, Dr. Glaser administers shots of penicillin as treatment, at people’s homes, RVs, even in the back seat of her car.

Yet despite the good work of those like Dr. Glaser and the availability of cheap and effective treatment, the United States is experiencing rampant increases in syphilis. Left untreated, infection can lead to devastating neurological consequences such as blindness , deafness, madness and death. While other reportable sexually transmitted infections declined or remained flat during the pandemic, over 207,000 cases of syphilis were reported in 2022 , an 80 percent increase since 2018 and the highest number reported since 1950.

Most disturbing within this trend is the rise in congenital syphilis. Over 3,700 cases were reported in 2022, which is more than double the number of cases of mother-to-child transmission of H.I.V. at the height of the AIDS crisis. Nearly 300 infected babies were stillborn or died in the first year of life.

How did we get into this situation? More important, how do we get out of it? The answers differ for each population most affected by the epidemic: pregnant women, and gay and bisexual men. To tackle congenital syphilis, we must cast off societal squeamishness about S.T.I.s and invest in proven control strategies: public education, testing, treatment and contact tracing. For gay and bisexual men, we need to embrace novel prevention interventions if we are to outwit this wily disease.

Syphilis is often referred to as the Great Masquerader: a painless genital ulcer or rash on the hands and feet are textbook signs, but a bloodshot eye, a white patch on the tongue or hair loss can be signs too. It can look like anything yet often looks like nothing, able to lie dormant for decades with no apparent symptoms.

But the surge in congenital syphilis isn’t due to the infection’s many disguises; it’s because of failures of our health system and safety net. According to the C.D.C., nine of 10 congenital syphilis cases in 2022 were preventable ; lack of prenatal testing and timely treatment were the most common culprits, intersecting with social ills such as poverty, homelessness, substance use and incarceration. Because of systemic inequities, Indigenous, Pacific Islander and Black communities are hardest hit; one in 155 Native American births was affected by congenital syphilis in 2022.

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An Essay on Disease: Its Cause and Prevention

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Scientists discover a cause of lupus and a possible way to reverse it, two cellular defects appear to drive disease in lupus.

Northwestern Medicine and Brigham and Women’s Hospital scientists have discovered a molecular defect that promotes the pathologic immune response in systemic lupus erythematosus (known as lupus) and in a study published in Nature , show that reversing this defect may potentially reverse the disease.

Lupus affects more than 1.5 million people in the U.S. Until this new study, the causes of this disease were unclear. Lupus can result in life-threatening damage to multiple organs including the kidneys, brain and heart. Existing treatments often fail to control the disease, the study authors said, and have unintended side effects of reducing the immune system’s ability to fight infections.

“Up until this point, all therapy for lupus is a blunt instrument. It’s broad immunosuppression,” said co-corresponding author Jaehyuk Choi, MD, PhD , the Jack W. Graffin Professor, an associate professor of Dermatology and a Northwestern Medicine dermatologist. “By identifying a cause for this disease, we have found a potential cure that will not have the side effects of current therapies.”

“We’ve identified a fundamental imbalance in the immune responses that patients with lupus make, and we’ve defined specific mediators that can correct this imbalance to dampen the pathologic autoimmune response,” said co-corresponding author Deepak Rao, MD, PhD, an assistant professor of medicine at Harvard Medical School and a rheumatologist at Brigham and Women’s Hospital and co-director of its Center for Cellular Profiling. 

In the study, the scientists reported a new pathway that drives disease in lupus. There are disease-associated changes in multiple molecules in the blood of patients with lupus. Ultimately, these changes lead to insufficient activation of a pathway controlled by the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AHR), which regulates cells’ response to environmental pollutants, bacteria or metabolites. Insufficient activation of AHR results in too many disease-promoting immune cells, called the T peripheral helper cells, that promote the production of disease-causing autoantibodies.

To show this discovery can be leveraged for treatments, the investigators returned the aryl hydrocarbon receptor-activating molecules to blood samples from lupus patients. This seemed to reprogram these lupus-causing cells into a cell called a Th22 cell that may promote wound healing from the damage caused by this autoimmune disease.

“We found that if we either activate the AHR pathway with small molecule activators or limit the pathologically excessive interferon in the blood, we can reduce the number of these disease-causing cells,” said Choi, who is also a member of the Robert H. Lurie Comprehensive Cancer Center . “If these effects are durable, this may be a potential cure.”

Choi, Rao and colleagues next want to expand their efforts into developing novel treatments for lupus patients. They are now working to find ways to deliver these molecules safely and effectively to people.

Other Northwestern authors are first author Calvin Law; Arundhati Pillai; Brandon Hancock; and Judd Hultquist, PhD , assistant professor of Medicine in the Division of Infectious Diseases . Brigham and Women’s Hospital authors include Vanessa Sue Wacleche, PhD; Ye Cao, PhD; John Sowerby, PhD; Alice Horisberger, MD; Sabrina Bracero; Ifeoluwakiisi Adejoorin; Eilish Dillon; Daimon Simmons, MD; Elena Massarotti, MD; Karen Costenbader, MD, MPH; Michael Brenner, PhD; and James Lederer, PhD.

The research was supported by the National Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases grants K08 AR072791, P30 AR070253, R01 AR078769 and P30 AR075049; National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases grants R01 AI176599, P30 AI117943, R01 AI165236 and U54 AI170792; National Cancer Institute grants F31 CA268839 and CA060553, all of the National Institutes of Health (NIH); and NIH Director’s New Innovator Grant 1DP2AI136599-01, and grants from Lupus Research Alliance, Burroughs Wellcome Fund, Bakewell Foundation, Leukemia and Lymphoma Society and American Cancer Society.

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Vision loss and high cholesterol identified as risk factors for dementia

By Rohan Rajeev July 31, 2024

U ntreated vision loss and high LDL cholesterol have been added as two new potentially modifiable risk factors for dementia in a report released Wednesday by the Lancet Commission.

These new additions join 12 other risk factors outlined by the commission, affiliated with University College London, in previous reports on dementia prevention, intervention, and care in 2017 and 2020. The other risk factors are lack of education, hypertension, physical inactivity, diabetes, social isolation, excessive alcohol consumption, air pollution, smoking, obesity, traumatic brain injury, and depression.

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The commission’s latest findings suggest more ways of preventing dementia than previously known, according to Gill Livingston, a professor of psychiatry at University College London and co-author on the report.

“A lot of surveys have asked people of 50 and above what illnesses they most are concerned about, and dementia tends to come up as the highest one,” Livingston said. “And yet there’s really quite a lot that we can do to change the scales and make it less likely.”

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Avoidable vision loss and blindness are estimated to affect 12.6% of adults aged 50 and older. By conducting a meta-analysis of 14 cohort studies, the commission found a 47% increase in risk for dementia in adults who have untreated vision loss. In another meta-analysis, cataracts and diabetic retinopathy had significant associations with dementia risk.

Follow-up studies in the U.S. found that those who had cataract extractions had significantly reduced risk for dementia — a 29% decrease — opposed to those who did not have cataract extractions. Cataracts are marked by the lens of the eye becoming cloudy, resulting in hazy vision. They can arise with aging and other conditions that cause proteins in the lens to break down and clump together.

Livingston said the role of vision loss as a risk factor for dementia can be compared to the loss of hearing, identified as a risk factor in a previous report.

“One of the ways in which both vision and hearing act is in terms of cognitive stimulation,” Livingston said. “People who have hearing loss have a reduction in the volume of the temporal lobe.”

Maya Koronyo-Hamaoui, a professor of neurosurgery at Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, said the retina is a significant aspect of the link to dementia, given that it’s the only central nervous system organ connected directly to the brain.

“In our cohorts, when we see damage to the retina, there’s almost always the same extent of damage in the brain,” Koronyo-Hamaoui said of her own research.

Molecular changes in the retina affect processes like circadian rhythms — responsible for regulating the sleep-wake cycle — and vision, which Koronyo-Hamaoui believes could potentially mirror damage in the brain.

There’s a social aspect of vision loss that plays into dementia risk, Livingston said.

“People who have these losses go out less, see other people less, are much more likely to become socially isolated,” Livingston said. The report notes that vision loss most often goes untreated in low-income and middle-income countries.

Higher LDL cholesterol — also known as the “bad” cholesterol — was also associated with higher incidence of dementia, the report’s authors found. High total cholesterol and low HDL were also found to be risk factors for dementia in an analysis of 27 studies. LDL is the type of cholesterol responsible for buildup and blockage of arteries, while HDL removes LDL from the bloodstream and carries it back to the liver.

The commission said that individuals with high LDL specifically in midlife, ages 18 to 65, would be at highest risk for dementia.

What’s behind the association between high cholesterol and dementia risk? “Excess brain cholesterol is associated with people having higher amyloid within their brain and also with increased stroke risk,” Livingston explained. Buildup of the sticky protein amyloid is associated with Alzheimer’s, while increased stroke risk is associated with vascular dementia.

Related: New cardiovascular risk model could greatly decrease use of statins and increase heart attacks, study warns

Erin Ferguson, a Ph.D. student and researcher in the department of epidemiology and biostatistics at the University of California, San Francisco, described the research as “very exciting work” because of the prevalence of high cholesterol and statin use in older adults. But she said that the current evidence citing LDL as a risk factor is variable, drawing on what she’s seen in her research at Kaiser Permanente looking at vascular comorbidities of dementia.

“Even looking at ages 55 to 65 in this cohort, I’m not able to see an association between high LDL cholesterol and dementia risk,” Ferguson said of her own research cohort. “I’m a little surprised that LDL was the main cholesterol listed when there’s a whole lot of other evidence showing that HDL may play a factor.” She added that triglycerides, a type of fat that circulates in the blood and stores energy, may also play a role in preventing dementia.

Regulating levels of cholesterol, like lowering LDL, also decreases the chance of cardiovascular events like stroke and heart attack, Ferguson noted. These events, in turn, are risk factors for dementia, namely vascular dementia.

There are several ways to maintain normal cholesterol levels to mitigate dementia risk. The go-to for older adults are statins, according to Ferguson. For younger adults, she suggests exercise and diet to keep LDL levels in check.

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Volume 30, Number 6—June 2024

Research Letter

Sporadic occurrence of ensitrelvir-resistant sars-cov-2, japan.

Cite This Article

Using the GISAID EpiCoV database, we identified 256 COVID-19 patients in Japan during March 31–December 31, 2023, who had mutations in the SARS-CoV-2 nonstructural protein 5 conferring ensitrelvir resistance. Ongoing genomic surveillance is required to monitor emergence of SARS-CoV-2 mutations that are resistant to anticoronaviral drugs.

Ensitrelvir fumaric acid (hereafter ensitrelvir) is a drug that inhibits the 3-chymotrypsin-like protease of SARS-CoV-2, also known as nonstructural protein 5 (NSP5), thereby inhibiting virus replication ( 1 – 3 ). Ensitrelvir was first approved for use in Japan on November 22, 2022. After drug approval, ensitrelvir was prescribed widely after March 2023 by many internal medicine clinics throughout Japan for COVID-19 treatment; indeed, 227,216 doses have been distributed in Japan since March 31, 2023 ( 4 ). However, in other countries, ensitrelvir prescriptions have been limited to clinical trials. To track emergence of SARS-CoV-2 mutations conferring resistance to ensitrelvir, we searched the GISAID EpiCoV database ( https://www.gisaid.org ), which contains virus genome sequences collected from COVID-19 patients worldwide.

Figure . Sporadic occurrence of ensitrelvir-resistant SARS-CoV-2 mutants during December 2022–December 2023 in Japan. Solid line indicates the average number of COVID-19 cases. Weekly numbers of SARS-CoV-2 sequences harboring g.10199A>U and g.10199A>C...

We counted the number of SARS-CoV-2 cases that had NSP5 amino acid substitutions conferring ensitrelvir resistance ( 5 – 8 ) from March 31, 2023, the date ensitrelvir was first prescribed by general internal medicine clinics, through December 31, 2023 ( Table ). Although the occurrence of some NSP5 amino acid substitutions showed a regional bias, most were not associated with ensitrelvir prescription. For example, of the 77 sequences harboring the M46I amino acid substitution in NSP5 observed in the United States, 66 were identified in specimens collected during the same period in May 2023, suggesting an association with a cluster that likely arose from a sporadic occurrence. However, the M49L amino acid substitution in NSP5, which confers ensitrelvir resistance without attenuating virus infection both in vitro and in vivo ( 5 ), was observed in 256/49,414 (0.55%) virus sequences from Japan. By comparison, the M49L substitution was observed in 277/845,796 (0.03%) virus sequences deposited globally in the GISAID database; therefore, 92.4% of the deposited M49L mutant sequences of NSP5 were from Japan. The M49L substitution is caused by transversion of adenine at position 10199 within the SARS-CoV-2 NSP5 coding sequence to either cytosine or uracil. Of the 277 sequences with the M49L amino acid substitution, 89 (32.1%) had g.10199A>C, and 188 (67.9%) had g.10199A>U nucleotide mutations. Only 2 sequences had g.10199A>G transitions despite transitions generally occurring more frequently than transversions, which indicates ensitrelvir exerts high selective pressure on SARS-CoV-2 in COVID-19 patients. The number of virus sequences with M49L substitutions began to increase in June, peaked in September, and then decreased in November of 2023, a pattern corresponding to the number of COVID-19 cases observed throughout Japan during that period ( Figure ). In Japan, the monthly occurrence rate of ensitrelvir-resistant SARS-CoV-2 infections was significantly higher during the 9 months after initiating widespread ensitrelvir prescriptions than during the preceding period ( Appendix Figure 1).

We constructed a phylogenetic tree as described previously ( 9 ). We downloaded whole-genome sequences from 277 SARS-CoV-2 mutants collected globally during March 31–December 31, 2023, and constructed the tree by using Nextstrain ( https://www.nextstrain.org ) and 570 reference genomes ( Appendix Figure 2). Single sporadic occurrences of ensitrelvir-resistant mutants that were not linked to each other in the phylogenetic tree were counted if only 1 case occurred in a clade or if 1 case occurred > 2 segments downstream of different branches from other cases belonging to the same clade, as described previously ( 9 ). Sporadic occurrence of g.10199A>C was detected 24 times and g.10199A>U was detected 22 times.

Although SARS-CoV-2 g.10199A>C and g.10199A>U mutations were detected nationwide in Japan, they were more frequent in populated metropolitan areas ( Appendix Figure 3). Sporadic occurrence of mutants not linked to human-to-human virus transmission within a prefecture was defined as detection of 1 genome with either the g.10199A>C or g.10199A>U mutation or defined as detection of 1 mutant genome collected >1 month apart from others. We considered > 105 genome mutations, 46 with g.10199A>C and 59 with g.10199A>U, to be sporadic occurrences ( Appendix Figure 3), suggesting that ensitrelvir-resistant SARS-CoV-2 emerges frequently in Japan.

In conclusion, COVID-19 patients in Japan are usually prescribed ensitrelvir immediately after receiving positive results from a rapid immunochromatographic SARS-CoV-2 test. The Japan Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare has conducted surveillance by using next-generation sequencing to enable rapid detection of drug-resistant SARS-CoV-2 ( 10 ). We examined the occurrence of ensitrelvir-resistant SARS-CoV-2 after widespread ensitrelvir prescription in Japan. Replication of those ensitrelvir-resistant mutant viruses in individual patients is thought to be driven predominantly by selective pressure exerted by the drug, leading to sporadic occurrence. The decreased occurrence of ensitrelvir-resistant SARS-CoV-2 after October 1, 2023, might be because patients are required to pay a portion of their medical costs, which could thereby decrease the number of ensitrelvir prescriptions. Increasing use of ensitrelvir worldwide will likely increase the frequency of mutations in SARS-CoV-2 causing ensitrelvir resistance. Ongoing genome surveillance using next-generation sequencing is required to monitor emergence of SARS-CoV-2 mutants that are resistant to anticoronaviral drugs.

Dr. Doi was a researcher at the Japan National Institute of Infectious Diseases in Tokyo during this work. His research interests focus on the mechanisms underlying emergence of drug-resistant viruses.

Acknowledgments

We thank Yuriko Tomita for helpful suggestions and all researchers in the COVID-19 Genomic Surveillance Network in Japan for their continuing analysis and uploading of high-quality sequence data.

This study was supported by a Health and Labour Sciences Research grant (no. 21HA2003).

• Sasaki  M , Tabata  K , Kishimoto  M , Itakura  Y , Kobayashi  H , Ariizumi  T , et al. S-217622, a SARS-CoV-2 main protease inhibitor, decreases viral load and ameliorates COVID-19 severity in hamsters. Sci Transl Med . 2023 ; 15 : eabq4064 . DOI PubMed Google Scholar
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• Japan National Institute of Infectious Diseases . Amino acid substitutions due to viral genomic mutations that may affect the efficacy of therapeutic drugs against the new coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) (4th edition) [ cited 2023 Dec 31 ]. https://www.niid.go.jp/niid/ja/2019-ncov/2624-flu/12170-sars-cov-2-mutation-v4.html
• Figure . Sporadic occurrence of ensitrelvir-resistant SARS-CoV-2 mutants during December 2022–December 2023 in Japan. Solid line indicates the average number of COVID-19 cases. Weekly numbers of SARS-CoV-2 sequences harboring g.10199A>U and...
• Table . Number of mutations in NSP5 causing ensitrelvir resistance during March 31–December 31, 2023, in study of sporadic occurrence of ensitrelvir-resistant SARS-CoV-2, Japan

DOI: 10.3201/eid3006.240023

Original Publication Date: April 26, 2024

1 Current affiliation: ACEL Inc., Kanagawa, Japan.

Table of Contents – Volume 30, Number 6—June 2024

Please use the form below to submit correspondence to the authors or contact them at the following address:

Shutoku Matsuyama, Research Center for Influenza and Respiratory Viruses, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, Murayama Branch, 4-7-1 Gakuen, Musashi-Murayama, Tokyo 208-0011, Japan

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• Causes and Spread
• Clinical Overview

Clinical Overview of Oropouche Virus Disease

• Oropouche virus is spread to people primarily by the bite of infected biting midges. Some mosquitoes can also spread the virus.
• Oropouche virus has been reported in parts of South America, Central America, and the Caribbean. In June 2024, Cuba reported its first confirmed Oropouche case.
• Oropouche virus disease typically presents as an abrupt onset of fever, severe headache, chills, myalgia, and arthralgia.
• Clinical presentation is commonly mistaken for other arboviruses such as dengue, chikungunya, and Zika viruses, and malaria.
• There are no vaccines to prevent or medicines to treat Oropouche.
• Prevention relies on personal protective measures to avoid bites.

Epidemiology

Oropouche virus belongs to the Simbu serogroup of the viral genus Orthobunyavirus in the Peribunyaviridae family. The virus was first detected in 1955 in a febrile forest worker in a village in Trinidad and Tobago called Vega de Oropouche, near the Oropouche River. Oropouche virus is endemic to the Amazon basin.

Prior to 2000, outbreaks of Oropouche virus were reported in Brazil, Panama, and Peru. Evidence of animals being infected was also noted in Colombia and Trinidad during this time. In the last 25 years, cases of Oropouche have been identified in many countries in the Amazon region, including Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, French Guiana, Panama, and Peru. One child was found to be infected in Haiti in 2014.

In late 2023, Oropouche virus was identified as causing large outbreaks in endemic areas and new areas in South America. In June 2024, Cuba reported its first confirmed Oropouche case. Currently, there is no evidence of local transmission in the United States.

Clinical features

The incubation period for Oropouche virus disease is 3–10 days. Typically, disease starts with the abrupt onset of fever (38-40°C) with headache (often severe), chills, myalgia, and arthralgia.

Other signs and symptoms include photophobia, dizziness, retroorbital or eye pain, nausea and vomiting, or maculopapular rash that starts on the trunk and goes to the extremities. Less common symptoms can include conjunctival injection, diarrhea, severe abdominal pain, and hemorrhagic symptoms (e.g., epistaxis, gingival bleeding, melena, menorrhagia, and petechiae).

Symptoms typically last less than a week (2–7 days). However, in up to 60% of patients, symptoms can reoccur a few days or even weeks later. Similar symptoms are reported on relapse.

The symptoms of Oropouche virus disease can be similar to symptoms of dengue, chikungunya, or Zika viruses, or malaria.

Abnormal laboratory findings

Abnormal laboratory findings have been documented in some patients with Oropouche virus disease including lymphopenia and leukopenia, elevated CRP (C-reactive protein), and mildly elevated liver enzymes. Thrombocytopenia also has been reported in a few cases.

Neuroinvasive disease

Oropouche virus can cause neuroinvasive disease (e.g., meningitis and encephalitis). It is estimated that up to 4% of patients will develop neurologic symptoms after their initial febrile illness. Symptoms reported for patients with neuroinvasive disease include intense occipital pain, dizziness, confusion, lethargy, photophobia, nausea, vomiting, nuchal rigidity, and nystagmus. Laboratory abnormalities noted in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) for patients with neuroinvasive disease include pleocytosis and elevated protein.

Persistence of weakness and malaise has been noted in some patients for up to one month following symptom onset. Patients might require hospitalization for more severe signs and symptoms. Patients typically recover without long-term sequalae, including in severe cases. There have been very few deaths reported among people infected with Oropouche virus.

Vertical transmission

Causality of Oropouche virus disease and negative pregnancy outcomes has not been established. Viruses in the Simbu serogroup (e.g., Akabane virus) have been associated with fetal losses and deformities in cattle and sheep.

On July 17, 2024, the Pan American Health Organization (PAHO) issued an epidemiological alert about possible cases of pregnant mother-to-child transmission of Oropouche virus with adverse pregnancy outcomes in Brazil. These cases are under investigation. CDC is working with PAHO and other international partners to learn more about the potential risks of Oropouche during pregnancy.

Preliminary diagnosis of Oropouche virus disease is based on the patient's clinical symptoms, location where infection likely occurred (including places and dates of travel), and activities leading to risk of possible exposure.

Evidence of the virus can be detected in serum samples during the first week of infection. The virus is readily cultured during the first few days of the infection and is usually not detected beyond day 5. However, viral RNA can be detected for several more days after the virus is no longer present. Toward the end of the first week of illness, IgM antibodies form, followed by IgG antibodies.

In patients with neuroinvasive disease, viral RNA can be detected but is often not present in CSF. Therefore, serologic testing is the preferred method to look for evidence of infection in the CSF. Viral RNA has been detected in saliva and urine of a patient 5 days into the illness. However, testing of these sample types is not currently validated or available in the United States.

Currently, CDC can perform plaque reduction neutralization tests (PRNTs) to detect virus-specific neutralizing antibodies in serum and CSF. To confirm a recent infection using serologic testing, both acute and convalescent samples are needed to document a 4-fold or greater change in antibody titers.

How to request testing

Contact your state or local health department if you have a patient with an acute illness and epidemiologic risk factors that might be compatible with Oropouche virus disease. They can assist you with determining if samples should be sent to the CDC Arbovirus Diagnostic Laboratory for further testing. Specimens should be submitted to CDC through state health departments. All results will be sent from CDC to the appropriate state health department.

There are no medicines to treat Oropouche virus disease. Supportive care is recommended for clinical management of patients. Treatment for symptoms can include rest, fluids, and use of analgesics and antipyretics. Patients who develop more severe symptoms should be hospitalized for close observation and supportive treatment.

All patients with clinically suspected dengue should receive appropriate management without waiting for diagnostic test results. Patients should be advised to avoid aspirin containing drugs or other nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs until dengue can be ruled out to reduce the risk of bleeding.

The best way people can protect themselves from Oropouche is to prevent bites from biting midges and mosquitoes. There are no vaccines to prevent Oropouche virus disease. Additionally, there are no efficient, or economically or ecologically feasible, vector control measures for the primary vector, Culicoides paranesis .

Oropouche virus is spread primarily by midges. Learn about areas at risk, the illness it causes, and ways to prevent becoming infected.

For Everyone

Health care providers.