4 characteristics of a research paper

Research Paper

29 December 2023

last updated

A research paper is a product of seeking information, analysis, human thinking, and time. Basically, when scholars want to get answers to questions, they start to search for information to expand, use, approve, or deny findings. In simple words, research papers are results of processes by considering writing works and following specific requirements. Besides, scientists research and expand many theories, developing social or technological aspects of human science. However, in order to write relevant papers, they need to know a definition of the research, structure, characteristics, and types.

Definition of What Is a Research Paper and Its Meaning

A research paper is a common assignment. It comes to a situation when students, scholars, and scientists need to answer specific questions by using sources. Basically, a research paper is one of the types of papers where scholars analyze questions or topics , look for secondary sources , and write papers on defined themes. For example, if an assignment is to write a research paper on some causes of global warming or any other topic, a person must write a research proposal on it, analyzing important points and credible sources . Although essays focus on personal knowledge, writing a research paper means analyzing sources by following academic standards. Moreover, scientists must meet the structure of research papers. Therefore, writers need to analyze their research paper topics , start to research, cover key aspects, process credible articles, and organize final studies properly.

The Structure of a Research Work

The structure of research papers depends on assignment requirements. In fact, when students get their assignments and instructions, they need to analyze specific research questions or topics, find reliable sources , and write final works. Basically, the structure of research papers consists of the abstract , outline , introduction , literature review , methodology, results , discussion, recommendations, limitations, conclusion , acknowledgments , and references. However, students may not include some of these sections because of assigned instructions that they have and specific types of research papers. For instance, if instructions of papers do not suppose to conduct real experiments, the methodology section can be skipped because of the data’s absence. In turn, the structure of the final work consists of:

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🔸 The First Part of a Research Study

Abstract or an executive summary means the first section of a research paper that provides the study’s purpose, research questions or suggestions, main findings with conclusions. Moreover, this paragraph of about 150 words should be written when the whole work is finished already. Hence, abstract sections should describe key aspects of studies, including discussions about the relevance of findings.

Outline serves as a clear map of the structure of a research study.

Introduction provides the main information on problem statements, the indication of methodology, important findings, and principal conclusion. Basically, this section of a research paper covers rationales behind the work or background research, explanation of the importance, defending its relevance, a brief description of experimental designs, defined research questions, hypotheses, or key aspects.

🔸 Literature Review and Research or Experiment

Literature Review is needed for the analysis of past studies or scholarly articles to be familiar with research questions or topics. Hence, this section summarizes and synthesizes arguments and ideas from scholarly sources without adding new contributions. In turn, this part is organized around arguments or ideas, not sources.

Methodology or Materials and Methods covers explanations of research designs. Basically, techniques for gathering information and other aspects related to experiments must be described in a research paper. For instance, students and scholars document all specialized materials and general procedures. In this case, individuals may use some or all of the methods in further studies or judge the scientific merit of the work. Moreover, scientists should explain how they are going to conduct their experiments.

Results mean the gained information or data after the research or experiment. Basically, scholars should present and illustrate their findings. Moreover, this section may include tables or figures.

🔸 Analysis of Findings

Discussion is a section of a research paper where scientists review the information in the introduction part, evaluate gained results, or compare it with past studies. In particular, students and scholars interpret gained data or findings in appropriate depth. For example, if results differ from expectations at the beginning, scientists should explain why that may have happened. However, if results agree with rationales, scientists should describe theories that the evidence is supported.

Recommendations take its roots from a discussion section where scholars propose potential solutions or new ideas based on obtained results in a research paper. In this case, if scientists have any recommendations on how to improve this research so that other scholars can use evidence in further studies, they must write what they think in this section.

Limitations mean a consideration of research weaknesses and results to get new directions. For instance, if researchers found any limitations of studies that could affect experiments, scholars must not use such knowledge because of the same mistakes. Moreover, scientists should avoid contradicting results, and, even more, they must write it in this section.

🔸 The Final Part of a Conducted Research

Conclusion includes final claims of a research paper based on findings. Basically, this section covers final thoughts and the summary of the whole work. Moreover, this section may be used instead of limitations and recommendations that would be too small by themselves. In this case, scientists do not need to use headings for recommendations and limitations. Also, check out conclusion examples .

Acknowledgments or Appendix may take different forms, from paragraphs to charts. In this section, scholars include additional information on a research paper.

References mean a section where students, scholars, or scientists provide all used sources by following the format and academic rules.

Research Characteristics

Any type of work must meet some standards. By considering a research paper, this work must be written accordingly. In this case, the main characteristics of research papers are the length, style, format, and sources. Firstly, the length of research work defines the number of needed sources to analyze. Then, the style must be formal and covers impersonal and inclusive language. In turn, the format means academic standards of how to organize final works, including its structure and norms. Finally, sources and their number define works as research papers because of the volume of analyzed information. Hence, these characteristics must be considered while writing research papers.

Types of Research Papers

In general, the length of assignments can be different because of instructions. For example, there are two main types of research papers, such as typical and serious works. Firstly, a typical research paper may include definitive, argumentative, interpretive, and other works. In this case, typical papers are from 2 to 10 pages, where students analyze research questions or specific topics. Then, a serious research study is the expanded version of typical works. In turn, the length of such a paper is more than 10 pages. Basically, such works cover a serious analysis with many sources. Therefore, typical and serious works are two types of research papers.

Typical Research Papers

Basically, typical research works depend on assignments, the number of sources, and the paper’s length. So, a typical research paper is usually a long essay with the analyzed evidence. For example, students in high school and colleges get such assignments to learn how to research and analyze topics. In this case, they do not need to conduct serious experiments with the analysis and calculation of data. Moreover, students must use the Internet or libraries in searching for credible secondary sources to find potential answers to specific questions. As a result, students gather information on topics and learn how to take defined sides, present unique positions, or explain new directions. Hence, typical research papers require an analysis of primary and secondary sources without serious experiments or data.

Serious Research Studies

Although long papers require a lot of time for finding and analyzing credible sources, real experiments are an integral part of research work. Firstly, scholars at universities need to analyze the information from past studies to expand or disapprove of researched topics. Then, if scholars want to prove specific positions or ideas, they must get real evidence. In this case, experiments can be surveys, calculations, or other types of data that scholars do personally. Moreover, a dissertation is a typical serious research paper that young scientists write based on the research analysis of topics, data from conducted experiments, and conclusions at the end of work. Thus, serious research papers are studies that take a lot of time, analysis of sources with gained data, and interpretation of results.

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Research Paper Structure: A Comprehensive Guide

Table of Contents

Writing a research paper is a daunting task, but understanding its structure can make the process more manageable and lead to a well-organized, coherent paper. This article provides a step-by-step approach to crafting a research paper, ensuring your work is not only informative but also structured for maximum impact.

Introduction

In any form of written communication, content structure plays a vital role in facilitating understanding. A well-structured research paper provides a framework that guides readers through the content, ensuring they grasp the main points efficiently. Without a clear structure, readers may become lost or confused, leading to a loss of interest and a failure to comprehend the intended message.

When it comes to research papers, structure is particularly important due to the complexity of the subject matter. Research papers often involve presenting and analyzing large amounts of data, theories, and arguments. Without a well-defined structure, readers may struggle to navigate through this information overload, resulting in a fragmented understanding of the topic.

How Structure Enhances Clarity and Coherence

A well-structured research paper not only helps readers follow the flow of ideas but also enhances the clarity and coherence of the content. By organizing information into sections, paragraphs, and sentences, researchers can present their thoughts logically and systematically. This logical organization allows readers to easily connect ideas, resulting in a more coherent and engaging reading experience.

One way in which structure enhances clarity is by providing a clear roadmap for readers to follow. By dividing the research paper into sections and subsections, researchers can guide readers through the different aspects of the topic. This allows readers to anticipate the flow of information and mentally prepare themselves for the upcoming content.

In addition, a well-structured research paper ensures that each paragraph serves a specific purpose and contributes to the overall argument or analysis. By clearly defining the main idea of each paragraph and providing supporting evidence or examples, researchers can avoid confusion and ensure that their points are effectively communicated.

Moreover, a structured research paper helps researchers maintain a consistent focus throughout their writing. By organizing their thoughts and ideas, researchers can ensure that they stay on track and avoid going off on tangents. This not only improves the clarity of the paper but also helps maintain the reader's interest and engagement.

Components of a Research Paper Structure

Title and abstract: the initial impression.

The title and abstract are the first elements readers encounter when accessing a research paper. The title should be concise, informative, and capture the essence of the study. For example, a title like "Exploring the Impact of Climate Change on Biodiversity in Tropical Rainforests" immediately conveys the subject matter and scope of the research. The abstract, on the other hand, provides a brief overview of the research problem, methodology, and findings, enticing readers to delve further into the paper. In a well-crafted abstract, researchers may highlight key results or implications of the study, giving readers a glimpse into the value of the research.

Introduction: Setting the Stage

The introduction serves as an invitation for readers to engage with the research paper. It should provide background information on the topic, highlight the research problem, and present the research question or thesis statement. By establishing the context and relevance of the study, the introduction piques readers' interest and prepares them for the content to follow. For instance, in a study on the impact of social media on mental health, the introduction may discuss the rise of social media platforms and the growing concerns about its effects on individuals' well-being. This contextual information helps readers understand the significance of the research and why it is worth exploring further.

Furthermore, the introduction may also outline the objectives of the study, stating what the researchers aim to achieve through their research. This helps readers understand the purpose and scope of the study, setting clear expectations for what they can expect to learn from the paper.

Literature Review: Building the Foundation

The literature review is a critical component of a research paper, as it demonstrates the researcher's understanding of existing knowledge and provides a foundation for the study. It involves reviewing and analyzing relevant scholarly articles, books, and other sources to identify gaps in research and establish the need for the current study. In a comprehensive literature review, researchers may summarize key findings from previous studies, identify areas of disagreement or controversy, and highlight the limitations of existing research.

Moreover, the literature review may also discuss theoretical frameworks or conceptual models that have been used in previous studies. By examining these frameworks, researchers can identify the theoretical underpinnings of their study and explain how their research fits within the broader academic discourse. This not only adds depth to the research paper but also helps readers understand the theoretical context in which the study is situated.

Methodology: Detailing the Process

The research design, data collection methods, and analysis techniques used in the study are described in the methodology section. It should be presented clearly and concisely, allowing readers to understand how the research was conducted and evaluated. A well-described methodology ensures the study's reliability and allows other researchers to replicate or build upon the findings.

Within the methodology section, researchers may provide a detailed description of the study population or sample, explaining how participants were selected and why they were chosen. This helps readers understand the generalizability of the findings and the extent to which they can be applied to a broader population.

In addition, researchers may also discuss any ethical considerations that were taken into account during the study. This could include obtaining informed consent from participants, ensuring confidentiality and anonymity, and following ethical guidelines set by relevant professional organizations. By addressing these ethical concerns, researchers demonstrate their commitment to conducting research in an ethical and responsible manner.

Results: Presenting the Findings

The results section represents the study findings. Researchers should organize their results in a logical manner, using tables, graphs, and descriptive statistics to support their conclusions. The results should be presented objectively, without interpretation or analysis. For instance, for a study on the effectiveness of a new drug in treating a specific medical condition, researchers may present the percentage of patients who experienced positive outcomes, along with any statistical significance associated with the results.

In addition to presenting the main findings, researchers may also include supplementary data or sub-analyses that provide further insights into the research question. This could include subgroup analyses, sensitivity analyses, or additional statistical tests that help explore the robustness of the findings.

Discussion: Interpreting the Results

In the discussion section, researchers analyze and interpret the results in light of the research question or thesis statement. This is an opportunity to explore the implications of the findings, compare them with existing literature, and offer insights into the broader significance of the study. The discussion should be supported by evidence and it is advised to avoid speculation.

Researchers may also discuss the limitations of their study, acknowledging any potential biases or confounding factors that may have influenced the results. By openly addressing these limitations, researchers demonstrate their commitment to transparency and scientific rigor.

Conclusion: Wrapping It Up

The conclusion provides a concise summary of the research paper, restating the main findings and their implications. It should also reflect on the significance of the study and suggest potential avenues for future research. A well-written conclusion leaves a lasting impression on readers, highlighting the importance of the research and its potential impact. By summarizing the key takeaways from the study, researchers ensure that readers walk away with a clear understanding of the research's contribution to the field.

Tips for Organizing Your Research Paper

Starting with a strong thesis statement.

A strong and clear thesis statement serves as the backbone of your research paper. It provides focus and direction, guiding the organization of ideas and arguments throughout the paper. Take the time to craft a well-defined thesis statement that encapsulates the core message of your research.

Creating an Outline: The Blueprint of Your Paper

An outline acts as a blueprint for your research paper, ensuring a logical flow of ideas and preventing disorganization. Divide your paper into sections and subsections, noting the main points and supporting arguments for each. This will help you maintain coherence and clarity throughout the writing process.

Balancing Depth and Breadth in Your Paper

When organizing your research paper, strike a balance between delving deeply into specific points and providing a broader overview. While depth is important for thorough analysis, too much detail can overwhelm readers. Consider your target audience and their level of familiarity with the topic to determine the appropriate level of depth and breadth for your paper.

By understanding the importance of research paper structure and implementing effective organizational strategies, researchers can ensure their work is accessible, engaging, and influential. A well-structured research paper not only communicates ideas clearly but also enhances the overall impact of the study. With careful planning and attention to detail, researchers can master the art of structuring their research papers, making them a valuable contribution to their field of study.

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What Should Be the Characteristics of a Good Research Paper?

by team@blp

In miscellaneous.

When people want to get answers to various issues, they search for information on the problems. From their findings, they expand them, aiming to agree or refute them. Research papers are common assignments in colleges. 

They follow specific research and writing guidelines to answer particular questions or assigned topics. They look into the critical topic of credible research sources and argue their findings in an orderly manner. To be termed as good, the research paper must bear the following characteristics.

In this Article

Gives credit to previous research work on the topic

• It’s hooked on a relevant research question.

It must be based on appropriate, systematic research methods

• The information must be accurate and controlled.
• It must be verifiable and rigorous.

Be careful with the topic you choose

Decide the sources you want to use, create your thesis statement , plan your points, write your paper, characteristics of a good research paper.

Writing a research paper aims to discover new knowledge, but the knowledge must have a base. Its base is the research done previously by other scholars. The student must acknowledge the previous research and avoid duplicating it in their writing process.

A college student must engage in deep research work to create a credible research paper. This makes the process lengthy and complex when choosing your topic, selecting sources, and developing its design. In addition, it requires a great deal of knowledge to piece everything together. Fortunately, Studyclerk will give you professional help anytime you need it. If you do not have enough knowledge and time to write a paper on your own, you can ask for  research paper help  by StudyClerk, where experienced paper writers will write your paper in no time. You can trust their expert writers to handle your assignment well and get a well-written paper in a short time.

It’s hooked on a relevant research question .

All the time a student spends researching multiple sources is to answer a specific research question. The question must be relevant to the current needs. This question guides them into the information they use or the line of argument they take.

The methodology of research a student chooses will determine the value of the information they get or give. The methods must be valid and credible to provide reliable outcomes. Whether the student chooses a qualitative, quantitative, or mixed approach, they must all be valuable and relevant. 

The information must be accurate and controlled .

A good research paper cannot be generalized information but specific, scientific information. That is why they must include references and record tests or information accurately. Moreover, they must keep the information controlled by staying within the topic from the first step of research to the last. 

It must be verifiable and rigorous .

The student must use information or write arguments that can be verified. If it’s a test, it must be replicable by another researcher. The sources must be verifiable and accurate. Without rigorous deep  research strategies , the paper cannot be good. They must put a lot of labor into both the writing and research processes to ensure the information is credible, clear, concise, original, and precise. 

How to write a good research paper

To write a good research paper, you must first understand what kind of question you have been assigned. Then, you will choose the best topic that you will love to write about. The following points will help you write a good research paper.

You must select a topic you love. Go for a topic that will be easier to research, which will give you a broader area of study. 

Your instructor doesn’t restrict you on the sources you must use. Broaden your mind so that you don’t limit yourself to specific sources of information. Sometimes you will get helpful information from sources you slightest thought as good.

Write your central statement to base your position on the research. Make it coherent contentious, and let it be a summary of your arguments.

Create an outline that will guide you when arguing your points

• Start  with the most vital points and smooth the flow.
• Pay attention to  paragraph structure  and let your arguments be clear.
• Finish with a compelling conclusion, and don’t forget to cite your sources.

A research paper requires extensive research methods to get solid points for supporting your stand. First, the sources you use must be verifiable by any other researcher. You must ensure your research work is original for your paper to be credible. Third, each point should be coherent with each paragraph. Finally, your research findings must be tagged on the research question and provide answers that apply to the current society. 

Author’s Bio

Helen Birk is an online freelance writer who holds an outstanding record of helping numerous students do their academic assignments. She is an expert in essays and thesis writing, and students simply love her for her high-quality work. In addition, she enjoys cycling, doing pencil sketching, and listening to spiritual podcasts in her free time.

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• USC Libraries
• Research Guides

Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper

• 4. The Introduction
• Purpose of Guide
• Design Flaws to Avoid
• Independent and Dependent Variables
• Glossary of Research Terms
• Reading Research Effectively
• Narrowing a Topic Idea
• Broadening a Topic Idea
• Extending the Timeliness of a Topic Idea
• Academic Writing Style
• Applying Critical Thinking
• Choosing a Title
• Making an Outline
• Paragraph Development
• Research Process Video Series
• Executive Summary
• The C.A.R.S. Model
• Background Information
• The Research Problem/Question
• Theoretical Framework
• Citation Tracking
• Content Alert Services
• Evaluating Sources
• Primary Sources
• Secondary Sources
• Tiertiary Sources
• Scholarly vs. Popular Publications
• Qualitative Methods
• Quantitative Methods
• Insiderness
• Using Non-Textual Elements
• Limitations of the Study
• Common Grammar Mistakes
• Writing Concisely
• Avoiding Plagiarism
• Footnotes or Endnotes?
• Further Readings
• Generative AI and Writing
• USC Libraries Tutorials and Other Guides
• Bibliography

The introduction leads the reader from a general subject area to a particular topic of inquiry. It establishes the scope, context, and significance of the research being conducted by summarizing current understanding and background information about the topic, stating the purpose of the work in the form of the research problem supported by a hypothesis or a set of questions, explaining briefly the methodological approach used to examine the research problem, highlighting the potential outcomes your study can reveal, and outlining the remaining structure and organization of the paper.

Key Elements of the Research Proposal. Prepared under the direction of the Superintendent and by the 2010 Curriculum Design and Writing Team. Baltimore County Public Schools.

Importance of a Good Introduction

Think of the introduction as a mental road map that must answer for the reader these four questions:

• What was I studying?
• Why was this topic important to investigate?
• What did we know about this topic before I did this study?
• How will this study advance new knowledge or new ways of understanding?

According to Reyes, there are three overarching goals of a good introduction: 1) ensure that you summarize prior studies about the topic in a manner that lays a foundation for understanding the research problem; 2) explain how your study specifically addresses gaps in the literature, insufficient consideration of the topic, or other deficiency in the literature; and, 3) note the broader theoretical, empirical, and/or policy contributions and implications of your research.

A well-written introduction is important because, quite simply, you never get a second chance to make a good first impression. The opening paragraphs of your paper will provide your readers with their initial impressions about the logic of your argument, your writing style, the overall quality of your research, and, ultimately, the validity of your findings and conclusions. A vague, disorganized, or error-filled introduction will create a negative impression, whereas, a concise, engaging, and well-written introduction will lead your readers to think highly of your analytical skills, your writing style, and your research approach. All introductions should conclude with a brief paragraph that describes the organization of the rest of the paper.

Hirano, Eliana. “Research Article Introductions in English for Specific Purposes: A Comparison between Brazilian, Portuguese, and English.” English for Specific Purposes 28 (October 2009): 240-250; Samraj, B. “Introductions in Research Articles: Variations Across Disciplines.” English for Specific Purposes 21 (2002): 1–17; Introductions. The Writing Center. University of North Carolina; “Writing Introductions.” In Good Essay Writing: A Social Sciences Guide. Peter Redman. 4th edition. (London: Sage, 2011), pp. 63-70; Reyes, Victoria. Demystifying the Journal Article. Inside Higher Education.

Structure and Writing Style

I.  Structure and Approach

The introduction is the broad beginning of the paper that answers three important questions for the reader:

• What is this?
• Why should I read it?
• What do you want me to think about / consider doing / react to?

Think of the structure of the introduction as an inverted triangle of information that lays a foundation for understanding the research problem. Organize the information so as to present the more general aspects of the topic early in the introduction, then narrow your analysis to more specific topical information that provides context, finally arriving at your research problem and the rationale for studying it [often written as a series of key questions to be addressed or framed as a hypothesis or set of assumptions to be tested] and, whenever possible, a description of the potential outcomes your study can reveal.

These are general phases associated with writing an introduction: 1.  Establish an area to research by:

• Highlighting the importance of the topic, and/or
• Making general statements about the topic, and/or
• Presenting an overview on current research on the subject.

2.  Identify a research niche by:

• Opposing an existing assumption, and/or
• Revealing a gap in existing research, and/or
• Formulating a research question or problem, and/or
• Continuing a disciplinary tradition.

3.  Place your research within the research niche by:

• Stating the intent of your study,
• Outlining the key characteristics of your study,
• Describing important results, and
• Giving a brief overview of the structure of the paper.

NOTE:   It is often useful to review the introduction late in the writing process. This is appropriate because outcomes are unknown until you've completed the study. After you complete writing the body of the paper, go back and review introductory descriptions of the structure of the paper, the method of data gathering, the reporting and analysis of results, and the conclusion. Reviewing and, if necessary, rewriting the introduction ensures that it correctly matches the overall structure of your final paper.

II.  Delimitations of the Study

Delimitations refer to those characteristics that limit the scope and define the conceptual boundaries of your research . This is determined by the conscious exclusionary and inclusionary decisions you make about how to investigate the research problem. In other words, not only should you tell the reader what it is you are studying and why, but you must also acknowledge why you rejected alternative approaches that could have been used to examine the topic.

Obviously, the first limiting step was the choice of research problem itself. However, implicit are other, related problems that could have been chosen but were rejected. These should be noted in the conclusion of your introduction. For example, a delimitating statement could read, "Although many factors can be understood to impact the likelihood young people will vote, this study will focus on socioeconomic factors related to the need to work full-time while in school." The point is not to document every possible delimiting factor, but to highlight why previously researched issues related to the topic were not addressed.

Examples of delimitating choices would be:

• The key aims and objectives of your study,
• The research questions that you address,
• The variables of interest [i.e., the various factors and features of the phenomenon being studied],
• The method(s) of investigation,
• The time period your study covers, and
• Any relevant alternative theoretical frameworks that could have been adopted.

Review each of these decisions. Not only do you clearly establish what you intend to accomplish in your research, but you should also include a declaration of what the study does not intend to cover. In the latter case, your exclusionary decisions should be based upon criteria understood as, "not interesting"; "not directly relevant"; “too problematic because..."; "not feasible," and the like. Make this reasoning explicit!

NOTE:   Delimitations refer to the initial choices made about the broader, overall design of your study and should not be confused with documenting the limitations of your study discovered after the research has been completed.

ANOTHER NOTE : Do not view delimitating statements as admitting to an inherent failing or shortcoming in your research. They are an accepted element of academic writing intended to keep the reader focused on the research problem by explicitly defining the conceptual boundaries and scope of your study. It addresses any critical questions in the reader's mind of, "Why the hell didn't the author examine this?"

III.  The Narrative Flow

Issues to keep in mind that will help the narrative flow in your introduction :

• Your introduction should clearly identify the subject area of interest . A simple strategy to follow is to use key words from your title in the first few sentences of the introduction. This will help focus the introduction on the topic at the appropriate level and ensures that you get to the subject matter quickly without losing focus, or discussing information that is too general.
• Establish context by providing a brief and balanced review of the pertinent published literature that is available on the subject. The key is to summarize for the reader what is known about the specific research problem before you did your analysis. This part of your introduction should not represent a comprehensive literature review--that comes next. It consists of a general review of the important, foundational research literature [with citations] that establishes a foundation for understanding key elements of the research problem. See the drop-down menu under this tab for " Background Information " regarding types of contexts.
• Clearly state the hypothesis that you investigated . When you are first learning to write in this format it is okay, and actually preferable, to use a past statement like, "The purpose of this study was to...." or "We investigated three possible mechanisms to explain the...."
• Why did you choose this kind of research study or design? Provide a clear statement of the rationale for your approach to the problem studied. This will usually follow your statement of purpose in the last paragraph of the introduction.

IV.  Engaging the Reader

A research problem in the social sciences can come across as dry and uninteresting to anyone unfamiliar with the topic . Therefore, one of the goals of your introduction is to make readers want to read your paper. Here are several strategies you can use to grab the reader's attention:

• Open with a compelling story . Almost all research problems in the social sciences, no matter how obscure or esoteric , are really about the lives of people. Telling a story that humanizes an issue can help illuminate the significance of the problem and help the reader empathize with those affected by the condition being studied.
• Include a strong quotation or a vivid, perhaps unexpected, anecdote . During your review of the literature, make note of any quotes or anecdotes that grab your attention because they can used in your introduction to highlight the research problem in a captivating way.
• Pose a provocative or thought-provoking question . Your research problem should be framed by a set of questions to be addressed or hypotheses to be tested. However, a provocative question can be presented in the beginning of your introduction that challenges an existing assumption or compels the reader to consider an alternative viewpoint that helps establish the significance of your study. 
• Describe a puzzling scenario or incongruity . This involves highlighting an interesting quandary concerning the research problem or describing contradictory findings from prior studies about a topic. Posing what is essentially an unresolved intellectual riddle about the problem can engage the reader's interest in the study.
• Cite a stirring example or case study that illustrates why the research problem is important . Draw upon the findings of others to demonstrate the significance of the problem and to describe how your study builds upon or offers alternatives ways of investigating this prior research.

NOTE:   It is important that you choose only one of the suggested strategies for engaging your readers. This avoids giving an impression that your paper is more flash than substance and does not distract from the substance of your study.

Freedman, Leora  and Jerry Plotnick. Introductions and Conclusions. University College Writing Centre. University of Toronto; Introduction. The Structure, Format, Content, and Style of a Journal-Style Scientific Paper. Department of Biology. Bates College; Introductions. The Writing Center. University of North Carolina; Introductions. The Writer’s Handbook. Writing Center. University of Wisconsin, Madison; Introductions, Body Paragraphs, and Conclusions for an Argument Paper. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; “Writing Introductions.” In Good Essay Writing: A Social Sciences Guide . Peter Redman. 4th edition. (London: Sage, 2011), pp. 63-70; Resources for Writers: Introduction Strategies. Program in Writing and Humanistic Studies. Massachusetts Institute of Technology; Sharpling, Gerald. Writing an Introduction. Centre for Applied Linguistics, University of Warwick; Samraj, B. “Introductions in Research Articles: Variations Across Disciplines.” English for Specific Purposes 21 (2002): 1–17; Swales, John and Christine B. Feak. Academic Writing for Graduate Students: Essential Skills and Tasks . 2nd edition. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press, 2004 ; Writing Your Introduction. Department of English Writing Guide. George Mason University.

Writing Tip

Avoid the "Dictionary" Introduction

Giving the dictionary definition of words related to the research problem may appear appropriate because it is important to define specific terminology that readers may be unfamiliar with. However, anyone can look a word up in the dictionary and a general dictionary is not a particularly authoritative source because it doesn't take into account the context of your topic and doesn't offer particularly detailed information. Also, placed in the context of a particular discipline, a term or concept may have a different meaning than what is found in a general dictionary. If you feel that you must seek out an authoritative definition, use a subject specific dictionary or encyclopedia [e.g., if you are a sociology student, search for dictionaries of sociology]. A good database for obtaining definitive definitions of concepts or terms is Credo Reference .

Saba, Robert. The College Research Paper. Florida International University; Introductions. The Writing Center. University of North Carolina.

Another Writing Tip

When Do I Begin?

A common question asked at the start of any paper is, "Where should I begin?" An equally important question to ask yourself is, "When do I begin?" Research problems in the social sciences rarely rest in isolation from history. Therefore, it is important to lay a foundation for understanding the historical context underpinning the research problem. However, this information should be brief and succinct and begin at a point in time that illustrates the study's overall importance. For example, a study that investigates coffee cultivation and export in West Africa as a key stimulus for local economic growth needs to describe the beginning of exporting coffee in the region and establishing why economic growth is important. You do not need to give a long historical explanation about coffee exports in Africa. If a research problem requires a substantial exploration of the historical context, do this in the literature review section. In your introduction, make note of this as part of the "roadmap" [see below] that you use to describe the organization of your paper.

Introductions. The Writing Center. University of North Carolina; “Writing Introductions.” In Good Essay Writing: A Social Sciences Guide . Peter Redman. 4th edition. (London: Sage, 2011), pp. 63-70.

Yet Another Writing Tip

Always End with a Roadmap

The final paragraph or sentences of your introduction should forecast your main arguments and conclusions and provide a brief description of the rest of the paper [the "roadmap"] that let's the reader know where you are going and what to expect. A roadmap is important because it helps the reader place the research problem within the context of their own perspectives about the topic. In addition, concluding your introduction with an explicit roadmap tells the reader that you have a clear understanding of the structural purpose of your paper. In this way, the roadmap acts as a type of promise to yourself and to your readers that you will follow a consistent and coherent approach to addressing the topic of inquiry. Refer to it often to help keep your writing focused and organized.

Cassuto, Leonard. “On the Dissertation: How to Write the Introduction.” The Chronicle of Higher Education , May 28, 2018; Radich, Michael. A Student's Guide to Writing in East Asian Studies . (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Writing n. d.), pp. 35-37.

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Writing the title and abstract for a research paper: Being concise, precise, and meticulous is the key

Milind s. tullu.

Department of Pediatrics, Seth G.S. Medical College and KEM Hospital, Parel, Mumbai, Maharashtra, India

This article deals with formulating a suitable title and an appropriate abstract for an original research paper. The “title” and the “abstract” are the “initial impressions” of a research article, and hence they need to be drafted correctly, accurately, carefully, and meticulously. Often both of these are drafted after the full manuscript is ready. Most readers read only the title and the abstract of a research paper and very few will go on to read the full paper. The title and the abstract are the most important parts of a research paper and should be pleasant to read. The “title” should be descriptive, direct, accurate, appropriate, interesting, concise, precise, unique, and should not be misleading. The “abstract” needs to be simple, specific, clear, unbiased, honest, concise, precise, stand-alone, complete, scholarly, (preferably) structured, and should not be misrepresentative. The abstract should be consistent with the main text of the paper, especially after a revision is made to the paper and should include the key message prominently. It is very important to include the most important words and terms (the “keywords”) in the title and the abstract for appropriate indexing purpose and for retrieval from the search engines and scientific databases. Such keywords should be listed after the abstract. One must adhere to the instructions laid down by the target journal with regard to the style and number of words permitted for the title and the abstract.

Introduction

This article deals with drafting a suitable “title” and an appropriate “abstract” for an original research paper. Because the “title” and the “abstract” are the “initial impressions” or the “face” of a research article, they need to be drafted correctly, accurately, carefully, meticulously, and consume time and energy.[ 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 , 10 ] Often, these are drafted after the complete manuscript draft is ready.[ 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 9 , 10 , 11 ] Most readers will read only the title and the abstract of a published research paper, and very few “interested ones” (especially, if the paper is of use to them) will go on to read the full paper.[ 1 , 2 ] One must remember to adhere to the instructions laid down by the “target journal” (the journal for which the author is writing) regarding the style and number of words permitted for the title and the abstract.[ 2 , 4 , 5 , 7 , 8 , 9 , 12 ] Both the title and the abstract are the most important parts of a research paper – for editors (to decide whether to process the paper for further review), for reviewers (to get an initial impression of the paper), and for the readers (as these may be the only parts of the paper available freely and hence, read widely).[ 4 , 8 , 12 ] It may be worth for the novice author to browse through titles and abstracts of several prominent journals (and their target journal as well) to learn more about the wording and styles of the titles and abstracts, as well as the aims and scope of the particular journal.[ 5 , 7 , 9 , 13 ]

The details of the title are discussed under the subheadings of importance, types, drafting, and checklist.

Importance of the title

When a reader browses through the table of contents of a journal issue (hard copy or on website), the title is the “ first detail” or “face” of the paper that is read.[ 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 , 13 ] Hence, it needs to be simple, direct, accurate, appropriate, specific, functional, interesting, attractive/appealing, concise/brief, precise/focused, unambiguous, memorable, captivating, informative (enough to encourage the reader to read further), unique, catchy, and it should not be misleading.[ 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 , 9 , 12 ] It should have “just enough details” to arouse the interest and curiosity of the reader so that the reader then goes ahead with studying the abstract and then (if still interested) the full paper.[ 1 , 2 , 4 , 13 ] Journal websites, electronic databases, and search engines use the words in the title and abstract (the “keywords”) to retrieve a particular paper during a search; hence, the importance of these words in accessing the paper by the readers has been emphasized.[ 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 , 12 , 14 ] Such important words (or keywords) should be arranged in appropriate order of importance as per the context of the paper and should be placed at the beginning of the title (rather than the later part of the title, as some search engines like Google may just display only the first six to seven words of the title).[ 3 , 5 , 12 ] Whimsical, amusing, or clever titles, though initially appealing, may be missed or misread by the busy reader and very short titles may miss the essential scientific words (the “keywords”) used by the indexing agencies to catch and categorize the paper.[ 1 , 3 , 4 , 9 ] Also, amusing or hilarious titles may be taken less seriously by the readers and may be cited less often.[ 4 , 15 ] An excessively long or complicated title may put off the readers.[ 3 , 9 ] It may be a good idea to draft the title after the main body of the text and the abstract are drafted.[ 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 ]

Types of titles

Titles can be descriptive, declarative, or interrogative. They can also be classified as nominal, compound, or full-sentence titles.

Descriptive or neutral title

This has the essential elements of the research theme, that is, the patients/subjects, design, interventions, comparisons/control, and outcome, but does not reveal the main result or the conclusion.[ 3 , 4 , 12 , 16 ] Such a title allows the reader to interpret the findings of the research paper in an impartial manner and with an open mind.[ 3 ] These titles also give complete information about the contents of the article, have several keywords (thus increasing the visibility of the article in search engines), and have increased chances of being read and (then) being cited as well.[ 4 ] Hence, such descriptive titles giving a glimpse of the paper are generally preferred.[ 4 , 16 ]

Declarative title

This title states the main finding of the study in the title itself; it reduces the curiosity of the reader, may point toward a bias on the part of the author, and hence is best avoided.[ 3 , 4 , 12 , 16 ]

Interrogative title

This is the one which has a query or the research question in the title.[ 3 , 4 , 16 ] Though a query in the title has the ability to sensationalize the topic, and has more downloads (but less citations), it can be distracting to the reader and is again best avoided for a research article (but can, at times, be used for a review article).[ 3 , 6 , 16 , 17 ]

From a sentence construct point of view, titles may be nominal (capturing only the main theme of the study), compound (with subtitles to provide additional relevant information such as context, design, location/country, temporal aspect, sample size, importance, and a provocative or a literary; for example, see the title of this review), or full-sentence titles (which are longer and indicate an added degree of certainty of the results).[ 4 , 6 , 9 , 16 ] Any of these constructs may be used depending on the type of article, the key message, and the author's preference or judgement.[ 4 ]

Drafting a suitable title

A stepwise process can be followed to draft the appropriate title. The author should describe the paper in about three sentences, avoiding the results and ensuring that these sentences contain important scientific words/keywords that describe the main contents and subject of the paper.[ 1 , 4 , 6 , 12 ] Then the author should join the sentences to form a single sentence, shorten the length (by removing redundant words or adjectives or phrases), and finally edit the title (thus drafted) to make it more accurate, concise (about 10–15 words), and precise.[ 1 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 9 ] Some journals require that the study design be included in the title, and this may be placed (using a colon) after the primary title.[ 2 , 3 , 4 , 14 ] The title should try to incorporate the Patients, Interventions, Comparisons and Outcome (PICO).[ 3 ] The place of the study may be included in the title (if absolutely necessary), that is, if the patient characteristics (such as study population, socioeconomic conditions, or cultural practices) are expected to vary as per the country (or the place of the study) and have a bearing on the possible outcomes.[ 3 , 6 ] Lengthy titles can be boring and appear unfocused, whereas very short titles may not be representative of the contents of the article; hence, optimum length is required to ensure that the title explains the main theme and content of the manuscript.[ 4 , 5 , 9 ] Abbreviations (except the standard or commonly interpreted ones such as HIV, AIDS, DNA, RNA, CDC, FDA, ECG, and EEG) or acronyms should be avoided in the title, as a reader not familiar with them may skip such an article and nonstandard abbreviations may create problems in indexing the article.[ 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 , 9 , 12 ] Also, too much of technical jargon or chemical formulas in the title may confuse the readers and the article may be skipped by them.[ 4 , 9 ] Numerical values of various parameters (stating study period or sample size) should also be avoided in the titles (unless deemed extremely essential).[ 4 ] It may be worthwhile to take an opinion from a impartial colleague before finalizing the title.[ 4 , 5 , 6 ] Thus, multiple factors (which are, at times, a bit conflicting or contrasting) need to be considered while formulating a title, and hence this should not be done in a hurry.[ 4 , 6 ] Many journals ask the authors to draft a “short title” or “running head” or “running title” for printing in the header or footer of the printed paper.[ 3 , 12 ] This is an abridged version of the main title of up to 40–50 characters, may have standard abbreviations, and helps the reader to navigate through the paper.[ 3 , 12 , 14 ]

Checklist for a good title

Table 1 gives a checklist/useful tips for drafting a good title for a research paper.[ 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 , 12 ] Table 2 presents some of the titles used by the author of this article in his earlier research papers, and the appropriateness of the titles has been commented upon. As an individual exercise, the reader may try to improvise upon the titles (further) after reading the corresponding abstract and full paper.

Checklist/useful tips for drafting a good title for a research paper

Some titles used by author of this article in his earlier publications and remark/comment on their appropriateness

The Abstract

The details of the abstract are discussed under the subheadings of importance, types, drafting, and checklist.

Importance of the abstract

The abstract is a summary or synopsis of the full research paper and also needs to have similar characteristics like the title. It needs to be simple, direct, specific, functional, clear, unbiased, honest, concise, precise, self-sufficient, complete, comprehensive, scholarly, balanced, and should not be misleading.[ 1 , 2 , 3 , 7 , 8 , 9 , 10 , 11 , 13 , 17 ] Writing an abstract is to extract and summarize (AB – absolutely, STR – straightforward, ACT – actual data presentation and interpretation).[ 17 ] The title and abstracts are the only sections of the research paper that are often freely available to the readers on the journal websites, search engines, and in many abstracting agencies/databases, whereas the full paper may attract a payment per view or a fee for downloading the pdf copy.[ 1 , 2 , 3 , 7 , 8 , 10 , 11 , 13 , 14 ] The abstract is an independent and stand-alone (that is, well understood without reading the full paper) section of the manuscript and is used by the editor to decide the fate of the article and to choose appropriate reviewers.[ 2 , 7 , 10 , 12 , 13 ] Even the reviewers are initially supplied only with the title and the abstract before they agree to review the full manuscript.[ 7 , 13 ] This is the second most commonly read part of the manuscript, and therefore it should reflect the contents of the main text of the paper accurately and thus act as a “real trailer” of the full article.[ 2 , 7 , 11 ] The readers will go through the full paper only if they find the abstract interesting and relevant to their practice; else they may skip the paper if the abstract is unimpressive.[ 7 , 8 , 9 , 10 , 13 ] The abstract needs to highlight the selling point of the manuscript and succeed in luring the reader to read the complete paper.[ 3 , 7 ] The title and the abstract should be constructed using keywords (key terms/important words) from all the sections of the main text.[ 12 ] Abstracts are also used for submitting research papers to a conference for consideration for presentation (as oral paper or poster).[ 9 , 13 , 17 ] Grammatical and typographic errors reflect poorly on the quality of the abstract, may indicate carelessness/casual attitude on part of the author, and hence should be avoided at all times.[ 9 ]

Types of abstracts

The abstracts can be structured or unstructured. They can also be classified as descriptive or informative abstracts.

Structured and unstructured abstracts

Structured abstracts are followed by most journals, are more informative, and include specific subheadings/subsections under which the abstract needs to be composed.[ 1 , 7 , 8 , 9 , 10 , 11 , 13 , 17 , 18 ] These subheadings usually include context/background, objectives, design, setting, participants, interventions, main outcome measures, results, and conclusions.[ 1 ] Some journals stick to the standard IMRAD format for the structure of the abstracts, and the subheadings would include Introduction/Background, Methods, Results, And (instead of Discussion) the Conclusion/s.[ 1 , 2 , 7 , 8 , 9 , 10 , 11 , 12 , 13 , 17 , 18 ] Structured abstracts are more elaborate, informative, easy to read, recall, and peer-review, and hence are preferred; however, they consume more space and can have same limitations as an unstructured abstract.[ 7 , 9 , 18 ] The structured abstracts are (possibly) better understood by the reviewers and readers. Anyway, the choice of the type of the abstract and the subheadings of a structured abstract depend on the particular journal style and is not left to the author's wish.[ 7 , 10 , 12 ] Separate subheadings may be necessary for reporting meta-analysis, educational research, quality improvement work, review, or case study.[ 1 ] Clinical trial abstracts need to include the essential items mentioned in the CONSORT (Consolidated Standards Of Reporting Trials) guidelines.[ 7 , 9 , 14 , 19 ] Similar guidelines exist for various other types of studies, including observational studies and for studies of diagnostic accuracy.[ 20 , 21 ] A useful resource for the above guidelines is available at www.equator-network.org (Enhancing the QUAlity and Transparency Of health Research). Unstructured (or non-structured) abstracts are free-flowing, do not have predefined subheadings, and are commonly used for papers that (usually) do not describe original research.[ 1 , 7 , 9 , 10 ]

The four-point structured abstract: This has the following elements which need to be properly balanced with regard to the content/matter under each subheading:[ 9 ]

Background and/or Objectives: This states why the work was undertaken and is usually written in just a couple of sentences.[ 3 , 7 , 8 , 9 , 10 , 12 , 13 ] The hypothesis/study question and the major objectives are also stated under this subheading.[ 3 , 7 , 8 , 9 , 10 , 12 , 13 ]

Methods: This subsection is the longest, states what was done, and gives essential details of the study design, setting, participants, blinding, sample size, sampling method, intervention/s, duration and follow-up, research instruments, main outcome measures, parameters evaluated, and how the outcomes were assessed or analyzed.[ 3 , 7 , 8 , 9 , 10 , 12 , 13 , 14 , 17 ]

Results/Observations/Findings: This subheading states what was found, is longer, is difficult to draft, and needs to mention important details including the number of study participants, results of analysis (of primary and secondary objectives), and include actual data (numbers, mean, median, standard deviation, “P” values, 95% confidence intervals, effect sizes, relative risks, odds ratio, etc.).[ 3 , 7 , 8 , 9 , 10 , 12 , 13 , 14 , 17 ]

Conclusions: The take-home message (the “so what” of the paper) and other significant/important findings should be stated here, considering the interpretation of the research question/hypothesis and results put together (without overinterpreting the findings) and may also include the author's views on the implications of the study.[ 3 , 7 , 8 , 9 , 10 , 12 , 13 , 14 , 17 ]

The eight-point structured abstract: This has the following eight subheadings – Objectives, Study Design, Study Setting, Participants/Patients, Methods/Intervention, Outcome Measures, Results, and Conclusions.[ 3 , 9 , 18 ] The instructions to authors given by the particular journal state whether they use the four- or eight-point abstract or variants thereof.[ 3 , 14 ]

Descriptive and Informative abstracts

Descriptive abstracts are short (75–150 words), only portray what the paper contains without providing any more details; the reader has to read the full paper to know about its contents and are rarely used for original research papers.[ 7 , 10 ] These are used for case reports, reviews, opinions, and so on.[ 7 , 10 ] Informative abstracts (which may be structured or unstructured as described above) give a complete detailed summary of the article contents and truly reflect the actual research done.[ 7 , 10 ]

Drafting a suitable abstract

It is important to religiously stick to the instructions to authors (format, word limit, font size/style, and subheadings) provided by the journal for which the abstract and the paper are being written.[ 7 , 8 , 9 , 10 , 13 ] Most journals allow 200–300 words for formulating the abstract and it is wise to restrict oneself to this word limit.[ 1 , 2 , 3 , 7 , 8 , 9 , 10 , 11 , 12 , 13 , 22 ] Though some authors prefer to draft the abstract initially, followed by the main text of the paper, it is recommended to draft the abstract in the end to maintain accuracy and conformity with the main text of the paper (thus maintaining an easy linkage/alignment with title, on one hand, and the introduction section of the main text, on the other hand).[ 2 , 7 , 9 , 10 , 11 ] The authors should check the subheadings (of the structured abstract) permitted by the target journal, use phrases rather than sentences to draft the content of the abstract, and avoid passive voice.[ 1 , 7 , 9 , 12 ] Next, the authors need to get rid of redundant words and edit the abstract (extensively) to the correct word count permitted (every word in the abstract “counts”!).[ 7 , 8 , 9 , 10 , 13 ] It is important to ensure that the key message, focus, and novelty of the paper are not compromised; the rationale of the study and the basis of the conclusions are clear; and that the abstract is consistent with the main text of the paper.[ 1 , 2 , 3 , 7 , 9 , 11 , 12 , 13 , 14 , 17 , 22 ] This is especially important while submitting a revision of the paper (modified after addressing the reviewer's comments), as the changes made in the main (revised) text of the paper need to be reflected in the (revised) abstract as well.[ 2 , 10 , 12 , 14 , 22 ] Abbreviations should be avoided in an abstract, unless they are conventionally accepted or standard; references, tables, or figures should not be cited in the abstract.[ 7 , 9 , 10 , 11 , 13 ] It may be worthwhile not to rush with the abstract and to get an opinion by an impartial colleague on the content of the abstract; and if possible, the full paper (an “informal” peer-review).[ 1 , 7 , 8 , 9 , 11 , 17 ] Appropriate “Keywords” (three to ten words or phrases) should follow the abstract and should be preferably chosen from the Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) list of the U.S. National Library of Medicine ( https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/search ) and are used for indexing purposes.[ 2 , 3 , 11 , 12 ] These keywords need to be different from the words in the main title (the title words are automatically used for indexing the article) and can be variants of the terms/phrases used in the title, or words from the abstract and the main text.[ 3 , 12 ] The ICMJE (International Committee of Medical Journal Editors; http://www.icmje.org/ ) also recommends publishing the clinical trial registration number at the end of the abstract.[ 7 , 14 ]

Checklist for a good abstract

Table 3 gives a checklist/useful tips for formulating a good abstract for a research paper.[ 1 , 2 , 3 , 7 , 8 , 9 , 10 , 11 , 12 , 13 , 14 , 17 , 22 ]

Checklist/useful tips for formulating a good abstract for a research paper

Concluding Remarks

This review article has given a detailed account of the importance and types of titles and abstracts. It has also attempted to give useful hints for drafting an appropriate title and a complete abstract for a research paper. It is hoped that this review will help the authors in their career in medical writing.

Financial support and sponsorship

Conflicts of interest.

There are no conflicts of interest.

Acknowledgement

The author thanks Dr. Hemant Deshmukh - Dean, Seth G.S. Medical College & KEM Hospital, for granting permission to publish this manuscript.

Characteristics of research

• Empirical - based on observations and experimentation
• Systematic - follows orderly and sequential procedure.
• Controlled - all variables except those that are tested/experimented upon are kept constant.
• Employs hypothesis - guides the investigation process
• Analytical - There is critical analysis of all data used so that there is no error in their interpretation
• Objective, Unbiased, & Logical - all findings are logically based on empirical.
• Employs quantitative or statistical methods - data are transformed into numerical measures and are treated statistically.

See Also [ edit | edit source ]

• Thinking Scientifically
• Writing discipline specific research papers
• Wikipedia: Research
• Wikibooks: Research Methods

Bibliography [ edit | edit source ]

• Feigenbaum, Edward A.; McCorduck, Pamela (1983). The fifth generation: Artificial intelligence and Japan's computer challenge to the world . ISBN  978-0-201-11519-2 .  
• Kendal, Simon; Creen, Malcolm (2006-10-04). An Introduction to Knowledge Engineering . ISBN  978-1-84628-475-5 .  
• Russell, Stuart Jonathan; Norvig, Peter (1995). Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach . ISBN  0-13-103805-2 .  

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The Four Types of Research Paradigms: A Comprehensive Guide

5-minute read

• 22nd January 2023

In this guide, you’ll learn all about the four research paradigms and how to choose the right one for your research.

Introduction to Research Paradigms

A paradigm is a system of beliefs, ideas, values, or habits that form the basis for a way of thinking about the world. Therefore, a research paradigm is an approach, model, or framework from which to conduct research. The research paradigm helps you to form a research philosophy, which in turn informs your research methodology.

Your research methodology is essentially the “how” of your research – how you design your study to not only accomplish your research’s aims and objectives but also to ensure your results are reliable and valid. Choosing the correct research paradigm is crucial because it provides a logical structure for conducting your research and improves the quality of your work, assuming it’s followed correctly.

Three Pillars: Ontology, Epistemology, and Methodology

Before we jump into the four types of research paradigms, we need to consider the three pillars of a research paradigm.

Ontology addresses the question, “What is reality?” It’s the study of being. This pillar is about finding out what you seek to research. What do you aim to examine?

Epistemology is the study of knowledge. It asks, “How is knowledge gathered and from what sources?”

Methodology involves the system in which you choose to investigate, measure, and analyze your research’s aims and objectives. It answers the “how” questions.

Let’s now take a look at the different research paradigms.

1.   Positivist Research Paradigm

The positivist research paradigm assumes that there is one objective reality, and people can know this reality and accurately describe and explain it. Positivists rely on their observations through their senses to gain knowledge of their surroundings.

In this singular objective reality, researchers can compare their claims and ascertain the truth. This means researchers are limited to data collection and interpretations from an objective viewpoint. As a result, positivists usually use quantitative methodologies in their research (e.g., statistics, social surveys, and structured questionnaires).

This research paradigm is mostly used in natural sciences, physical sciences, or whenever large sample sizes are being used.

2.   Interpretivist Research Paradigm

Interpretivists believe that different people in society experience and understand reality in different ways – while there may be only “one” reality, everyone interprets it according to their own view. They also believe that all research is influenced and shaped by researchers’ worldviews and theories.

As a result, interpretivists use qualitative methods and techniques to conduct their research. This includes interviews, focus groups, observations of a phenomenon, or collecting documentation on a phenomenon (e.g., newspaper articles, reports, or information from websites).

3.   Critical Theory Research Paradigm

The critical theory paradigm asserts that social science can never be 100% objective or value-free. This paradigm is focused on enacting social change through scientific investigation. Critical theorists question knowledge and procedures and acknowledge how power is used (or abused) in the phenomena or systems they’re investigating.

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Researchers using this paradigm are more often than not aiming to create a more just, egalitarian society in which individual and collective freedoms are secure. Both quantitative and qualitative methods can be used with this paradigm.

4.   Constructivist Research Paradigm

Constructivism asserts that reality is a construct of our minds ; therefore, reality is subjective. Constructivists believe that all knowledge comes from our experiences and reflections on those experiences and oppose the idea that there is a single methodology to generate knowledge.

This paradigm is mostly associated with qualitative research approaches due to its focus on experiences and subjectivity. The researcher focuses on participants’ experiences as well as their own.

Choosing the Right Research Paradigm for Your Study

Once you have a comprehensive understanding of each paradigm, you’re faced with a big question: which paradigm should you choose? The answer to this will set the course of your research and determine its success, findings, and results.

To start, you need to identify your research problem, research objectives , and hypothesis . This will help you to establish what you want to accomplish or understand from your research and the path you need to take to achieve this.

You can begin this process by asking yourself some questions:

• What is the nature of your research problem (i.e., quantitative or qualitative)?
• How can you acquire the knowledge you need and communicate it to others? For example, is this knowledge already available in other forms (e.g., documents) and do you need to gain it by gathering or observing other people’s experiences or by experiencing it personally?
• What is the nature of the reality that you want to study? Is it objective or subjective?

Depending on the problem and objective, other questions may arise during this process that lead you to a suitable paradigm. Ultimately, you must be able to state, explain, and justify the research paradigm you select for your research and be prepared to include this in your dissertation’s methodology and design section.

Using Two Paradigms

If the nature of your research problem and objectives involves both quantitative and qualitative aspects, then you might consider using two paradigms or a mixed methods approach . In this, one paradigm is used to frame the qualitative aspects of the study and another for the quantitative aspects. This is acceptable, although you will be tasked with explaining your rationale for using both of these paradigms in your research.

Choosing the right research paradigm for your research can seem like an insurmountable task. It requires you to:

●  Have a comprehensive understanding of the paradigms,

●  Identify your research problem, objectives, and hypothesis, and

●  Be able to state, explain, and justify the paradigm you select in your methodology and design section.

Although conducting your research and putting your dissertation together is no easy task, proofreading it can be! Our experts are here to make your writing shine. Your first 500 words are free !

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Research: Definition, Characteristics, Goals, Approaches

Research is an original and systematic investigation undertaken to increase existing knowledge and understanding of the unknown to establish facts and principles.

Let’s understand research:

What is Research?

Research is a voyage of discovery of new knowledge. It comprises creating ideas and generating new knowledge that leads to new and improved insights and the development of new materials, devices, products, and processes.

It should have the potential to produce sufficiently relevant results to increase and synthesize existing knowledge or correct and integrate previous knowledge.

Good reflective research produces theories and hypotheses and benefits any intellectual attempt to analyze facts and phenomena.

Where did the word Research Come from?

The word ‘research’ perhaps originates from the old French word “recerchier” which meant to ‘ search again.’ It implicitly assumes that the earlier search was not exhaustive and complete; hence, a repeated search is called for.

In practice, ‘research’ refers to a scientific process of generating an unexplored horizon of knowledge, aiming at discovering or establishing facts, solving a problem, and reaching a decision. Keeping the above points in view, we arrive at the following definition of research:

Research Definition

Research is a scientific approach to answering a research question, solving a research problem, or generating new knowledge through a systematic and orderly collection, organization, and analysis of data to make research findings useful in decision-making.

When do we call research scientific? Any research endeavor is said to be scientific if

• It is based on empirical and measurable evidence subject to specific principles of reasoning;
• It consists of systematic observations, measurement, and experimentation;
• It relies on the application of scientific methods and harnessing of curiosity;
• It provides scientific information and theories for the explanation of nature;
• It makes practical applications possible, and
• It ensures adequate analysis of data employing rigorous statistical techniques.

The chief characteristic that distinguishes the scientific method from other methods of acquiring knowledge is that scientists seek to let reality speak for itself, supporting a theory when a theory’s predictions are confirmed and challenging a theory when its predictions prove false.

Scientific research has multidimensional functions, characteristics, and objectives.

Keeping these issues in view, we assert that research in any field or discipline:

• Attempts to solve a research problem;
• Involves gathering new data from primary or first-hand sources or using existing data for a new purpose;
• is based upon observable experiences or empirical evidence;
• Demands accurate observation and description;
• Employs carefully designed procedures and rigorous analysis;
• attempts to find an objective, unbiased solution to the problem and takes great pains to validate the methods employed;
• is a deliberate and unhurried activity that is directional but often refines the problem or questions as the research progresses.

Characteristics of Research

Keeping this in mind that research in any field of inquiry is undertaken to provide information to support decision-making in its respective area, we summarize some desirable characteristics of research:

• The research should focus on priority problems.
• The research should be systematic. It emphasizes that a researcher should employ a structured procedure.
• The research should be logical. Without manipulating ideas logically, the scientific researcher cannot make much progress in any investigation.
• The research should be reductive. This means that one researcher’s findings should be made available to other researchers to prevent them from repeating the same research.
• The research should be replicable. This asserts that there should be scope to confirm previous research findings in a new environment and different settings with a new group of subjects or at a different point in time.
• The research should be generative. This is one of the valuable characteristics of research because answering one question leads to generating many other new questions.
• The research should be action-oriented. In other words, it should be aimed at solving to implement its findings.
• The research should follow an integrated multidisciplinary approach, i.e., research approaches from more than one discipline are needed.
• The research should be participatory, involving all parties concerned (from policymakers down to community members) at all stages of the study.
• The research must be relatively simple, timely, and time-bound, employing a comparatively simple design.
• The research must be as much cost-effective as possible.
• The research results should be presented in formats most useful for administrators, decision-makers, business managers, or community members.

3 Basic Operations of Research

Scientific research in any field of inquiry involves three basic operations:

• Data collection;
• Data analysis;
• Report writing .

• Data collection refers to observing, measuring, and recording data or information.
• Data analysis, on the other hand, refers to arranging and organizing the collected data so that we may be able to find out what their significance is and generalize about them.
• Report writing is the ultimate step of the study . Its purpose is to convey the information contained in it to the readers or audience.

If you note down, for example, the reading habit of newspapers of a group of residents in a community, that would be your data collection.

If you then divide these residents into three categories, ‘regular,’ ‘occasional,’ and ‘never,’ you have performed a simple data analysis. Your findings may now be presented in a report form.

A reader of your report knows what percentage of the community people never read any newspaper and so on.

Here are some examples that demonstrate what research is:

• A farmer is planting two varieties of jute side by side to compare yields;
• A sociologist examines the causes and consequences of divorce;
• An economist is looking at the interdependence of inflation and foreign direct investment;
• A physician is experimenting with the effects of multiple uses of disposable insulin syringes in a hospital;
• A business enterprise is examining the effects of advertisement of their products on the volume of sales;
• An economist is doing a cost-benefit analysis of reducing the sales tax on essential commodities;
• The Bangladesh Bank is closely observing and monitoring the performance of nationalized and private banks;
• Based on some prior information, Bank Management plans to open new counters for female customers.
• Supermarket Management is assessing the satisfaction level of the customers with their products.

The above examples are all researching whether the instrument is an electronic microscope, hospital records, a microcomputer, a questionnaire, or a checklist.

Research Motivation – What makes one motivated to do research?

A person may be motivated to undertake research activities because

• He might have genuine interest and curiosity in the existing body of knowledge and understanding of the problem;
• He is looking for answers to questions that have remained unanswered so far and trying to unfold the truth;
• The existing tools and techniques are accessible to him, and others may need modification and change to suit the current needs.

One might research ensuring.

• Better livelihood;
• Better career development;
• Higher position, prestige, and dignity in society;
• Academic achievement leading to higher degrees;
• Self-gratification.

At the individual level, the results of the research are used by many:

• A villager is drinking water from an arsenic-free tube well;
• A rural woman is giving more green vegetables to her child than before;
• A cigarette smoker is actively considering quitting smoking;
• An old man is jogging for cardiovascular fitness;
• A sociologist is using newly suggested tools and techniques in poverty measurement.

The above activities are all outcomes of the research.

All involved in the above processes will benefit from the research results. There is hardly any action in everyday life that does not depend upon previous research.

Research in any field of inquiry provides us with the knowledge and skills to solve problems and meet the challenges of a fast-paced decision-making environment.

9 Qualities of Research

Good research generates dependable data. It is conducted by professionals and can be used reliably for decision-making. It is thus of crucial importance that research should be made acceptable to the audience for which research should possess some desirable qualities in terms of.

9 qualities of research are;

Purpose clearly defined

Research process detailed, research design planner, ethical issues considered, limitations revealed, adequate analysis ensured, findings unambiguously presented, conclusions and recommendations justified..

We enumerate below a few qualities that good research should possess.

Good research must have its purposes clearly and unambiguously defined.

The problem involved or the decision to be made should be sharply delineated as clearly as possible to demonstrate the credibility of the research.

The research procedures should be described in sufficient detail to permit other researchers to repeat the research later.

Failure to do so makes it difficult or impossible to estimate the validity and reliability of the results. This weakens the confidence of the readers.

Any recommendations from such research justifiably get little attention from the policymakers and implementation.

The procedural design of the research should be carefully planned to yield results that are as objective as possible.

In doing so, care must be taken so that the sample’s representativeness is ensured, relevant literature has been thoroughly searched, experimental controls, whenever necessary, have been followed, and the personal bias in selecting and recording data has been minimized.

A research design should always safeguard against causing mental and physical harm not only to the participants but also those who belong to their organizations.

Careful consideration must also be given to research situations when there is a possibility for exploitation, invasion of privacy, and loss of dignity of all those involved in the study.

The researcher should report with complete honesty and frankness any flaws in procedural design; he followed and provided estimates of their effects on the findings.

This enhances the readers’ confidence and makes the report acceptable to the audience. One can legitimately question the value of research where no limitations are reported.

Adequate analysis reveals the significance of the data and helps the researcher to check the reliability and validity of his estimates.

Data should, therefore, be analyzed with proper statistical rigor to assist the researcher in reaching firm conclusions.

When statistical methods have been employed, the probability of error should be estimated, and criteria of statistical significance applied.

The presentation of the results should be comprehensive, easily understood by the readers, and organized so that the readers can readily locate the critical and central findings.

Proper research always specifies the conditions under which the research conclusions seem valid.

Therefore, it is important that any conclusions drawn and recommendations made should be solely based on the findings of the study.

No inferences or generalizations should be made beyond the data. If this were not followed, the objectivity of the research would tend to decrease, resulting in confidence in the findings.

The researcher’s experiences were reflected.

The research report should contain information about the qualifications of the researchers .

If the researcher is experienced, has a good reputation in research, and is a person of integrity, his report is likely to be highly valued. The policymakers feel confident in implementing the recommendations made in such reports.

4 Goals of Research

The primary goal or purpose of research in any field of inquiry; is to add to what is known about the phenomenon under investigation by applying scientific methods. Though each research has its own specific goals, we may enumerate the following 4 broad goals of scientific research:

Exploration and Explorative Research

Description and descriptive research, causal explanation and causal research, prediction and predictive research.

The link between the 4 goals of research and the questions raised in reaching these goals.

Let’s try to understand the 4 goals of the research.

Exploration is finding out about some previously unexamined phenomenon. In other words, an explorative study structures and identifies new problems.

The explorative study aims to gain familiarity with a phenomenon or gain new insights into it.

Exploration is particularly useful when researchers lack a clear idea of the problems they meet during their study.

Through exploration, researchers attempt to

• Develop concepts more clearly;
• Establish priorities among several alternatives;
• Develop operational definitions of variables;
• Formulate research hypotheses and sharpen research objectives;
• Improve the methodology and modify (if needed) the research design .

Exploration is achieved through what we call exploratory research.

The end of an explorative study comes when the researchers are convinced that they have established the major dimensions of the research task.

Many research activities consist of gathering information on some topic of interest. The description refers to these data-based information-gathering activities. Descriptive studies portray precisely the characteristics of a particular individual, situation, or group.

Here, we attempt to describe situations and events through studies, which we refer to as descriptive research.

Such research is undertaken when much is known about the problem under investigation.

Descriptive studies try to discover answers to the questions of who, what, when, where, and sometimes how.

Such research studies may involve the collection of data and the creation of distribution of the number of times the researcher observes a single event or characteristic, known as a research variable.

A descriptive study may also involve the interaction of two or more variables and attempts to observe if there is any relationship between the variables under investigation .

Research that examines such a relationship is sometimes called a correlational study. It is correlational because it attempts to relate (i.e., co-relate) two or more variables.

A descriptive study may be feasible to answer the questions of the following types:

• What are the characteristics of the people who are involved in city crime? Are they young? Middle-aged? Poor? Muslim? Educated?
• Who are the potential buyers of the new product? Men or women? Urban people or rural people?
• Are rural women more likely to marry earlier than their urban counterparts?
• Does previous experience help an employee to get a higher initial salary?

Although the data description in descriptive research is factual, accurate, and systematic, the research cannot describe what caused a situation.

Thus, descriptive research cannot be used to create a causal relationship where one variable affects another.

In other words, descriptive research can be said to have a low requirement for internal validity. In sum, descriptive research deals with everything that can be counted and studied.

But there are always restrictions on that. All research must impact the lives of the people around us.

For example, finding the most frequent disease that affects the people of a community falls under descriptive research.

But the research readers will have the hunch to know why this has happened and what to do to prevent that disease so that more people will live healthy lives.

It dictates that we need a causal explanation of the situation under reference and a causal study vis-a-vis causal research .

Explanation reveals why and how something happens.

An explanatory study goes beyond description and attempts to establish a cause-and-effect relationship between variables. It explains the reason for the phenomenon that the descriptive study observed.

Thus, if a researcher finds that communities with larger family sizes have higher child deaths or that smoking correlates with lung cancer, he is performing a descriptive study.

If he explains why it is so and tries to establish a cause-and-effect relationship, he is performing explanatory or causal research . The researcher uses theories or at-least hypotheses to account for the factors that caused a certain phenomenon.

Look at the following examples that fit causal studies:

• Why are people involved in crime? Can we explain this as a consequence of the present job market crisis or lack of parental care?
• Will the buyers be motivated to purchase the new product in a new container ? Can an attractive advertisement motivate them to buy a new product?
• Why has the share market shown the steepest-ever fall in stock prices? Is it because of the IMF’s warnings and prescriptions on the commercial banks’ exposure to the stock market or because of an abundant increase in the supply of new shares?

Prediction seeks to answer when and in what situations will occur if we can provide a plausible explanation for the event in question.

However, the precise nature of the relationship between explanation and prediction has been a subject of debate.

One view is that explanation and prediction are the same phenomena, except that prediction precedes the event while the explanation takes place after the event has occurred.

Another view is that explanation and prediction are fundamentally different processes.

We need not be concerned with this debate here but can simply state that in addition to being able to explain an event after it has occurred, we would also be able to predict when it will occur.

Research Approaches

There are two main approaches to doing research.

The first is the basic approach, which mostly pertains to academic research. Many people view this as pure research or fundamental research.

The research implemented through the second approach is variously known as applied research, action research, operations research, or contract research.

Also, the third category of research, evaluative research, is important in many applications. All these approaches have different purposes influencing the nature of the respective research.

Lastly, precautions in research are required for thorough research.

So, 4 research approaches are;

• Basic Research .
• Applied Research .
• Evaluative Research .
• Precautions in Research.

Areas of Research

The most important fields or areas of research, among others, are;

• Social Research .
• Health Research .
• Population Research .
• Business Research .
• Marketing Research .
• Agricultural Research .
• Biomedical Research.
• Clinical Research .
• Outcomes Research.
• Internet Research.
• Archival Research.
• Empirical Research.
• Legal Research .
• Education Research .
• Engineering Research .
• Historical Research.

Check out our article describing all 16 areas of research .

Precautions in Research

Whether a researcher is doing applied or basic research or research of any other form, he or she must take necessary precautions to ensure that the research he or she is doing is relevant, timely, efficient, accurate, and ethical .

The research is considered relevant if it anticipates the kinds of information that decision-makers, scientists, or policymakers will require.

Timely research is completed in time to influence decisions.

• Research is efficient when it is of the best quality for the minimum expenditure and the study is appropriate to the research context.
• Research is considered accurate or valid when the interpretation can account for both consistencies and inconsistencies in the data.
• Research is ethical when it can promote trust, exercise care, ensure standards, and protect the rights of the participants in the research process.

What is the definition of research?

What are the characteristics of good research, what are the three basic operations involved in scientific research, what are the four broad goals of scientific research, what distinguishes the scientific method from other methods of acquiring knowledge, what is the origin of the word ‘research’, how is “research methodology” defined, how does research methodology ensure the appropriateness of a research method.

After discussing the research definition and knowing the characteristics, goals, and approaches, it’s time to delve into the research fundamentals. For a comprehensive understanding, refer to our detailed research and methodology concepts guide .

Research should be relevant, timely, efficient, accurate, and ethical. It should anticipate the information required by decision-makers, be completed in time to influence decisions, be of the best quality for the minimum expenditure, and protect the rights of participants in the research process.

The two main approaches to research are the basic approach, often viewed as pure or fundamental research, and the applied approach, which includes action research, operations research, and contract research.

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6 Important Tips on Writing a Research Paper Title

When you are searching for a research study on a particular topic, you probably notice that articles with interesting, descriptive research titles draw you in. By contrast, research paper titles that are not descriptive are usually passed over, even though you may write a good research paper with interesting contents. This shows the importance of coming up with a good title for your research paper when drafting your own manuscript.

Importance of a Research Title

The research title plays a crucial role in the research process, and its importance can be summarized as follows:

Why do Research Titles Matter?

Before we look at how to title a research paper, let’s look at a research title example that illustrates why a good research paper should have a strong title.

Imagine that you are researching meditation and nursing, and you want to find out if any studies have shown that meditation makes nurses better communicators.  You conduct a keyword search using the keywords “nursing”, “communication”, and “meditation.” You come up with results that have the following titles:

• Benefits of Meditation for the Nursing Profession: A Quantitative Investigation
• Why Mindful Nurses Make the Best Communicators
• Meditation Gurus
• Nurses on the Move: A Quantitative Report on How Meditation Can Improve Nurse Performance

All four of these research paper titles may describe very similar studies—they could even be titles for the same study! As you can see, they give very different impressions.

• Title 1 describes the topic and the method of the study but is not particularly catchy.
• Title 2 partly describes the topic, but does not give any information about the method of the study—it could simply be a theoretical or opinion piece.
• Title 3 is somewhat catchier but gives almost no information at all about the article.
• Title 4 begins with a catchy main title and is followed by a subtitle that gives information about the content and method of the study.

As we will see, Title 4 has all the characteristics of a good research title.

Characteristics of a Good Research Title

According to rhetoric scholars Hairston and Keene, making a good title for a paper involves ensuring that the title of the research accomplishes four goals as mentioned below:

• It should predict the content of the research paper .
• It should be interesting to the reader .
• It should reflect the tone of the writing .
• It should contain important keywords that will make it easier to be located during a keyword search.

Let’s return to the examples in the previous section to see how to make a research title.

As you can see in the table above, only one of the four example titles fulfills all of the criteria of a suitable research paper title.

Related: You’ve chosen your study topic, but having trouble deciding where to publish it? Here’s a comprehensive course to help you identify the right journal .

Tips for Writing an Effective Research Paper Title

When writing a research title, you can use the four criteria listed above as a guide. Here are a few other tips you can use to make sure your title will be part of the recipe for an effective research paper :

• Make sure your research title describes (a) the topic, (b) the method, (c) the sample, and (d) the results of your study. You can use the following formula:

[ Result ]: A [ method ] study of [ topic ] among [ sample ] Example : Meditation makes nurses perform better: a qualitative study of mindfulness meditation among German nursing students

• Avoid unnecessary words and jargons. Keep the title statement as concise as possible. You want a title that will be comprehensible even to people who are not experts in your field. Check our article for a detailed list of things to avoid when writing an effective research title .
• Make sure your title is between 5 and 15 words in length.
• If you are writing a title for a university assignment or for a particular academic journal, verify that your title conforms to the standards and requirements for that outlet. For example, many journals require that titles fall under a character limit, including spaces. Many universities require that titles take a very specific form, limiting your creativity.
• Use a descriptive phrase to convey the purpose of your research efficiently.
• Most importantly, use critical keywords in the title to increase the discoverability of your article.

Resources for Further Reading

In addition to the tips above, there are many resources online that you can use to help write your research title. Here is a list of links that you may find useful as you work on creating an excellent research title:

• The University of Southern California has a guide specific to social science research papers: http://libguides.usc.edu/writingguide/title
• The Journal of European Psychology Students has a blog article focusing on APA-compliant research paper titles: http://blog.efpsa.org/2012/09/01/how-to-write-a-good-title-for-journal-articles/
• This article by Kristen Hamlin contains a step-by-step approach to writing titles: http://classroom.synonym.com/choose-title-research-paper-4332.html

Are there any tips or tricks you find useful in crafting research titles? Which tip did you find most useful in this article? Leave a comment to let us know!

• Hairston, M., & Keene, M. 2003. Successful writing . 5th ed. New York: Norton.
• University of Southern California. 2017. Organizing your social sciences research paper: choosing a title . [Online] Available at: http://libguides.usc.edu/writingguide/title

Thank you so much:) Have a nice day!

Thank you so much, it helped me.. God bless..

Thank you for the excellent article and tips for creating a research work, because I always forget about such an essential element as the keywords when forming topics. In particular, I have found a rapid help with the formation of informative and sound titles that also conforms to the standards and requirements.

I am doing a research work on sales girls or shop girls using qualititative method. Basicly I am from Pakistan and writing on the scenario of mycountry. I am really confused about my research title can you kindly give some suggestions and give me an approperaite tilte

Hi Zubair, Thank you for your question. However, the information you have provided is insufficient for drafting an appropriate title. Information on what exactly you intend to study would be needed in order to draft a meaningful title. Meanwhile, you can try drafting your own title after going through the following articles our website: https://www.enago.com/academy/top-10-tips-on-choosing-an-attractive-research-title/ , https://www.enago.com/academy/writing-a-good-research-title-things-to-avoid/ , https://www.enago.com/academy/write-irresistible-research-paper-title/ We would be happy to give you feedback and suggest changes if required. Did you get a chance to install our free Mobile App? https://www.enago.com/academy/mobile-app/ . Make sure you subscribe to our weekly newsletter https://www.enago.com/academy/subscribe-now/ .

thanks for helping me like this!!

Thank you for this. It helped me improve my research title. I just want to verify to you the title I have just made. “Ensuring the safety: A Quantitative Study of Radio Frequency Identification system among the selected students of ( school’s name ).

(I need your reply asap coz we will be doing the chap. 1 tomorrow. Thank u in advance. 🙂 )

I am actually doing a research paper title. I want to know more further in doing research title. Can you give me some tips on doing a research paper?

Hi Joan, Thank you for your question. We are glad to know that you found our resources useful. Your feedback is very valuable to us. You can try drafting your own title after going through the following articles on our website: https://www.enago.com/academy/top-10-tips-on-choosing-an-attractive-research-title/ , https://www.enago.com/academy/writing-a-good-research-title-things-to-avoid/ , https://www.enago.com/academy/write-irresistible-research-paper-title/

We would be happy to give you feedback and suggest changes if required. Did you get a chance to install our free Mobile App? https://www.enago.com/academy/mobile-app/ . Make sure you subscribe to our weekly newsletter https://www.enago.com/academy/subscribe-now/ .

That really helpful. Thanks alot

Thank you so much. It’s really help me.

Thanks for sharing this tips. Title matters a lot for any article because it contents Keywords of article. It should be eye-catchy. Your article is helpful to select title of any article.

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This blog is very informative for me. Thanks for sharing.

nice information that you have shared

i’m found in selecting my ma thesis title ,so i’m going to do my final research after the proposal approved. Your post help me find good title.

I need help. I need a research title for my study about early mobilization of the mechanically ventilated patients in the ICU. Any suggestions would be highly appreciated.

Thank you for posting your query on the website. When writing manuscripts, too many scholars neglect the research title. This phrase, along with the abstract, is what people will mostly see and read online. Title research of publications shows that the research paper title does matter a lot. Both bibliometrics and altmetrics tracking of citations are now, for better or worse, used to gauge a paper’s “success” for its author(s) and the journal publishing it. Interesting research topics coupled with good or clever yet accurate research titles can draw more attention to your work from peers and the public alike. You can check through the following search results for titles on similar topics: https://www.google.com/search?q=early+mobilization+of+the+mechanically+ventilated+patients+in+the+icu&rlz=1C1GCEU_enIN907IN907&oq=&aqs=chrome.0.69i59.4920093j0j7&sourceid=chrome&ie=UTF-8 .

We hope this would be helpful in drafting an attractive title for your research paper.

Please let us know in case of any other queries.

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Wow that was odd. I just wrote an very long comment but after I clicked submit my comment didn’t show up. Grrrr… well I’m not writing all that over again. Anyhow, just wanted to say fantastic blog!

In case the topic is new research before you’re writing. And then to stand out, you end up being different.and be inclined to highlight yourself.

There are many free directories, and more paid lists.

To be honest your article is informative. I search many site to know about writing but I didn’t get the information I needed. I saw your site and I read it. I got some new information from here. I think some of your tips can be applied to those too! Thank you so very much for such informative and useful content.

Nice and well written content you have shared with us. thanks a lot!

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Its helpful. a person can grab knowledge through it.

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Original research article, durability life evaluation of marine infrastructures built by using carbonated recycled coarse aggregate concrete due to the chloride corrosive environment.

• 1 National Engineering Research Center for Inland Waterway Regulation, School of River and Ocean Engineering, Chongqing Jiaotong University, Chongqing, China
• 2 First Design Branch of Water Transport, Sichuan Communication Surveying & Design Institute Co. Ltd., Chengdu, China

Due to the harsh marine environment of chloride ion invasion and corrosion, the issues of long-term chloride transport and durability life evaluation for marine infrastructures constructed/maintained by recycled aggregate concrete (RAC) after enhancement remain poorly understood. For our studies, an accelerated carbonation modification method for recycled coarse aggregate (RCA) was adopted to prepare carbonated recycled coarse aggregate (CRCA) samples, and the macroproperties, i.e., apparent density and water absorption, of CRCA were enhanced by approximately 1.40-3.97% and 16.3-21.8%, respectively, compared with those of RCA. An in-door experiment for chloride transport into concrete specimens subjected to a simulated marine environment of alternating drying-wetting cycles was conducted. The chloride profiles and transport characteristics of carbonated recycled coarse aggregate concrete (CRCAC), recycled coarse aggregate concrete (RCAC), and natural coarse aggregate concrete (NCAC) were analysed and compared. The results indicated that the chloride penetration depths and concentrations of CRCAC were approximately 52.6-96.2% of those of RCAC, which highlighted the better chloride resistance of CRCAC. A chloride transport model for marine concrete structures with various coarse aggregate types in a corrosive marine environment was established. Taking a certain harbour wharf as an example, the durability life of this case considering the application of the CRCAC was evaluated based on the chloride transport model, and the durability life of the CRCAC structure was improved by approximately 28.10% compared with that of the RCAC. The CRCAC developed in this paper has improved mechanical performance and durability than those of RCAC, and it has the potential to replace the NCAC and further support the construction and maintenance of marine infrastructures.

1 Introduction

Oceans have received considerable attention for their abundant energy, mineral, and biological resources, making the development of marine infrastructures critical for the efficient exploitation of these resources ( Bangley et al., 2022 ). Marine infrastructures include harbours, seawalls, offshore wind farms, offshore pipelines, tidal stream turbines, oil and gas platforms, cross-sea bridges, subsea tunnels, and so on (Guo et al., 2023). The construction, operation and development of marine infrastructures consume a large amount of the raw materials of reinforced concrete (RC) ( He and Lu, 2023 ). In the face of the current major strategic requirements for the construction and development of marine infrastructures, as well as the increasing shortages of natural resources, such as aggregates of sand and crushed stone, for producing concrete worldwide, the promotion and utilization of waste concrete to produce/prepare recycled aggregate (RA) and recycled aggregate concrete (RAC) ( Feng et al., 2022 ; Zhang et al., 2022 ) and the further treatment of these materials as concrete raw materials for RC structures of marine infrastructures must be the general trend in the future. This initiative can not only greatly reduce carbon emissions and decrease the exploitation of natural resources but also effectively promote the protection of the marine ecological environment, which has become a hot topic in the field of structures and materials in marine infrastructures worldwide.

However, the mechanical strength and durability (resistance to chloride penetration) of RA and its RAC used in marine infrastructures are worse than those of the natural aggregate and its concrete due to numerous pores and microcracks within the old mortar (OM) and the old interfacial transition zone (OITZ) of RA, as well as the formative multiple mesoscopic interface structure of RAC (see Figure 1 ). The microstructure of ITZ is shown in Figure 1C ( Liang et al., 2019 ) and Figure 1D ( Li et al., 2020 ). On the basis of this figure, the ITZ within the RCAs before accelerated carbonation is loose and has obvious cracks. In accordance with Wang et al. (2016) , the OM and OITZ of RA contain a series of components, including calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H), calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH) 2 ), unhydrated C 3 S, C 2 S, etc. Carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) can chemically react with these components and further form dense CaCO 3 and silica gel (SiO 2 ·nH 2 O), resulting in an increase in the solid phase volumes of the generated products of approximately 11-12% compared with the original components ( Liang et al., 2020 ); this can further decrease the pores and microcracks within the OM and the OITZ of the RA and improve the microstructure of the RA, thereby enhancing the properties of the RA and its RAC ( Tam et al., 2020 ; Hosseini Zadeh et al., 2021 ; Pu et al., 2021 ).

Figure 1 Mesoscopic structure of the (A) RA, (B) RAC, and (C) microstructure of the ITZ ( Liang et al., 2019 ) and (D) microstructure of the ITZ ( Li et al., 2020 ).

In addition, the issues of marine structural performance deterioration, long-term durability and reliability for coastal reinforced concrete (RC) infrastructures caused by chloride ion invasion exposed to marine environments ( Das and Pradhan, 2023 ; Lai et al., 2023 ; Prusty and Pradhan, 2023 ; Wally et al., 2023 ; de Vera et al., 2024 ) can seriously restrict the practical application of RA and its RAC for construction and development in marine engineering. Therefore, the property enhancement of RA and its RAC, as well as the long-term durability of modified RAC prepared from RA after modification, are considered vital issues that must be urgently researched and resolved to promote the application of RA and its RAC in marine infrastructures.

For RC structures exposed to marine environments, especially those exposed to marine zones with alternating drying-wetting cycles, chloride ion invasion into concrete via multiple transmission mechanisms, including diffusion, convection, etc., is generally considered the vital reason for rebar corrosion, which can risk the long-term durability and reliability of RC structures to a great extent ( Gao et al., 2019 ; Shen et al., 2019 ; Ashrafian et al., 2022 ). Many classical studies have reported the transport of chloride ions into fresh natural aggregate concrete composites ( Bao et al., 2022 ; Ou et al., 2022 ; Gašpárek et al., 2023 ; Pontes et al., 2023 ; Qian et al., 2023 ; de Vera et al., 2024 ; Korec et al., 2024 ). However, the RAC contains a new ITZ (NITZ) and an OITZ structure, and the large number of pores and cracks as well as the unhydrated cement particles are included in the NITZ and OITZ; hence, they are regarded as the weakest link within RAC, which can greatly reduce its resistance to chloride ion penetration ( Liang et al., 2019 ). Moreover, the multiple interface structural characteristics of RAC can increase the connectivity of its internal pores and microcracks ( Ortolan et al., 2023 ; Pandey and Rajhans, 2023 ), which results in chloride ion transport behaviours in RAC that are more complex than those in natural aggregate concrete (NAC) ( Sua-iam and Makul, 2024 ).

However, there are few published reports on long-term chloride ion transport characteristics and durability evaluations for marine infrastructures constructed using recycled aggregate concrete based on carbonated recycled aggregate (CRA) exposed to marine environments. The stability and durability of marine infrastructures built from carbonated recycled aggregate concrete (CRAC) in operation remain poorly understood. Consequently, studying the risks and reliability of CRAC structures exposed to marine environments is critical for providing practical insights into protecting the stable operation of marine infrastructures. In summary, to further promote the application of CRA and its CRAC in marine infrastructures, the corresponding key durability issues for CRAC structures, including chloride profiles, transport characteristics and computational models, as well as structural durability evaluations under marine environments, need to be addressed.

In our study, two significant aspects, i.e., chloride transport in carbonated recycled coarse aggregate concrete (CRCAC) and durability evaluation of marine infrastructures using CRCAC in marine drying-wetting environments, were considered. During this paper’s investigations, sufficient carbonated recycled coarse aggregate (CRCA) samples with different particle diameters based on the gaseous CO 2 accelerated carbonation method were acquired. Subsequently, the chloride profiles and transport characteristics of concrete cast by various coarse aggregate types, including natural coarse aggregate concrete (NCAC), recycled coarse aggregate concrete (RCAC) and CRCAC, subjected to a simulated marine environment with alternating drying-wetting cycles were analysed and compared. A computational model of chloride transport in concrete considering coarse aggregate types under a marine drying-wetting alternating environment was established, which can be used to estimate the long-term chloride transport behaviours of different concrete types (NCAC, RCAC, and CRCAC), especially for CRCAC. Finally, using the chloride transport computational model proposed in this paper, the durability life of marine infrastructure (an example of a certain harbour wharf) considering the application of the CRCAC was evaluated.

In summary, the significant research contents, objectives and innovations for this paper are highlighted as follows:

(1) An accelerated carbonation modification method for RCAs is adopted to prepare the CRCA, which can effectively enhance the properties of RCAs after accelerated carbonation.

(2) An in-door experiment for chloride transport into concrete cast by various coarse aggregate types under a simulated marine environment of alternating drying-wetting cycles is conducted, and the chloride profiles and transport characteristics of the NCAC, RCAC and CRCAC are described.

(3) A chloride transport model for marine concrete structures with various coarse aggregate types in a corrosive marine environment is established, and the durability life of a certain harbour wharf hypothetically constructed by the CRCAC is evaluated based on this chloride transport model.

2 Materials and methodology

2.1 materials.

Composite silicate cement, i.e., PC.42.5R, natural crush stones with a particle diameter range of 5-20 mm and continuous grading, freshwater river sand with a fineness modulus of 2.6 and continuous grading, and drinking water with a density of ρ w =1 g/cm 3 were used as the raw materials for casting and preparing sufficient original C40-strength concrete specimens (100×100×100 mm 3 cube) based on the Chinese standard ( JTJ 270-1998, 1998 ). The mix proportions for the C40-strength concrete specimens are listed in Table 1 , and the particle grading distributions of the aggregates in the concrete specimens, including the coarse aggregates and fine aggregates, are shown in Supplementary Figure 1 .

Table 1 Mix proportions of the original concrete for RCA preparation.

All C40-strength concrete specimens were cast in plastic moulds and subsequently compacted using a vibrating table. After 24 h of curing at 20 ± 5°C and a relative humidity of approximately 50–55%, the concrete specimens were demoulded and transferred to saturated Ca(OH) 2 solutions for 28 days of ageing, and the environmental temperature was set to 20 ± 3°C.

Samples of RCAs with various particle diameters of 5-10 mm, 10-20 mm, and 20-25 mm were acquired through crushing and sieving from the aforementioned original C40-strength concrete specimens by using a crusher (see Supplementary Figure 2A and Taylor sieve machine (see Supplementary Figure 2A ). These prepared RCA samples were subsequently used for the accelerated carbonation experiment (ACE) of the RCAs.

Moreover, natural coarse aggregate (NCA) samples with identical particle diameters of 5-10 mm, 10-20 mm, and 20-25 mm were acquired by utilizing the identical sieving method of RCA. The prepared samples of recycled coarse aggregate (RCA) and NCA were placed in a drying oven at a constant temperature of 105 ± 5°C for more than 24 h until they reached a constant weight ( Wu et al., 2023 ; Yang et al., 2023 ; Ju et al., 2024 ), after which they were removed and cooled to the general temperature for subsequent tests, including the ACE of the RCA and initial property measurements of the RCA and NCA.

2.2 Methodology

2.2.1 preparation of crca based on the accelerated carbonation method.

The ACE for the RCA samples with various particle diameters based on the accelerated carbonation method was determined by using a carbonation chamber for the cement-based composites, as shown in Supplementary Figure 3A . The environmental temperature (ET), relative humidity (RH), and CO 2 concentration were set as constants of 20 ± 2°C, 70 ± 5%, and 20 ± 3%, respectively, inside the carbonation chamber ( Liang et al., 2019 ; Li et al., 2020 ). Stainless steel baskets with multiholes of less than 2 mm aperture size were customized and adopted to hold the samples of RCAs with various particle diameters in the carbonation chamber, as demonstrated in Supplementary Figure 3B , which ensured better all-round contact between the samples of RCA and CO 2 gas during the ACE of the RCA.

The ACE for the RCA samples was performed in this paper, and the corresponding detailed procedures for the ACE were described by Yang et al. (2023) . The standard for the end of ACE for the RCA samples was that when the weight of the samples remained basically unchanged, the accelerated carbonation durations for this paper’s experiment were all more than 160 min.

The apparent density ( ρ app ) and water absorption ( W a ) of the RCAs before and after ACE were measured based on the Chinese standard GB/T 14685-2022, 2022 to explore the degree to which the CRCA enhanced the properties, and the specific testing procedures and computational formulas used were described by Wu et al. (2023) ; Yang et al. (2023) , and Ju et al. (2024) . Notably, the whole CRCA samples with different particle diameters obtained by RCA after carbonation were put into an oven at a temperature of 105 ± 5°C to dry until a constant weight was reached. Subsequently, three parallel samples were used for testing the ρ app and W a of the CRCA (see Figure 4B , and the final ρ app and W a of the CRCA were the average values based on the three parallel samples.

Moreover, during our following investigations, both the apparent density ( ρ app ) and water absorption ( W a ) of the RCAs before and after ACE were treated as the indexes for comparing and quantifying the properties enhancement degrees of NCA, RCA and CRCA, but the ITZ of RCA after the ACE test was not characterized in this paper.

2.2.2 Concrete mix proportions and specimen preparation

2.2.2.1 mix proportions for the fresh concrete cast by nca, rca, and crca.

Concrete specimens, i.e., NCAC, RCAC, and CRCAC, with their different coarse aggregate types, including NCA, RCA and CRCA, were prepared in accordance with the mix proportions in Table 2 ( JGJ 55-2011, 2011 ). The coarse aggregates used for continuous grading and nominal diameters ranged from 5-10 mm, 10-20 mm, and 20-25 mm, and the particle grading distributions of the coarse aggregates in the concrete specimens, including the NCAC, RCAC, and CRCAC, are shown in Supplementary Figure 1A . Moreover, the other raw materials, including the cement, water, and fine aggregates (the particle grading distribution is shown in Supplementary Figure 1B , were consistent with those described in Section 2.1. In addition, the substitution rates of RCA and CRCA for preparing the RCAC and CRCAC based on Table 2 were both 100%.

Table 2 Mix proportions of fresh concrete with NCA, RCA and CRCA.

2.2.2.2 Preparation of fresh concrete specimens

To minimize the adverse impacts of RCA and CRCA with high water absorption ( Quattrone et al., 2016 ) on the workability, mechanical properties and durability of fresh RCAC and CRCAC, the RCA and CRCA were presaturated and drained one day before casting the RCAC and CRCAC specimens to ensure that the effective mix proportions of RCAC and CRCAC were consistent with those of NCAC ( Xuan et al., 2016b ). It was unnecessary to conduct the presaturation treatment for NCA due to its extremely low water absorption.

Sufficient experimental specimens of NCAC, RCAC and CRCAC with 100×100×100 mm 3 cubes were cast and prepared according to the Chinese standard ( JGJ 55-2011, 2011 ); these specimens were used to test the compressive strengths of NCAC, RCAC and CRCAC and to further explore the chloride transport characteristics and durability life of marine RC structures constructed from NCA, RCA and CRCA exposed to an artificial simulated marine environment of alternating drying-wetting cycles.

A total of 9 cubic specimens of 100×100×100 mm 3 were utilized to determine the compressive strength of the concrete, and the number of each concrete type (NCAC, RCAC and CRCAC) included 3 parallel samples. The compressive strengths of the NCAC, RCAC and CRCAC specimens after 28 d of complete curing were measured by using a concrete pressure testing machine, as shown in Supplementary Figure 4 . Moreover, 15 concrete cube specimens remained in total, and each concrete type (NCAC, RCAC and CRCAC) included 5 samples. After 28 d of curing ( He et al., 2023 ), each specimen was thoroughly washed and dried under natural conditions. Two symmetrical surfaces of every concrete cube were reserved for chloride ion invasion, and the remaining 4 surfaces were sealed using an epoxy polyurethane-based coating, as shown in Supplementary Figure 5 .

2.2.3 Experiment of chloride transport in concrete specimens

2.2.3.1 simulation of a marine drying-wetting alternating environment.

Previous efforts have indicated that an alternating drying-wetting marine environment, i.e., the marine tidal zone and splash zone, has the greatest impact on the deterioration of durability of coastal RC structures ( Othmen et al., 2018 ; Ju et al., 2021 ; Fu et al., 2022 ; Ju et al., 2022 ; Wu et al., 2022 ; Xia et al., 2023 ). For our study, an indoor test of natural chloride transport in the concrete specimens of the NCAC, RCAC, and CRCAC under a simulated drying-wetting alternating marine environment was carried out to explore the effects of the NCA, RCA, and CRCA on the chloride profiles and chloride transport characteristics of various types of concrete. An automatic device for simulating the drying-wetting alternating marine environment independently developed by our scientific research team was used to achieve a marine tidal alternation of drying-wetting cycles based on a dry−wet ratio of 1:1. This automatic device was composed of two test chambers and a timed water conveyance system, and the latter was composed of pumps, time-control switches, water pipes, etc., as shown in Supplementary Figure 6 .

According to the time-control switches of the timed water conveyance system, the open and close functions of the pumps were regularly controlled to automatically achieve alternating continuous 12 h complete immersion in man-made seawater and continuous 12 h complete dry exposure to the atmosphere for the NCAC, RCAC, and CRCAC specimens on the right side of the test chamber. During the simulated drying-wetting alternating process of the marine diurnal tides, the drying-wetting cycle period was equal to 24 h, and the dry−wet ratio was considered 1:1. A 3.5% NaCl solution was adopted as the artificial seawater for our chloride transport experiment, and the artificial seawater in the test chambers was required to be termly updated every 10 d to ensure the accuracy of the final results. Moreover, the two test chambers were both sealed to prevent the evaporation of chloride solution during the stages of complete immersion, but the test chamber on the right side of Supplementary Figure 6 should be unsealed during the stages of complete dry exposures.

The final duration of chloride ion transport in the NCAC, RCAC and CRCAC specimens exposed to the simulated drying-wetting marine environment ( t e ) was 180 d. When t e reached 60, 90, 120, 150 and 180 d, the corresponding experimental specimens were removed from the test chambers; subsequently, the chloride penetration depths and chloride concentrations from the concrete surface to the inside were measured, as described in the following paragraphs.

2.2.3.2 Measurements of chloride penetration depth

As shown in Supplementary Figure 7A , one of the chloride invasion surfaces for the NCAC, RCAC and CRCAC specimens at different exposure times was first selected and drilled along the chloride transport direction perpendicular to the surface (see Supplementary Figure 7E ). At least 3 holes were drilled for each surface of the specimen, and the diameter and drilled depth of each arbitrary hole were at least 5 mm and 20 mm, respectively. Subsequently, the residual powders in the drilled holes were removed, a 0.1 mol/L AgNO 3 solution was titrated into the hole wall, and then, the colour reaction took approximately 10 min. Finally, the chloride penetration depths were measured based on the colour reaction depths in each drilled hole, and the final tested results were the average values of at least 3 drilled holes, as shown in Supplementary Figure 7F . Note that the chloride penetration depth for each drilled hole needed to be tested at least 5 times, and the final results of the chloride penetration depth for concrete used the multimeasured average values of the entire drilled hole. The measurements of chloride penetration depth for concrete samples can be used to roughly/qualitatively analyse and compare the resistance to chloride penetration of NCAC, RCAC, and CRCAC.

2.2.3.3 Measurements of chloride concentration

As shown in Supplementary Figure 7A , two chloride invasion surfaces, including the drilled and other symmetrical surfaces, of the NCAC, RCAC, and CRCAC specimens at different exposure times were selected, and a cement-based composite grinder was used to mill the concrete powders layer by layer beginning from the two surfaces of the concrete specimens to their inside along the chloride transport depth direction, as shown in Supplementary Figure 7B . The thickness ground off for each layer within the concrete specimens was controlled at 2 mm from chloride transport depths of x =0 mm to x =20 mm. Subsequently, the various layers of the concrete powders were collected and placed in clean plastic sealing bags, as shown in Supplementary Figure 7C . Finally, the water-soluble chloride concentrations within the NCAC, RCAC, and CRCAC powders were determined by using a rapid chloride ion content test device according to the Chinese standard ( JTJ 270-1998, 1998 ), as shown in Supplementary Figure 7D . Hence, for this paper’s test, the chloride concentration within each concrete specimen at different exposure times is equivalent to the average value of two parallel samples. The measurements of chloride concentration for concrete samples can be used to reflect the variation trend of chloride concentrations vs. depth and to precisely/quantitatively represent the chloride profiles and transport characteristics of the NCAC, RCAC, and CRCAC.

Note: the tested free chloride concentrations in our study were all referred to as the percentage of the concrete mass (%).

3 Results and analysis

3.1 comparison of the properties of nca, rca and crca.

According to Section 2.2.1, the apparent density and water absorption results for the NCA, the RCA, and the CRCA with different particle diameters are presented in the Figures 2 and 3 . The apparent density and water absorption of the CRCA were both between those of the NCA and RCA. Through analysis, the apparent density and water absorption for CRCA with different particle diameters are approximately 1.40-3.97% higher and approximately 16.3-21.8% lower than those of RCA, which indicates that the accelerated carbonation method based on gaseous CO 2 can effectively enhance the macroproperties of RCA.

Figure 2 Apparent densities of coarse aggregates of various types and with various particle diameters.

Figure 3 Water absorption of coarse aggregates of various types and with various particle diameters.

3.2 Compressive strength of various concrete specimens

The measured compressive strength results for the NCAC, RCAC, and CRCAC specimens prepared by NCA, RCA and CRCA with continuous grading based on Section 2.2.2 were determined and are shown in Figure 11 ; the substitution rates of RCA and CRCA within the RCAC and CRCAC specimens are 100%.

From Figure 4 , the average compressive strength of the CRCAC was 52.47 MPa, which is between those of the NCAC (54.37 MPa) and RCAC (47.43 MPa). The strength of concrete materials with different aggregate types strongly depends on the mechanical properties of the internal aggregates and cement pastes ( Ge et al., 2021 ). Compared to those of NCA and CRCA, the material defects of RCA, including porosity and microcracks, result in the looseness and nonuniformity of the RCA and its RCAC, further affecting the overall strength and stability of the RCAC ( Bao et al., 2023 ). Moreover, the old and new interfacial transition zone (ITZ) as well as the incomplete hydration of cement particles can affect the strength of RCAC; in particular, the looser meso-scopic structure of the new ITZ for RCAC leads to a reduction in interfacial bonding performance, further decreasing the overall strength of RCAC ( Patil et al., 2021 ), which is the reason for the decrease in strength of RCAC.

Figure 4 Compressive strength of the NCAC, CRCAC and RCAC specimens.

Additionally, the measured compressive strength of the CRCAC was only approximately 3.49% lower than that of the NCAC based on Figure 4 . The results further demonstrate that the difference in the mechanical properties between the CRCAC and NCAC can be reduced by the accelerated carbonation modification method, and this good approach can provide some feasible, stable and reliable support for the promotion and application of the CRCAC and its CRCAC in marine infrastructures.

3.3 Chloride transport characteristics of marine RC structures

3.3.1 chloride penetration depth.

Figure 5 shows that the chloride penetration depths in the NCAC, RCAC and CRCAC gradually increase with increasing exposure time t e . At an identical exposure time, the tested chloride penetration depth in NCAC is the smallest, that in RCAC is the largest, and that of CRCAC is between those of NCAC and RCAC. This result indicates that CRCA can increase the resistance of CRCAC to chloride penetration to a certain degree in an alternating drying-wetting marine environment and hence can effectively enhance the chloride ion penetration resistance of marine RC structures. This effect may be attributed to the densification degrees of internal pores and microcracks in the CRCA is greater than that in the RCA, which effectively blocks chloride penetration in the CRCA and CRCAC used for constructing marine infrastructures ( Li et al., 2020 ).

Figure 5 Time-dependent chloride penetration depths of the NCAC, CRCAC and RCAC specimens.

On the basis of Figure 13 , we can observe that the chloride penetration depths in RCAC are approximately 1.04-1.18 times greater than those in CRCAC, i.e., the chloride penetration depth in CRCAC accounts for approximately 84.7-96.2% of that in RCAC, which demonstrates that using CRCA can effectively improve the resistance of RCAC to chloride penetration. Moreover, the tested chloride penetration depths of the NCAC were still lower than those of the CRCAC, and the resistance to chloride penetration of the CRCAC exhibited a difference of approximately 11.4-30.2% compared with that of the NCAC.

The chloride penetration depth results are shown in Figures 5 and 6 , which can only be used to roughly and qualitatively analyse the effect of NCA, RCA, and CRCA on the resistance to chloride penetration of their corresponding concrete materials. The chloride profiles and transport characteristics of the NCAC, RCAC, and CRCAC used for marine infrastructures under alternating drying-wetting marine environments still need to be accurately quantified and explored.

Figure 6 Chloride penetration depth: NCAC and RCAC vs. CRCAC.

3.3.2 Chloride profiles

The alternating drying−wetting marine zone is the area where the RC structure is most seriously eroded by chloride ions ( Nukushina, et al., 2021 ; Cao, et al., 2022 ), and the deterioration degree of RC structures exposed to alternating drying-wetting environments is greater than that in the underwater full immersion area, where chloride ions are transmitted by a pure diffusion mechanism ( Sun et al., 2018 ). By means of Section 2.2.3, the chloride concentration profiles of the NCAC, RCAC, and CRCAC at various exposure periods are acquired, as plotted and exhibited in Figure 7 . Clearly, the tested chloride concentrations of the NCAC, RCAC, and CRCAC gradually increasing as the depth increases within the range of the convective zone (nearly 5 mm from the surface to the inside, along the chloride transport direction), and the skin effect of chloride ingress in concrete can be significantly observed ( Andrade et al., 1997 ; Cai et al., 2020 ). The chloride concentrations of the different concrete types gradually decrease with increasing depth but increase with increasing exposure period in the stable diffusion zone (with depths greater than 5 mm). Due to the influence of the long-term drying−wetting alternating action of seawater, chloride ions are transported by the common mechanisms of “convection-diffusion” ( Liu et al., 2021 ; Liu et al., 2022 ), resulting in an increase in the chloride concentrations within the concrete as the depth of the “first increase and then decrease” distribution characteristics increases ( Kumar et al., 2021 ) and in the concrete near the surface area with the formation of a chloride concentration peak ( Luo et al., 2021 ).

Figure 7 Chloride concentration of the concrete samples: (A) NCAC, (B) RCAC, and (C) CRCAC.

Figure 8 quantifies the relationship of chloride concentrations within the stable diffusion zones of NCAC, RCAC and CRCAC; the chloride concentrations in NCAC are the lowest, but those in RCAC are the largest, and those of CRCAC are between those of NCAC and RCAC, which are consistent with the results of the chloride penetration depth shown in Figures 5 and 6 . The measured chloride concentrations in the RCAC are approximately 1.2-1.9 times those in the CRCAC, i.e., the chloride concentrations in the CRCAC account for approximately 52.6-83.3% of those in the RCAC. Although the chloride concentrations in the CRCAC are approximately 27-50% less than those in the NCAC, the chloride concentrations in the CRCAC are also significantly lower than those in the RCAC. The results indicate that the use of the CO 2 accelerated carbonation method for RCAs can effectively promote the densification of internal pores in CRCA and CRCAC and further intercept the passageway of microcracks within marine RC structures ( Liang et al., 2019 ; Li et al., 2020 ); hence, long-term chloride transport concentrations are reduced, and finally, the durability of marine infrastructures exposed to salt environments is prolonged.

Figure 8 Measurements of chloride concentration for the concrete samples within the stable diffusion zone: NCAC and RCAC vs. CRCAC.

3.4 Modelling of chloride transport in marine RC structures

3.4.1 fick’s second law of diffusion.

The chloride profiles in the stable diffusion zone for the NCAC, RCAC, and CRCAC specimens are shown in Figure 14 can be quantified using Fick’s second law. Several significant parameters, including the surface chloride concentration (SCC), chloride diffusion coefficient (CDC), and ageing factor (AF) of concrete specimens with various coarse aggregate types, are determined via nonlinear regression analysis. These parameters were subsequently used to thoroughly analyse the effect of CRCA on the chloride transport characteristics of the CRCAC. The analytical solution expression of Fick’s second law considering one-dimensional chloride diffusion in marine RC structures is expressed as ( Othmen et al., 2018 ):

where C ( x , t ) is the free chloride concentration at different depths x and an arbitrary exposure time t e (%); C s ( t ) denotes the time dependency of SCC for concrete materials (%); D app ( t ) is the time dependency of the apparent chloride diffusion coefficient (ACDC) of concrete materials (m 2 /s), and its expression is shown in Equation (2) ( Gašpárek et al., 2023 ); erf(·) is the Gauss error function; D ref is the reference chloride diffusion coefficient (RCDC) of concrete materials (m 2 /s); a is the AF; moreover, t ref is the reference exposure time, and t ref = 28 d ( Pontes et al., 2023 ).

3.4.2 Determination of C s ( t ), D app ( t ), D ref , and a

The SCC, i.e., C s , and the ACDC, i.e., D app , for concrete specimens with various coarse aggregate types (NCA, RCA, and CRCA) and at different exposure periods t e can be determined by fitting Equation (1) to the chloride profiles of the NCAC, RCAC, and CRCAC specimens in the ranges of the stable diffusion zone using the nonlinear regression method, as shown in Figure 9 . The chloride measurements corresponding to the exposure times of t e =60, 90, 120, and 180 d are the original scatters for acquiring the results of C s and D app via regression analysis, as exhibited in Table 3 .

Figure 9 Regression parameters of C s and D app of various concrete types: (A) NCAC; (B) RCAC; (C) CRCAC.

Table 3 Regression parameters of C s and D app for NCAC, RCAC, and CRCAC.

Moreover, the tested chloride concentration values for an exposure period t e of 150 d are used to verify the accuracy of the chloride transport model of marine RC structures with various coarse aggregate types, as detailed in the following sections.

The variations in the SCC, i.e., C s , with increasing exposure period t e for the NCAC, RCAC, and CRCAC specimens under the alternating drying-wetting marine environment are shown in Figure 10 . The C s values for the concrete specimens with different coarse aggregate types exhibit a nonlinear increasing trend with increasing exposure time t e , which is consistent with the findings reported in the existing published literature ( Cai et al., 2021 ; Ortolan et al., 2023 ). Among them, the C s values for NCAC are the lowest, but those for RCAC are the highest, and the C s values of CRCAC are between those of NCAC and RCAC, which are consistent with the variation patterns of the chloride penetration depth and chloride concentrations shown in Figures 5 – 8 .

where A and B are the undetermined coefficients within C s ( t ) for the NCAC, RCAC, and CRCAC.

Figure 10 Surface chloride concentrations of the NCAC, RCAC and CRCAC.

The coarse aggregate type coefficient, i.e., T ca , is proposed to quantify the effects of NCA, RCA, and CRCA on the chloride transport characteristics of marine RC structures with different coarse aggregate types. T ca values of 0, 1, and 2 represent NCA and its NCAC, CRCA and its CRCAC, as well as RCA and its RCAC, respectively. On this basis, the relationships between the regression parameters A and B of the NCAC, RCAC and CRCAC specimens and T ca are quantified within Equation (3) , as shown in Figure 11 . Parameter A shows a nearly linear growth trend with T ca , and a linear function is adopted to fit, regress and determine the functional expression of A ( T ca ), as shown in Figure 11 . Moreover, parameter B is almost independent of T ca . Therefore, the average value of B is -0.38207, and this value is considered the final result for parameter B .

Figure 11 Fitted curves of parameters A and B with respect to T ca .

In summary, an empirical function for the time dependency of the SCC, i.e., C s ( t ), of concrete considering the coarse aggregate types (NCA, RCA, and CRCA) under alternating marine drying-wetting cycles is expressed as follows:

The variations in the ACDC, i.e., D app , with increasing exposure period for the NCAC, RCAC, and CRCAC specimens under the alternating drying-wetting marine environment are shown in Figure 12 . The D app values for marine RC structures with different coarse aggregate types show a nonlinear decreasing trend with increasing exposure time t e , which is consistent with the results reported in the literature ( Titi and Tabatabai, 2018 ; Zhang et al., 2020 , 2022 ; Vintimilla et al., 2023 ). Among them, the D app values of NCAC are the lowest, but those of RCAC are the highest, and the D app values of CRCAC are between those of NCAC and RCAC, which are consistent with the variation patterns of chloride penetration depth, chloride concentrations and SCCs in the previous sections of this paper. Therefore, CRCA can effectively densify the internal pores and microcracks within CRCAC ( Liang et al., 2019 ; Li et al., 2020 ), consequently decreasing the ACDC, i.e., the velocity of chloride transport into concrete, of CRCAC and reducing the chloride concentration in marine RC structures.

Figure 12 Variation trend of the D app values with the exposure time and the regression parameters of D ref and a for the NCAC, RCAC and CRCAC.

The time dependency of the power function form [shown in Equation (2) ] is utilized to establish the relationship between D app scatters and the exposure period t e for the NCAC, RCAC, and CRCAC specimens to determine the RCDC, i.e., D ref , and the AF, i.e., a . The fitted curves are shown in Figure 12 , and the regression results are exhibited in Table 4 . On the basis of this figure and table, we can clearly observe that the magnitude and variation trend of D ref with different coarse aggregate types are in agreement with those of D app ; specifically, the D ref values of CRCAC are between those of NCAC and RCAC.

Table 4 Regression parameters of D ref and a for NCAC, RCAC, and CRCAC.

The impact factor of the coarse aggregate type, i.e., f ca ( T ca ), is defined to quantify the influence of different coarse aggregate types on the chloride diffusion coefficient of marine RC structures, expressed as follows:

where D ref ( T ca ) is the RCDC of marine RC structures with different coarse aggregate types (m 2 /s) and D ref(0) is the RCDC of the NCAC (m 2 /s). On the basis of Table 4 , D ref(0) = D ref ( T ca =0)=10.72×10 -12 m 2 /s, D ref ( T ca =1)=11.72×10 -12 m 2 /s, and D ref ( T ca =2)=14.27×10 -12 m 2 /s.

The results of the impact factor f ca ( T ca ) for the NCAC, RCAC and CRCAC specimens are confirmed in accordance with these D ref values and Equation (5) , and the variations in f ca scatter with T ca are plotted in Figure 13 . From this figure, f ca shows a nonlinear increasing trend with the variation in T ca , and the empirical function of f ca ( T ca ) is fitted and determined by using nonlinear regression analysis. In addition, evident linear variation trends between the AFs a and T ca are observed, and a linear functional expression of a ( T ca ) is acquired in Figure 13 .

Figure 13 Fitted curves of the parameters f ca and a with respect to T ca .

In summary, an empirical expression for the time dependency of the ACDC, i.e., D app ( t ), of the marine RC structure accounting for coarse aggregate types (NCA, RCA and CRCA) under alternating marine drying-wetting cycles is determined as follows:

3.4.3 Establishment of a chloride transport model for marine RC structures

A computational model of chloride transport in marine RC structures considering coarse aggregate types (NCA, RCA, and CRCA) is established by combining Equations (1) , (2) , (4) , and (6) . The effects of the coarse aggregate type on the time dependency of SCC [ C s ( t )] and the ACDC [ D app ( t )] are both simultaneously considered in this proposed model, as expressed:

This chloride transport model [ Equation (7) ] can be applied to assess and predict the chloride profiles for marine RC structures with various coarse aggregate types of NCA, RCA, and CRCA at arbitrary exposure times t e under the precondition of w/c=0.4. In particular, when T ca =1, this computational model can be utilized to analyse and evaluate the long-term chloride transport behaviours of marine RC structures constructed by using the CRCAC under an alternating marine drying-wetting environment, which can provide a vital theoretical foundation for evaluating the durability life of marine RC structures cast by the CRCA.

3.4.4 Model verification

To verify the accuracy of this paper’s proposed chloride transport model [ Equation (7) ], the tested chloride concentrations for the NCAC, RCAC and CRCAC at t e =150 d (exhibited in Figure 7 ) were compared with those evaluated via Equation (7) , as shown in Figure 14 .

Figure 14 Comparison of chloride profiles determined by the model and experiments for the NCAC, RCAC, and CRCAC when the exposure time is 150 d.

On the basis of this figure, the chloride concentrations acquired by the model of Equation (7) were in agreement with those from this paper’s experimental measurements. The chloride concentrations of the NCAC, RCAC and CRCAC samples predicted by our proposed model against the experimental results at t e =150 d are shown in Figure 15 . Based on Figure 15 , almost all of the model results determined by Equation (7) and our experiments are included in a relative error margin of ± 15% for the NCAC, RCAC, and CRCAC, validating the accuracy of the chloride transport model of marine RC structures.

Figure 15 Comparison of chloride concentrations for the NCAC, RCAC and CRCAC evaluated by the model versus those of the experimental results.

4 Durability life evaluation for a certain harbour wharf

Taking the RC beam components within a certain harbour wharf exposed to a corrosive environment of marine tidal zone as an example, the durability life of the RC beams constructed by the NCAC, RCAC and CRCAC were evaluated based on this paper’s proposed chloride transport model [ Equation (7) ] of marine infrastructures and the time-dependent corrosion rate model of reinforcement. The concrete mix proportions of the RC beam are described in Table 2 . The cover thickness of the RC beam is 60 mm in the tensile area, and the rebar diameter is 25 mm. The design strength of the concrete materials for the RC beam of the wharf is considered greater than that of C35 based on the Chinese standard JTJ 153-2015, 2015 . In fact, the tested compressive strengths of the NCAC and CRCAC are greater than 50 MPa, and the measured compressive strength of the RCAC is 45 MPa greater, as shown in Figure 4 . The geometric dimensions of the RC beam are shown in Figure 16 .

Figure 16 A certain harbour wharf: (A) real structure (under construction); (B) reinforcement drawing of an RC beam; (C) chloride transport in an RC beam.

According to the mechanism of chloride-induced steel corrosion and marine structural performance degradation, the service life of marine RC structures can be treated in four stages, including the initial corrosion time of the steel bar t i , the concrete cover cracking time t s , the time that affects the normal use of RC structures t z , and the time that affects the structural bearing capacity t c ( Xiaoping et al., 2016 ). Considering the safety reserve of marine RC structures during operation, the sum of the initial corrosion time of the steel bar and the concrete cover cracking time are used as the basis for evaluating the durability life of RC beams within the harbour wharf ( Xu et al., 2019 ), i.e., t d = t i + t s .

4.1 Initial corrosion time of steel bar, t i

According to Cao et al. (2019) , the chloride threshold value range for RC structures exposed to corrosive marine environments is approximately 0.97-2.3% (the percentage of the cementitious material mass) when w/c=0.4 ( Song et al., 2007 ). Taking the average value, i.e., C cr (cem) =1.635%, as the basis, the chloride threshold value for marine RC structures considering w/c=0.4 is converted to the percentage of the concrete mass, i.e., C cr (con) =0.327%, based on the concrete mix proportions in Table 2 .

By setting C ( x , T ca , t )= C ( c =60 mm, T ca , t i )=0.327% at the left side of Equation (7) and inserting the corresponding chloride transport parameters at the right side of Equation (7) , the results of the initial corrosion time of steel bars for the RC beams cast by using the NCAC, RCAC, and CRCAC were evaluated based on this paper’s proposed chloride transport model of marine infrastructures, as shown in Table 5 .

Table 5 Durability life of RC structure with NCAC, CRCAC and RCAC.

4.2 Concrete cover cracking time, t s

According to the achievements reported by Ju et al. (2021) , the concrete cover cracking time can be evaluated via the following equation:

where c denotes the cover thickness of the concrete, and c =60 mm; d is the diameter of the reinforcement, i.e., d =25 mm; and f cuk is the standard compressive strength of the concrete, as shown in Figure 4 ; w/c is the water-cement ratio of the concrete materials, and w/c=0.4.

By substituting all the known parameters into Equation (8) , the results of the concrete cover cracking time, t s , for the RC beams within the harbour wharf constructed by NCA, RCA and CRCA are evaluated, as shown in Table 5 .

4.3 Evaluation of the durability life of RC beams within harbour wharfs

Summarizing the evaluation results of the initial rebar corrosion time t i in Table 5 and the concrete cover cracking time t s in Table 5 , the durability life results for the RC beam within the harbour wharf built by the NCAC, RCAC, and CRCAC, i.e., t d , are determined and exhibited as follows:

The results indicated that the durability lifetimes of marine RC structures built with NCAC, RCAC, and CRCAC differ due to the various resistances to chloride ions. Among them, the durability life of the RC beam cast by the NCAC is the longest (almost t d =23 a), but the durability life of the RC beam cast by the RCAC is the shortest ( t d =13.82 a), and the durability life of the RC beam constructed by the CRCAC ( t d =17.7 a) is between those of the NCAC and RCAC. Pang and Li (2016) derived probability models of chloride ingress parameters for predicting the service life of marine structures. The results indicated that the service life of OPC concrete structures is approximately 17-22.5 years when exposed to marine environments, validating the correctness and reasonability of this paper’s evaluations.

In summary, based on the durability life results of marine structures, the durability of the marine RC infrastructures prepared by the CRCAC was approximately 28.10% greater than that of the RCAC. Although there are still differences compared with those of marine NCAC structures, the chloride penetration resistance and durability life of marine RC structures built via CRCAC are still improved to a certain extent compared with those of the RCAC, which can greatly promote the feasibility of using CRCAC in the construction, operation and maintenance of marine infrastructures.

5 Conclusions

In this paper, an indoor experiment for chloride transport in NCAC, RCAC, and CRCAC specimens under an artificial simulated marine environment with alternating drying-wetting cycles was conducted to examine the chloride profiles and transport characteristics of the NCAC, RCAC, and CRCAC concrete types, and a chloride transport model of marine RC structures considering coarse aggregate types in a marine tidal environment was established based on Fick’s second law. Moreover, the durability life of marine RC beams within a certain harbour wharf constructed by the application of NCAC, RCAC, and CRCAC was evaluated and compared.

Some critical conclusions are listed as follows:

(1) The apparent density and water absorption for CRCA with different particle diameters increased by approximately 1.40-3.97% and decreased by approximately 16.3-21.8% compared with those of the RCA, and the measured compressive strength for CRCAC was only approximately 3.49% lower than that of NCAC, indicating that the accelerated carbonation method based on gaseous CO 2 can effectively enhance the properties of RCA and reduce the difference in mechanical properties between CRCAC and NCAC.

(2) The chloride penetration depths, chloride concentration profiles, surface chloride concentrations (SCCs), and chloride diffusion coefficients (CDCs) of the CRCAC are all between those of the NCAC and RCAC, which indicates that using the CRCA can effectively improve the resistance to chloride penetration and durability of marine RC structures exposed to marine tidal environments.

(3) The SCCs and ACDCs for marine RC structures with NCA, RCA, and CRCA at various exposure periods are determined, and the effects of coarse aggregate type on the time dependency of SCC and ACDC are quantified. On the basis of the empirical expressions, a chloride transport model for marine RC structures considering coarse aggregate types is built, and the accuracy of this proposed model is verified.

(4) Taking the RC beams within a certain harbour wharf as an example, the durability life results of the RC beams constructed by the NCAC, RCAC and CRCAC are evaluated based on this paper’s proposed chloride transport model [ Equation (7) ] of marine infrastructures and the time-dependent corrosion rate model of reinforcement. The results showed that the durability life of the marine RC infrastructure prepared by the CRCAC was approximately 28.10% greater than that of the RCAC. Although there are still differences compared with those of marine NCAC structures, the chloride penetration resistance and durability life of marine RC structures built via CRCAC are still improved to a certain extent compared with those of the RCAC, which can greatly promote the feasibility of using CRCAC in the construction, operation and maintenance of marine infrastructures.

To sum up, our investigations can provide a scientific basis for the resource utilization of waste concrete, facilitate the practical application of RCAs and RCACs in marine infrastructures, and further help to improve the durability, reliability, stability and risk resistance of marine RC structures to support the design and construction of marine infrastructure, which has vital scientific significance, engineering value and development prospects.

For future studies, we will try our best to continuously carry out the relevant works and strive to be able to achieve the use of CRCA in the construction and operation of marine infrastructures to completely replace the NCA, as well as to ensure and even further enhance the durability, reliability, stability and risk resistance of marine RC structures and provide support for the design and construction of marine infrastructures.

Data availability statement

The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the authors, without undue reservation.

Author contributions

HJ: Conceptualization, Methodology, Writing – original draft. LW: Investigation, Writing – original draft. XLJ: Formal analysis, Validation, Writing – original draft. ML: Writing – review & editing. ZX: Supervision, Writing – original draft. LG: Visualization, Writing – original draft. XHJ: Formal analysis, Validation, Writing – original draft. YL: Resources, Supervision, Writing – original draft. JL: Writing – review & editing.

The author(s) declare financial support was received for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article. This research was supported by the National Key R&D Program of China (No: 2022YFB3207400), the Research and Innovation Program for Graduate Students in Chongqing (No: CYS23487), the National Natural Science Foundation of China (No: 52209156), and the 2023 National College Students’ Innovation and Entrepreneurship Training Program (No. S202310618012).

Conflict of interest

Author LG was employed by the company Sichuan Communication Surveying & Design Institute Co. Ltd.

The remaining authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher’s note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

Supplementary material

The Supplementary Material for this article can be found online at: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fmars.2024.1357186/full#supplementary-material

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Keywords: marine infrastructures, carbonated recycled coarse aggregate concrete (CRCAC), marine corrosive environment, chloride transport, structural durability evaluation

Citation: Jiang H, Wu L, Guan L, Liu M, Ju X, Xiang Z, Jiang X, Li Y and Long J (2024) Durability life evaluation of marine infrastructures built by using carbonated recycled coarse aggregate concrete due to the chloride corrosive environment. Front. Mar. Sci. 11:1357186. doi: 10.3389/fmars.2024.1357186

Received: 17 December 2023; Accepted: 02 April 2024; Published: 25 April 2024.

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Copyright © 2024 Jiang, Wu, Guan, Liu, Ju, Xiang, Jiang, Li and Long. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Linjian Wu, [email protected] ; Mingwei Liu, [email protected]

This article is part of the Research Topic

Novel Approaches of Marine Geotechnical Engineering: Risk and Reliability of Marine Infrastructures

Investigating the complete replacement of conventional fat with oleogel on the structural behavior of five different pastry products

• Original Paper
• Open access
• Published: 25 April 2024

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• Anda E. Tanislav   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-9136-4832 1   na1 ,
• Bianca Șandru 1   na1 ,
• Simona M. Man 1 ,
• Andreea Pușcaș 1 ,
• Andruța E. Mureșan 1 ,
• Adriana Păucean 1 ,
• Vlad Mureșan 1 &
• Elena Mudura 1  

Saturated and trans fat intake have been linked to an increased risk of developing diseases such as cardiovascular and coronary heart disease, obesity, and myocardial infarction. As a result of the actions and regulations proposed to reduce and eliminate the content of saturated and trans fats, it is necessary to develop and implement new structuring technologies, such as oleogelation. Oleogelation is a promising strategy for structuring liquid oil, that allows the incorporation of vegetable oils rich in unsaturated fatty acids into food matrix and which can provide the functionality of solid fats and improved nutritional characteristics. The partial or total replacement of conventional fats with oleogels in pastry products is of great interest due to their larger consumption. In this research paper, the puff (jam-filled puff pastry) and tender pastries (bow tie cookies, cheese crackers, apple pie, and cookies) have been reformulated by totally replacing of conventional fats with oleogel and the structural behavior in the dynamics of the technological process was evaluated. The textural properties of oleogel were comparable to those of some conventional fats, but frequency sweep measurements showed that the oleogel formulated with refined sunflower oil and carnauba wax (10% w/w) had the highest storage modulus G’ and loss modulus G’’ values when compared to conventional fats (commercial margarine, butter, a mixture of 73% margarine and 27% lard, and puff pastry margarine). The textural properties of oleogel (2.34 N and 2.30 mJ) were significantly different from those of puff pastry margarine (9.78 N and 21.73 mJ), but compared to other conventional fats, the values of hardness (1.42–2.70 N) and adhesiveness (4.40–5.17 mJ) were similar. For conventional and oleogel doughs the storage modulus (Gʹ) were higher than loss modulus (G″) and both increased with the applied frequency (Hz). In terms of the products textural profile, the prototypes formed with oleogel exhibited lower hardness values (2.37–15.64 N) than the conventional products (8.83–19.89 N), indicating the tenderizing effect produced by the oleogel. The fat losses determined during 14 days of storage showed a lower physical stability of the doughs and products formulated with oleogel, most probably due to the destabilization kinetics of the lipid system during the operations of the technological process.

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Introduction

Solid fats such as shortening, margarine, butter, lard and tropical oils are necessary ingredients in the formulation of pastries [ 1 ]. Fats present a significant role in the structure and geometrization, consequently having an important influence on the texture and sensory aspects of food products [ 2 , 3 ]. When compared to liquid oil, the use of solid fats minimizes rancidity, leading to final products with better oxidative stability and longer shelf life [ 4 ]. Furthermore, baking fats provide various essential functions: capturing air during the kneading process, thus helping in the formation of microstructure and stability of the products; contributes to products fragility by preventing the formation of the gluten network; provides stability by limiting the migration of the lipid phase to the surface of the products [ 3 , 5 , 6 ]. Due to the function of fat to reduce the stickiness of the dough surface and, after melting, the protection of starch granules from gelatinization, pastry fats contribute to the formation of dozens of overlapping layers of dough and fat in section, in puff pastry products [ 7 ].

The production process of pastry products requires the use of significant amounts of fat, that vary from 25 to 40%. In addition, with the mentioned technological attributes, these fats can be distinguished by their high content of saturated and trans fatty acids [ 8 , 9 ]. Excessive intake of saturated and trans fats is widely recognized to increase the risk of developing cardiovascular diseases, coronary heart diseases, obesity, and myocardial infarction [ 10 , 11 , 12 ]. Also, a high consumption of these fats could increase plasma concentrations of triglycerides, total cholesterol, and low density lipoprotein (LDL) while decreasing high density lipoprotein (HDL) [ 10 , 12 , 13 ]. Due to these negative effects on human health, a number of strategies, and legislative measures have been suggested to reduce and eventually remove the amounts of trans and saturated fats in food. According to the World Health Organization, it is recommended to decrease the consumption of total fats, saturated and trans fats to levels below 30%, 10%, and 1% of total energy intake [ 14 ]. The US Food and Drug Administration has determined that partially hydrogenated oils, the primary dietary source of industrially produced trans fatty acids, are not any longer generally recognized as safe (GRAS) for any use in human food [ 15 ]. Trans fats can also occur naturally in foods derived from ruminants; therefore, Commission Regulation (EU) 2019/649 sets a maximum limit for all trans fats other than those occurring naturally of 2 g/100 g of fat in food intended for the final consumer and food intended for supply to retail [ 16 ].

Due to these actions and regulations, it is essential for food industry to develop and implement new lipid structuring technologies that allow the incorporation of vegetable oils rich in unsaturated fatty acids into food matrix. Thus, in addition to the dietary and nutrition advantages, there is also a decrease or removal of saturated and trans fatty acids in foods [ 17 , 18 ]. One of the innovative techniques is oleogelation, which is based on the structure of liquid edible oil [ 19 , 20 ]. Oleogels represent a complex structure in which a continuous phase of liquid oil is immobilised using a gelling agent (at low concentrations of up to 10% by weight) in a three dimensional, thermo-reversible gel network with characteristics comparable with those of solid fats [ 19 , 21 , 22 , 23 ]. Natural waxes are among the most studied agents for structuring edible oils. Carnauba wax is produced from the leaves of the Brazilian palm Copernicia cerifera and is on the Food and Drug Administration list of generally recognized as safe food additives; therefore, it can be used without restrictions other than those imposed by current good manufacturing practice [ 24 , 25 ].

Due to the widespread consumption of pastry products, the use of oleogels as substitutes for conventional fats, mainly saturated fats, or in some regions partially hydrogenated oils with high trans fat content was already studied for biscuits [ 26 ], crackers [ 27 ], cookies [ 2 , 28 , 29 , 30 , 31 , 32 , 33 ], croissants [ 34 ], muffins [ 35 , 36 , 37 ], sweet pan bread [ 38 , 39 , 40 ], tart pastry [ 41 ] and cakes [ 33 , 42 , 43 , 44 , 45 , 46 , 47 ]. Due to the lipid phase used, oleogels are a rich source of unsaturated fatty acids. For instance, the structuring of canola oil with 3 or 6% candelilla wax led to the formation of a lipid system with a high content of unsaturated fatty acids of up to 88.9% compared with shortening, which was low in unsaturated fatty acids (36.6%) and high in saturated fat (63.4%) [ 29 ]. Jang et al. [ 2 ] noticed an improvement in the nutritional profile of cookies formulated with oleogel from canola oil due to a decrease in the content of saturated fatty acids (8.5–10.2%) and an increase in the content of unsaturated fatty acids (89.9–91.5%), in contrast to cookies formulated with shortening (52.8 and 47.2%). Similarly, the partial and total replacement of shortening with sunflower oil and hydroxypropyl methyl cellulose oleogel led to a reduction of up to 45% of saturated fats simultaneously with an increase of up to 47% of unsaturated fatty acids in croissants [ 34 ]. Due to the high temperatures used to obtain the oleogels, their oxidative quality also had to be considered. Kim et al. [ 48 ] reported a higher oxidation resistance of candelilla/carnauba and beeswax oleogel than Tenebrio molitor larvae oil and olive oil. Lim et al. [ 49 ] also reported a higher oxidative stability of oleogels compared to canola oil, a resistance that increased with the increasing hardness of oleogels.

Plant waxes are the most used structuring agents for the production of oleogels with applicability in pastry products. These oleogels have shown the potential to completely or partially substitute conventional fats. Among these, the most used is candelilla wax [ 2 , 28 , 29 , 31 , 37 , 38 , 44 , 46 ], while, up to our knowledge, only one study has been reported for carnauba wax applicability in pastry products [ 43 ]. Consequently, we had selected carnauba wax for obtaining sunflower oil oleogel as an alternative fat, rich in unsaturated fatty acids and to assess its potential as a total conventional fat replacer in pastries: (i) bow tie cookies, (ii) cheese crackers, (iii) apple pie, (iv) cookies, (v) jam-filled puff pastry. We chose this type of products to fit into two categories- tender and puff pastry, and because they are frequently consumed but not well-researched, being reported to date mainly researches on cookies [ 2 , 28 , 29 , 30 , 31 , 32 , 33 ], but, to our knowledge, only limited studies was reported for crackers [ 27 ] and puff pastry [ 34 ]. Moreover, a comparison was made between these five pastries that were evaluated under the same conditions, whereas the majority of studies analyses a limited number of products. As there are few researches that evaluate in the dynamics of the technological process, we chose to analyze the structural properties of the oleogel in comparison with the conventional fats used to obtain the selected products, and then their influence on the dough-type semi-finished and final products.

In this regard, the aim of the current research was to obtain an alternative fat that could be used to completely replace conventional fats in five different pastry products. Based on this data, the objectives of this research were to: (1) obtain and characterize the structured lipid system composed of carnauba wax and sunflower oil; (2) investigate the impact of replacing conventional fats on dough properties and (3) finished products for five different pastry categories. Since pastries are extensively consumed, the results obtained may provide the basis for future researches regarding the use of structured lipid systems as a total or partial replacement for conventional fats to reduce the amount of trans and saturated fats while maintaining the consumption of unsaturated fatty acids.

Materials and methods

The ingredients used to obtain tender and puff pastry products were purchased from a local retailer and were: white wheat flour, yeast, salt, eggs, white sugar, sour cream, kneaded cheese, baking powder, vanilla sugar, lemon essence, baking soda, cinnamon powder, wheat semolina, vinegar, golden apples, apricot jam. Conventional fats used in the manufacture of products were: (i) lard with 37% saturated fatty acids, (ii) butter with 82% fat content of which 49.2% saturated fatty acids, (iii) commercial margarine with 60% fat content of which 30% saturated fatty acids, being procured from a local store, while (iv) puff pastry margarine with 80% fat content of which 41% saturated fatty acids, was kindly provided by a local distributor of food ingredients. Oleogel was produced using refined sunflower oil purchased from a local store and carnauba wax (E00018; melting point 82 ℃ and acidity 2–7 mg KOH/g) generously offered by Koster Keunen.

Oleogel preparation

The oleogel (OG) was prepared by the direct method using refined sunflower oil and carnauba wax in a concentration of 10% (w/w). The gelling agent was dissolved in the sunflower oil (SO), by gradually heating the mixture until it reached a temperature of 82 ℃ to completely dissolve the entire amount of wax and form a homogeneous mixture, using a magnetic stirrer plate (500 rpm) with heating (IKA® C-MAG HS7). The mixture was cooled by storing at 4 ℃ for 24 h.

Oleogel and conventional fats characterization

Texture profile analysis.

The Brookfield CT3 Texture Analyzer (Brookfield Engineering Labs, Middleboro, MA, USA) was used to evaluate the textural profile of conventional fats and oleogel, according to the method described by Hwang et al. [ 31 ] with slight modifications. The oleogel was prepared 24 h prior to analysis and stored at 4 °C, while conventional fats were placed in cylindrical containers and stored overnight at 4 °C. Before analysis, samples were stored for two hours at ambient temperature (20 ± 2 ℃). The determination consists in penetrating the samples (30 mm height × 45 mm diameter), using the TA18 spherical compression probe (12.7 mm diameter), which is attached to a 10 kg compression cell. The samples were compressed at a depth of 10 mm from the sample surface in two cycles at a speed of 1 mm/s, and the compression probe was retracted at the same speed. The results were processed using the instrument software, and the parameters followed in the analysis were: hardness [N], adhesiveness [mJ] and cohesiveness.

Evaluation of rheological parameters

The analysis of rheological properties was performed with minor modifications to the method described by Thakur et al. [ 23 ]. The Anton Paar MCR 302 Rheometer (Anton Paar, Graz, Austria) and the serrated parallel plates PP35/P2 were used for evaluating variations in viscoelastic properties. The samples were stored for 2 h at ambient temperature (20 ± 2 ℃) before analysis. The samples were placed on baseplate and compressed to obtain a gap of 1 mm and the excess fat/oleogel was trimmed. Amplitude sweeps measurements in the stress range of 0.01–100% were applied to determine the linear viscoelastic region (LVR) at a frequency of 1 Hz. Samples were allowed to rest for 3 min at 20 ℃ before performing analysis. Frequency sweep measurement was performed in the identified linear viscoelastic region at a constant shear strain of 0.01%, from 0.1 to 10 Hz. The storage modulus (Gʹ) and the loss modulus (G″) were recorded.

Oleogels applicability as a conventional fat replacer in pastries

In this research paper, five different pastry products were obtained: (i) bow tie cookies (tender dough pastry filled with jam)—BTCK, (ii) cheese crackers—CC, (iii) apple pie—AP, (iv) cookies—CK and (v) jam-filled puff pastry (yeast fermented)—PP, which presented in the composition various conventional fats: commercial margarine (CM, in bow tie cookies), a mixture of 73% commercial margarine and 27% lard (ML, in cheese crackers and apple pie), butter (BT, in cookies) and puff pastry margarine (PM, in jam-filled puff pastry). The products were reformulated by totally substitution of conventional lipids with oleogel (OG). The finished products were packed and stored at 18–20 ℃ and a relative humidity of 65–70%, to perform the analysis. The manufacturing process and the appearance of the products can be consulted in the Supplementary files (Online Resource Supplementary Text 1–5, Figs. S1 , S2).

Conventional fats or oleogel-based doughs and the corresponding pastry products characterization

Doughs texture profile analysis.

The texture profile analysis was carried out using the methodology provided by Mert and Demirkesen [ 50 ], with slight modifications. Texture analysis involves deformation of the dough balls (20 mm diameter) in two cycles, using the cylindrical compression probe TA25/1000 (50.8 mm diameter) (Brookfield CT3 Texture Analyzer, Brookfield Engineering Labs, Middleboro, MA, USA). The compression of the conventional and reformulated doughs was performed at a speed of 1 mm/s, at a deformation of 75% from the sample surface and at 20 ℃. The parameters followed in the textural analysis were: hardness [N], adhesiveness [mJ], cohesiveness, resilience and springiness index.

Doughs rheology determination

The rheological characteristics of conventional and oleogel doughs were evaluated using the method described by Jung et al. [ 38 ], with minor modifications. The samples were placed between the serrated plates (PP35/P2) of the Anton Paar MCR 302 rheometer (Anton Paar, Graz, Austria) and compressed to a 2 mm gap, the excess dough being trimmed. A serrated geometry was used to prevent the samples from slipping, and they were allowed to rest for three minutes at 20 °C prior to analysis to allow relaxation, due to the stress induced during loading. Frequency sweep tests were performed in the range 0.1–10 Hz, at 20 ℃ and the storage (Gʹ) and loss (G″) modulus were recorded.

Texture analysis of pastries

The textural profile of the obtained pastry products was performed according to the method described by Zhao et al. [ 51 ], with slight modifications. The determination consists in compressing in a single cycle the prototypes of bow tie cookies (45 mm length × 35 mm width × 5 mm height), cheese crackers (35 mm length × 20 mm width × 5 mm height), apple pie (45 mm length × 30 mm width × 5 mm height), cookies (30 mm diameter × 10 mm height) and jam-filled puff pastry (40 mm length × 40 mm width × 12 mm height) with the TA7 acrylic knife edge (60 mm width). The Brookfield CT3 Texture Analyzer (Brookfield Engineering Labs, Middleboro, MA, USA) records the load [N] as a function of time [s]. The results were processed using the instrument software, and the parameter followed in the textural analysis of the finished products was hardness [N]. The determination was performed at ambient temperature (18–20 ℃). For the pastry products with filling, the textural analysis was performed of a sheet of baked dough, without filling, which was obtained according to the manufacturing recipe.

Determination of fat losses for doughs and pastry products

The measurement of fat loss was conducted using the methodology provided by Giacomozzi et al. [ 52 ], with minor adjustments. The pastries formulated with conventional fats or oleogel, were placed on a filter paper (12 × 12 cm) and stored at ambient temperature (20 ± 2 ℃). The amount of fat losses (grams) was determined based on the difference in the mass of the filter paper, weighed on days 1, 9 and 14 of storage.

Determination of color parameters for conventional fats, oleogel, doughs and pastries

The color analysis was conducted using the portable colorimeter NR200 (3NH, Shenzhen, China) to assess the color parameters L *, a *, and b *. In the measuring system, the parameter L * provides information on the surface brightness (0—black and 100—white), a * refers to the color saturation, where the negative values − a * correspond to the green color and the positive +  a * to the red color, and parameter b *, where the negative values − b * correspond to the color blue and the positive +  b * to the color yellow [ 8 ]. The instrument performed an automatic calibration ( L * = 0, a * = 0 and b * = 0). The values ​​ L *, a * and b * were provided by the instrument software.

The color coordinates obtained were used to determine the total color difference (∆ E ) between the conventional and oleogel samples. This parameter was determined on the basis of the formula mentioned in the study conducted by [ 9 ]:

where: L * c , a * c , b * c represent the color coordinates for the conventional sample; L * x , a * x , b * x represent the color coordinates for oleogel sample.

Saturated fat decrease in pastries

The reduction in saturated fat content was studied after the pastries were reformulated by completely replacing conventional fats with oleogel. Consequently, the total amount of saturated fatty acids from the conventional fat phase or the oleogel system was calculated for each pastry product to monitor the impact of this replacement, while also taking into account technical losses. The total saturated fatty acid content of the lipid phase was expressed as percentage from the finished pastry product (100 g).

Statistical analysis

The rheological measurements were carried out in duplicate, the textural analysis and the assessment of fat losses were performed in triplicate, and the color analysis was conducted in six repetitions. One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) and Tukey’s comparison test at a significance level of p  < 0.05 were used. Differences were analyzed using Minitab Statistical Software. All results were presented as mean ± SD (standard deviation).

Results and discussion

Oleogel appearance.

The structure of oleogels can be influenced by the amount and type of gelling agent used, the type of lipid phase, the thermal parameters applied during the obtaining process, but also by the speed, time and cooling temperature of the homogeneous mixture formed [ 19 , 23 ]. Carnauba wax used in a concentration of 10% (w/w) present the ability to structure the refined sunflower oil, with the formation of a gel structure, semi-solid consistency, opaque, stable, without syneresis, or leaking during inverting the samples for 60 min at room temperature. Therefore, the direct structuring method and the applied parameters were adequate to obtain the structured lipid system (Online Resource Fig. S3).

Textural profile analysis of oleogel and conventional fats

Fats must have plastic properties, a solid consistency and adequate technological properties to be used in the formulation of pastries [ 9 ]. In the current study, the textural properties of oleogel (OG) were determined and compared with those of conventional fats, to evaluate the applicability and the potential substitution of oleogel in pastry products.

Hardness is an important textural property for the characterization of solid fats, and it impacts the possible use in pastry products formulation [ 23 ]. Hardness [N] is the peak value observed during the first compression cycle and is defined as the force required to achieve a given food deformation [ 53 ]. Among all samples, puff pastry margarine showed the highest hardness value (9.78 N), a significantly higher difference compared to the other conventional fats (1.42–2.70 N) and oleogel (2.34 N) (Table  1 ). These results are similar to those reported by Borriello et al. [ 21 ] in which oleogel consisting of pumpkin seed oil and 6% carnauba wax showed a hardness value of 2.37 N and 5.73 N when oleogel was formulated with 8% carnauba wax. On the other hand, beeswax oleogel (olive, linseed and fish oils) reached a higher penetration force of 11.70 N (measured at breaking point) [ 54 ] and the use of 8% beeswax in pumpkin seed oil led to the formation of oleogels with a lower hardness value—0.53 N [ 21 ]. The firmness of the oleogel (olive oil and cetyl-wax esters) has been found to be 6 N after 24 h at 4 °C. The firmness decreased by approximately 60% during the 20-day storage period, and remained constant until the 30th day (~ 2 N). This may be attributable to the development of large crystals, as evidenced by polarized light microscopy conducted in this study [ 55 ]. In our study, oleogel showed similar values, but still slightly lower compared to commercial margarine (2.70 N) and higher than butter (1.53 N) and mixture of commercial margarine and lard (1.42 N). The use of 3% and 6% candelilla wax, led to the formation of oleogels with lower hardness values (< 4 N) compared to those obtained for shortening (~ 10 N), values that had the tendency to increase with the increase level of wax [ 2 ]. Lower hardness values were reported for oleogel with hazelnut oil and 5% beeswax (2.73 N) or 5% sunflower wax (4.18 N) compared to commercial shortening (14.21 N) [ 30 ]. Thus, the hardness of the sample is influenced by the type of wax and oil used, as well as their interaction. Another important textural parameter of fats used in the formulation of pastries is adhesiveness.

Adhesiveness [mJ] represents the strength of the physical attraction between the surface of the product and the surface with which it comes into contact [ 56 ]. From a technological point of view, adhesiveness influences the processing and producing characteristics of the dough. For conventional fats, there was a correlation between hardness and adhesiveness values (the adhesiveness values increased together with the hardness values), but despite this, there is no statistically significant difference between them and oleogel, with the exception of puff pastry margarine. Oleogel showed the lowest adhesiveness value (2.30 mJ) compared to conventional fats (4.40–5.17 mJ), especially with puff pastry margarine (21.73 mJ). Also, in the study by Yilmaz and Ogutcu [ 30 ] the values of adhesiveness (N) were higher in the shortening sample (8.75 N), compared to oleogels formed with beeswax (2.12 N) and sunflower wax (1.68 N).

Cohesiveness indicates the strength of the product internal bonds, the attraction forces within the same material that hold it together [ 56 ]. Conventional fats showed cohesiveness values between 0.45 and 0.71, while oleogel showed a lower value of 0.18, indicating the lowest internal strength of all samples analyzed. According to Glibowski et al. [ 57 ], who studied the instrumental textural properties of some conventional fats (butter, margarine, spreads), products with high fat content were the most adhesive and less cohesive, while products with the lowest fat content were less adhesive and most cohesive. In the present study, the most adhesive and less cohesive sample was puff pastry margarine with a fat content of minimum 80%, while the less adhesive and most cohesive was the mixture of margarine and lard with a fat content of 72%. The oleogel presented the lowest values of adhesiveness and cohesiveness, although it has a fat content of 90%, but these results may also depend on the proportion of saturated fatty acids in the composition, so the oleogel has a low proportion of saturated acids (10%) compared to conventional fats (> 30%). Similar values of hardness (2.54 N) and cohesiveness (0.12 N) were reported by Tanislav et al. [ 58 ] for oleogel consisting of 10% carnauba wax and sunflower oil, but the value of adhesiveness was reduced (0.55 mJ) compared to that reported in the present study.

Rheological characteristics of oleogel and conventional fats

The storage modulus (Gʹ) was higher than the loss modulus (G″) in the applied frequency range (0.1–10 Hz), suggesting that the samples exhibit a solid behavior with more prominent elastic properties. Both Gʹ and G″ increased slightly in the frequency range used, for all samples. According to data reported in literature, to be classed as a gel system, the elastic component (Gʹ) must be higher than the viscous component G″, so oleogel exhibited a gel-like behavior [ 23 ]. When comparing the viscoelastic properties of conventional fats with those of oleogel, it was observed that the oleogel sample had higher values for Gʹ and G″ (3.7710*10 5 and 7.2149*10 4 at 1 Hz) results similar, statistically insignificant with those of puff pastry margarine (Gʹ- 3.5105*10 5 and 6.1175*10 4 at 1 Hz). Therefore, oleogel was characterized by the strongest gel network, followed by puff pastry margarine, mixture of margarine and lard, butter and commercial margarine (Table  1 ). Puff pastry margarine exhibited the highest hardness value and concomitant high values of both moduli, in contrast to commercial margarine, which, despite presenting a hardness value similar to that of oleogel, showed significant differences in terms of the storage and loss modulus. The results are similar with those reported by Borriello et al. [ 21 ] who observed a gel-like behavior characterized by a more prominently elastic than viscous behavior, for oleogel formed with carnauba wax and pumpkin seed oil and also for oleogels consisting of rice bran wax (9%) and refined corn oil or expeller-pressed corn germ oil [ 51 ] and oleogel obtained from carnauba wax (10%) and sunflower oil [ 58 ].

Color parameters for oleogel and conventional fats

The color of the oleogel is an essential characteristic for incorporation into pastry products, as it can affect the characteristics of the final product and, consequently, consumer acceptance. In this regard, the color parameters of oleogel and conventional lipids were analyzed and compared. Following a visual examination, all samples were opaque, with conventional fats showing a white-yellow color, in different shades and oleogel displaying a yellow color.

Among the conventional fats, the puff pastry margarine showed the highest value of the L * parameter (89.23), which indicates higher brightness, followed by the mixture of commercial margarine and lard (77.93). Butter and commercial margarine showed similar values (69.43 and 67.82) and in contrast, the oleogel showed the lowest brightness index- 42.46. Positive values of the parameter a * were observed for all studied fats, suggesting a higher proportion of red hue. Oleogel was found to have the lowest red spectrum intensity ( a * − 0.61), compared to conventional fats with values in the range of 2.98–3.46. Also, the values of the parameter b* were positive for all samples, indicating higher yellow intensity. The lowest value was found for oleogel ( b * − 7.61), followed by commercial margarine ( b * − 13.93), mixture of margarine and lard ( b * − 15.61), butter ( b * − 18.06) and puff pastry margarine ( b * − 19.59).

The color differences between conventional fats and oleogel were quantified by calculating the total color difference (∆ E ). The color difference between each conventional fat and oleogel was over 28 units (Table  1 ), indicating that the differences between samples were detectable. Onacik-Gur and Zbikowska [ 9 ] reported that values of the color difference (∆ E ) higher than 3 can be observed with the human eyes. The lowest values of ∆ E were identified between oleogel and commercial margarine (28.19) and butter (29.02), respectively. In the case of puff pastry margarine and mixture of margarine and lard, ∆ E values were higher- 48.36 and 36.45.

Characterization of doughs based on conventional fats or oleogel

Analysis of textural properties.

The structural properties play an important role because they impact both the handling and processing of the dough during the technological process as well as the quality of the finished products [ 59 ]. The replacement of conventional fats with oleogel affected the hardness of the doughs. The dough for bow tie cookies exhibited a similar hardness value, with a slight decrease in hardness from 11.94 N for conventional dough to 11.87 N for oleogel dough (Table  2 ). These results are consistent with the textural parameters of the fats, in which oleogel (2.34 N) exhibited a hardness value comparable to that of commercial margarine (2.70 N). A decrease in hardness with the use of oleogel was also observed in the case of dough for cheese crackers, which decreased from 8.97 N (conventional dough) to 6.68 N (oleogel dough), which means that the dough showed a softer consistency and requires lower force for compression. The decrease in hardness values may be attributed to the fact that conventional doughs contain more saturated lipids than oleogel doughs, which contain more unsaturated fatty acids. Also, another factor that could influence the hardness of the dough was the temperature between 30 and 32 ℃, used during the fermentation operation for bow tie cookies and cheese crackers. Mert and Demirkesen [ 50 ] reported a decrease in the hardness of doughs formulated with sunflower oil and carnauba/candelilla wax in concentrations of 2% or 5% (38–49 N) compared to that formulated with shortening (58 N). In another study, these authors observed that doughs obtained with candelilla wax at a concentration of 3% and 6% (w/w) presented a lower hardness (42.67–50.63 N) compared to doughs formulated with shortening (62.88 N), but also with those formulated with a mixture of 70:30 and 40:60 oleogel and shortening, which showed values between 50.15 and 57.11 N [ 29 ]. In contrast, the oleogel dough samples intended for apple pie, cookies, and jam-filled puff pastry had higher hardness values than conventional doughs, indicating that they were harder and required more force to compress. Therefore, the hardness of the oleogel dough for jam-filled puff pastry increased from 13.07 N to 15.28 N for conventional dough, for oleogel dough for cookies from 9.10 N to 17.54 N, and the highest increase was observed in oleogel dough for apple pie from 14.30 N to 45.24 N. In regards to conventional cookie dough and jam-filled puff pastry, it was expected that the hardness values of these would be higher compared to oleogel doughs. This expectation came from the fact that the manufacturing process involved one or more rest operations at temperatures ranging from 2 to 4 ℃, as well as the use of fats with significantly higher levels of saturated fats (49.2% saturated fatty acids for butter and 41% saturated fats for puff pastry margarine).

Conventional doughs showed similar values of cohesiveness, ranging from 0.22 for apple pie to 0.36 for cookies. Statistically insignificant cohesiveness values were observed for conventional and oleogel doughs used to obtain bow-tie cookies and jam-filled puff pastry. In contrast, for the other samples, the substitution of conventional fats with oleogel, resulted in an increase or a decrease in the cohesiveness of the doughs, respectively. In the case of cheese cracker dough, the use of oleogel increased the value of cohesiveness from 0.35 to 0.65, while the values decreased for cookie dough (0.36 and 0.16) and apple pie dough (0.22 and 0.05).

Resilience represents an indicator of how a material recovers from deformation, relative to the applied speed and force [ 60 ]. In terms of resilience, conventional (0.02–0.04) and oleogel (0.01–0.07) doughs exhibited similar values, the only statistically significant difference was for cookies. The replacement of conventional fats in cheese crackers and bow tie cookies had no effect on the doughs resilience, which remained at 0.02 value. The oleogel dough for jam-filled puff pastry and cookies showed an increase in resilience compared to conventional doughs (from 0.04 to 0.07 and from 0.02 to 0.04), while the oleogel dough for apple pie exhibited a decrease (from 0.03 to 0.01).

The springiness index indicates the recovery properties of the dough, thus a value of 1 indicates a completely elastic material and 0 value a completely viscous material, being correlated with the adhesiveness [ 60 ]. These parameters are very important because they indicate the behavior that the dough will have during the processing operations (rolling and shaping) [ 58 ]. Due to the higher adhesiveness of the dough, the bow tie cookies, cheese crackers, and apple pie proved to be more difficult to process during the technological preparation process. The conventional dough samples had similar values for the springiness index, with the apple pie dough having the lowest value (0.17), and the cookie dough having the highest value (0.28). The springiness index for oleogel doughs ranged from 0.08 for apple pie to 0.59 for cheese crackers. Cheese cracker dough with oleogel exhibited the highest adhesiveness value (4.87 mJ) and the most elastic behavior (0.59), compared to conventional cheese cracker dough (2.43 mJ and 0.29). Similarly, the oleogel dough for bow tie cookies showed a higher value of adhesiveness (4.40 mJ) as well as a more elastic behavior (0.27), in contrast to the conventional sample (3.60 mJ and 0.24). For dough samples intended for jam-filled puff pastry and cookies, the complete substitution of conventional fats with oleogel decreased the adhesiveness and springiness. In contrast, in the apple pie samples, the adhesiveness values were similar 1.67 mJ and 1.70 mJ respectively, but the use of oleogel led to the formation of a dough with a more viscous behavior (0.08) compared to the sample with conventional fats (0.17) and also with the other samples (0.12–0.59). Tanislav et al. [ 58 ] reported similar values of resilience (0.02), adhesiveness (3.90 mJ), cohesiveness (0.07) and springiness index (0.12) for oleogel dough (carnauba wax and refined sunflower oil) intended for biscuits.

Rheological properties

To evaluate the influence of the total replacement of conventional fats with oleogel on the doughs viscoelastic properties, rheological characteristics were measured. According to the results, the storage modulus (Gʹ) was higher than the loss modulus (G″) in the analyzed range (Table  2 ), thus the elastic properties were more pronounced compared to the viscous ones. Similarly, Jang et al. [ 2 ], reported higher values of Gʹ than G″, values that tended to increase with increasing frequency (0.01–10 Hz). In addition, they noticed higher values of the Gʹ and G″ for the cookie dough sample formulated with shortening, values which, according to them, may be attributable to the shortening firmer texture. In the present study, the apple pie dough had the highest values of both moduli among all samples, with the oleogel dough (Gʹ-4.4931*10 5 and G″-2.3276*10 5 at 1 Hz) having higher values than the conventional dough (Gʹ-1.3954*10 5 and G″-6.7316*10 4 at 1 Hz) (Online Resource Fig. S4). The results are comparable to those of the textural analysis, in which apple pie dough exhibited the maximum hardness values, with the oleogel dough (45.24 N) showing higher values than the conventional dough (14.30 N). In the case of dough for jam-filled puff pastry, the use of structured lipid system led to the formation of a dough with weaker viscoelastic properties compared to the dough with conventional fat, possibly because the puff pastry margarine presented a slightly lower storage modulus (3.5105*10 5 ), but similar to oleogel (3.7710*10 5 ) in the rheology of fats. Also, a slight decrease was observed for cheese crackers. The replacement of commercial margarine in bow tie cookies and of butter in cookies led to a slight increase in the viscoelastic properties of the doughs, very probably linked to oleogel high values of storage and loss modulus.

Instrumental color parameters

The values of L *, a * and b * for the doughs varied, as a result of the total replacement of conventional fats with oleogel (Table  3 ). In the case of oleogel doughs, the parameter L * (brightness) had lower values for all samples compared to conventional doughs. Results are consistent with the lowest value of the oleogels brightness index ( L *), as determined by colorimetric analysis of fat samples. For the conventional samples, the highest brightness value was observed in the jam-filled puff pastry ( L *- 81.84), followed by bow tie cookies (L*- 80.28), cheese crackers ( L *- 79.33), and apple pie ( L *- 74.46), the lowest value being for cookies ( L *- 69.49). In the case of oleogel doughs, a higher brightness value was observed in jam-filled puff pastry ( L *- 79.74), followed by a significant difference in bow tie cookies ( L *- 59.97), apple pie ( L *- 59.03), cheese crackers ( L *- 57.72) and cookies ( L *- 55.82). For each sample of dough, the parameters a * and b * had positive values. As a consequence of the complete replacement of conventional fats with oleogel, the values of the parameter a * decreased, with the exception of the dough intended for bow tie cookies, in which the parameter increased from 3.63 to 4.66. Significant differences in the a * parameter were observed in cookie and apple pie doughs, in which the red spectrum color parameters decreased from 7.18 to 5.51 and 7.29–4.95, respectively, with the addition of oleogel. Also, the b * parameter values were lower for the oleogel dough samples, with the exception of the jam-filled puff pastry, which exhibited a 0.02-unit increase in the yellow spectrum color. Therefore, the addition of oleogel had an influence on the brightness index, so that the doughs with oleogel showed a lower brightness and became darker in color due to the addition of the structured lipid phase and also showed lower red and yellow shades, compared to conventional doughs. All of these values obtained for the reformulated doughs correspond to the instrumental color values obtained for the oleogel, which exhibited the lowest values for the L *, a *, and b * parameters.

The maximum total color difference (∆ E ) was identified in dough for cheese crackers (21.93), while the lowest value was observed in dough for jam-filled puff pastry (2.13). These values are not comparable to the total color difference (∆ E ) from the fat samples analysis, as the highest differences were observed between oleogel and the margarine and lard mixture (36.45) and puff pastry margarine (48.36). Therefore, with the exception of the jam-filled puff pastry dough, the difference was above the detection limit for all samples, which was also observed during the technological process (soft doughs with oleogel appeared slightly darker).

To determine the physical stability, the fat losses of dough samples produced with oleogel or conventional fats were assessed and compared. From day 0 to day 9, there was an increase in the quantity of oil loss in all dough samples. Instead, after 9 days of storage, there was a decrease in fat losses or a constant maintenance of the values until the day 14 (Table  3 ). In the case of oleogel dough samples, higher values ​​of fat losses were recorded, up to 12.71 g/100 g (for bow tie cookies), compared to the maximum values ​​recorded for conventional doughs of 7.41 g/100 g (for cheese crackers). In contrast, the lowest loss, for both conventional and oleogel sample, was identified at jam-filled puff pastry- 0.34 g/100 g and 3.29 g/100 g, respectively. In the case of oleogel doughs, the dough for bow tie cookies had the highest amount of fat losses, followed by the dough for cheese crackers, apple pie, cookies, and jam-filled puff pastry, whereas in the case of conventional doughs, cheese crackers had the highest amount of exuded oil, followed by bow tie cookies, apple pie, cookies, and jam-filled puff pastry. This suggests that doughs obtained with oleogel showed a higher exudation of the lipid phase and therefore a lower physical stability compared to conventional doughs. This was also noticed throughout the technical process, when doughs produced with oleogel had a softer and oily texture, with visible lipid phase losses on the doughs surface.

Characterization of pastries based on conventional fats or oleogel

Texture analysis.

The textural determination indicated variations in the hardness values of the samples with conventional fats compared to oleogel. Hardness values ​​were between 8.83 N and 19.89 N for conventional products and between 2.37 N and 15.64 N for oleogel products (Table  4 ). In the case of bow tie cookies, cheese crackers, and apple pie, the use of a structured lipid system resulted in the production of products with lower hardness values than conventional products. The apple pie sheet formulated with conventional fat or oleogel had the highest hardness value of 19.89 N and 15.64 N, respectively, among all the evaluated products. On the other hand, both cookie products had hardness values of 14.91 N (conventional product) and 15.12 N (oleogel product), a statistically insignificant difference. Mert & Demirkesen, 2016a [ 29 ] reported a higher breaking force for cookies formulated with candelilla wax oleogel (60.78–69.75 N) and those formed with a mixture of oleogel and shortening (46.39–61.11 N) than those obtained with shortening (41.03 N). In another study, cookies made with candelilla/carnauba wax oleogels required a higher breaking force (59–71 N) than those formulated with shortening, which had a hardness value of 42 N, which was lower than cookies formulated with sunflower oil (84 N) [ 50 ]. These results demonstrated that the incorporation of oleogels resulted in the formation of cookies with a stronger texture. According to Mert and Demirkesen [ 50 ] a higher cookie hardness may be a consequence of the incorporation and retention of insufficient air in the system. A higher hardness of cookies formulated with rice bran wax oleogels in different concentrations and different lipid phases was reported by Zhao et al. [ 51 ] and according to them although the hardness of oleogels increased with the amount of wax added, the hardness of cookies decreased with the increasing concentration of oleogelator. Hwang et al. [ 31 ] reported that the hardness values of cookies obtained with different gelling agents and vegetable oils were not significantly different from those formulated with commercial margarine. In contrast, Yilmaz and Ogutcu [ 30 ] found that the use of oleogels with 5% sunflower wax and beeswax led to the formation of cookies with a lower hardness (31.85 and 36.89), compared to those formulated with shortening (47.12). Jang et al. [ 2 ] reported that a higher force was required to shape cookies formulated with shortening (71.67 N) than samples formulated with oleogel containing 3% and 6% candelilla wax- 63.74 N and 53.74 N, respectively. In our study, the hardness of jam-filled puff pastry samples increased from 8.83 N to 14.68 N when commercial and puff pastry margarine was completely replaced with oleogel. This may be due to the lower capacity of the oleogel to maintain the specific layers, resulting in a more compact and dense structure, as also observed in the section of the finished product. The research conducted by Espert et al. [ 34 ] involved the substitution of traditional fat in croissants with shortening (SH) and oleogel (OG- sunflower oil and hydroxypropyl methylcellulose) mixtures (100:0, 50:50, 40:60, 30:70, 0:100). The samples containing the highest amount of fat (SH100:OG0) exhibited the highest peak firmness (7.91 N), which was attributed to the solid character of puff pastry fat at room temperature. In contrast, SH0:OG100 sample exhibited the lowest peak firmness (4.79 N), which may be related to the lack of solid fat crystals in the mixture, resulting in a reduced consistency of the croissants. The firmness of the croissants exhibited a decreasing trend as the concentration of oleogel increased. However, no statistically significant variations in force values were observed among the croissants formulated using SH-OG blends. Thus, the addition of oleogels to croissants results in a reduction in firmness, even with the croissants more compact appearance. All of these results demonstrate that, in addition to the other primary and auxiliary ingredients, fat has significant influence on the textural properties of pastries.

Color parameters

In pastries, color parameters have a major effect, because they impact the visual acceptability of consumers. The total replacement of conventional fats with oleogel led to a change in the color parameters of the finished products surface. Cookies ( L *-73.89) had the highest brightness index value among conventional products, followed by apple pie ( L *-71.70), jam-filled puff pastry ( L *-70.74), bow tie cookies ( L *-70.56), and cheese crackers ( L *-69.48). All values of parameter a * were positive, ranging from 6.41 for cookies to 11.59 for bow tie cookies, and all values of parameter b * were positive as well, ranging from 25.62 for jam-filled puff pastry to 31.98 for bow tie cookies (Table  4 ). By totally replacing conventional fats with oleogel, brightness ( L *) and the parameters a * and b * were reduced in almost all of the analyzed samples. Therefore, for oleogel products, the highest value of the brightness index, was recorded for apple pie ( L *-68.09), followed by jam-filled puff pastry ( L *-66.95), cookies ( L *-63.84), cheese crackers ( L *-62.24) and bow tie cookies ( L *-59.01). Also, products formulated with oleogel can be characterized by a shade of red ( a *) from 5.46 for cookies to 8.51 for bow tie cookies, and yellow ( b *) from 26.23 for apple pie to 27.91 for cheese crackers. These values are similar to those obtained by Tanislav et al. [ 58 ] for oleogel biscuits. Higher values of the parameters L *, a * and b * of the surface of the biscuits formulated with shortening compared to those formulated with different types of natural waxes (candelilla wax, rice bran wax, white beeswax, yellow beeswax) were reported by Onacik-Gur and Zbikowska [ 9 ] and ∆ E values ranged from 2.55 to 3.06. Zhao et al. [ 51 ] observed a few differences between the color parameters of oleogel cookies and conventional ones, but the values were comparable between 62.88 and 67.35 for L *, 10.22 and 12.77 for a *, and 31.68 and 34.99 for b *. Instead, Yilmaz and Ogutcu [ 30 ] reported negative values of the parameter a * for the surface of conventional and oleogel cookies, with values between 0.04 and 0.41, suggesting that they showed slightly green tones, and the cookies formulated with oleogel showed lower values of the brightness ( L * -79.34–81.77) and higher of the spectrum b * (32.91–33.55) compared to the conventional sample ( L * -84.13 and b *- 28.97). In addition to the method used, the raw materials incorporated and every stage of the technological process, particularly the parameters and duration of baking, affect the color of the products. Compared to the visible difference between the fats (from 28.19 to 48.36), the differences were smaller for the doughs (from 2.13 to 21.93) and, respectively, for the finished products, the biggest difference being for cookies (12.68) and the lowest, almost undetectable with the human eye, for jam-filled puff pastry (4.05).

Replacing solid fats with structured oils can increase oil migration to the product surface [ 52 ]. The fat losses of conventional and oleogel products were analyzed on day 1, 9 and 14 of storage, at ambient temperature, to determine their physical stability. Pastry products are formulated with a high fat content, so they have a higher risk of exudation and migration of the lipid phase to the product surface, which can affect the sensory properties, oxidative stability during storage, and ultimately result in a decrease of product quality [ 9 , 61 ]. Fat migration is associated with the formation of an oil layer on the surface of the product [ 9 ]. For the finished products, the highest amount of exuded oil was identified on day 9, values that remained constant or in some cases slightly increased until day 14 of storage. For conventional products, on the first day, the apple pie and jam-filled puff pastry did not show fat losses, and for the other samples the losses were between 0.33 g/100 g for cookies and 0.54 g/100 g for bow tie cookies (Table  4 ). On the other hand, fat loss values increased beginning on day 9 and reached the maximum on the day 14, with values between 0.46 g/100 g for jam-filled puff pastry and 4.05 g/100 g for cheese crackers. These values are similar to those obtained by Msaddak et al. [ 61 ], during the 30 days of storage (ambient temperature) for cookies formulated with butter, where a maximum of 3.39% oil losses were recorded. In the case of oleogel products, higher fat losses were observed during the 14 days of analysis, compared to conventional products but only significant in the case of jam-filled puff pastry. For the apple pie, cookies and jam-filled puff pastry, on day 1, the fat losses 0.18, 0.31 and 0.33 g/100 g finished products, while higher losses were registered for cheese crackers—1.74 g/100 g and bow tie cookies—3.29 g/100 g. An increase in the amount of oil loss in biscuits stored for 24 h in a thermostat at 30 ℃ was observed in the study by Onacik-Gur and Zbikowska [ 9 ]. Biscuits obtained with oleogels from rapeseed oil and 2% rice bran wax recorded a loss of 0.17 g and those with 5% white or yellow beeswax of 0.23 g and 0.25 g respectively. These were compared with samples obtained with palm oil whose loss was 0.16 g. In contrast, Giacomozzi et al. [ 52 ] on both day 7 and day 10 of analysis observed that muffins formulated with commercial margarine or high oleic sunflower oil, showed higher oil losses (< 0.8 g/100 g) compared to oleogels formulated with monoglyceride, which exhibited approximately 50% lower lipid phase migration. Thus, in addition to the type of fat (naturally saturated or unsaturated), the type of structuring agent can influence the migration capacity of the lipid phase. In our study, on day 14, the highest oil losses were recorded for oleogel cheese crackers—4.49 g/100 g and oleogel bow tie cookies—4.88 g/100 g. These increased oil exudations corresponded to those observed visually, as the products presented a slightly oily appearance. Cheese crackers and bow tie cookies formulated with conventional fat or oleogel, showed the highest amount of oil losses during the 14 days of analysis, while the samples of conventional jam-filled puff pastry (0.46 g/100 g) and apple pie (0.63 g/100 g) recorded the lowest values. Consequently, pastries formulated with conventional fats have better physical stability compared to products formulated with oleogel. The higher losses of the lipid phase in reformulated products may be related to changes that occur during the baking process when the oleogel destabilizes its structure, which is then reconstituted (due to its thermoreversible property) by cooling and storage at the ambient temperature, but not as initially due to the interaction with the raw materials from the finished product.

Saturated fat decrease

The total replacement of conventional fats with oleogel contributed to the reduction of saturated fats in the composition of pastry products, indicating a significant nutritional improvement. The use of oleogel prepared from refined sunflower oil (89% unsaturated fatty acids) contributes to an increase in unsaturated fatty acids while decreasing saturated fatty acids. The replacement of margarine and lard with oleogel reduced the content of saturated fatty acids by 73.92% in cheese crackers and by 70.88% in apple pie. The substitution of commercial margarine and puff pastry margarine in the jam-filled puff pastry decreased the total quantity of saturated fatty acids by 72.95%. The replacement of butter in the case of cookies resulted in the highest reduction in the amount of saturated fatty acids- 80.86%. Among all products, the replacement of commercial margarine in the composition of the bow tie cookies led to the lowest reduction in saturated fatty acids—67.56% (Online Resource Fig. S5).

Conclusions

The use of oleogel allowed the complete replacement of conventional fats in the production of tender pastries (bow tie cookies, cheese crackers, apple pie, cookies) and puff pastry (jam-filled puff pastry). The textural properties of oleogel were significantly different from those of puff margarine, but comparable to those of commercial margarine, mixture of margarine and lard, and butter. All the analyzed fats belong rheologically to the viscoelastic solids, and the oleogel showed the strongest gel network compared to the conventional fats. Both conventional fat and oleogel doughs showed more prominent elastic properties than viscous ones (Gʹ > G″). Regarding the textural profile for the finished products, the prototypes formulated with oleogel showed lower hardness values, which indicates the higher tenderizing effect imprinted by liquid oil from the composition of oleogels. The lipid losses determined during 14 days of analysis indicated a decrease in the physical stability of doughs and oleogel products, which may be attributable to changes that occur during baking when the oleogel destabilizes its structure. The use of oleogel has resulted in the production of pastries with properties comparable to those of conventional products, and, in terms of structural properties, the substitution of conventional lipids with oleogel was more suitable for cookies. For the other products, rolling and fermentation operations raised problems in the production process, by obtaining products with a lower volume. The color difference between the conventional and oleogel products was higher than 3, and the largest difference (12.68) was identified for bow tie cookies. Using oleogel in pastries, a nutritional improvement would be achieved, by increasing the content of unsaturated fatty acids, while decreasing the amount of saturated fatty acids by up to 80.86% (for cookies). It is recommended in the future to perform a sensory analysis to determine the acceptability of products by consumers, and to perform oxidative studies to determine the shelf life of pastries.

Data availability

The datasets generated and analyzed during the current study are available on request from the corresponding author.

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This work was supported by a grant from the Romanian Ministry of Research, Innovation and Digitization CNCS/CCCDI-UEFISCDI, project number PN-III-P1-1.1-TE-2019-2212, within PNCDI III.

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Anda E. Tanislav and Bianca Șandru have contributed equally to this work.

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Food Engineering Department, Faculty of Food Science and Technology, University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine Cluj-Napoca, 3-5 Calea Mănăștur Street, 400372, Cluj-Napoca, Romania

Anda E. Tanislav, Bianca Șandru, Simona M. Man, Andreea Pușcaș, Andruța E. Mureșan, Adriana Păucean, Vlad Mureșan & Elena Mudura

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Conceptualization, Anda Elena Tanislav and Vlad Mureșan; data curation, Anda Elena Tanislav and Bianca Șandru; formal analysis, Anda Elena Tanislav, Bianca Șandru, Andreea Pușcaș, Andruța Elena Mureșan and Simona Maria Man; funding acquisition, Vlad Mureșan; investigation, Anda Elena Tanislav, Bianca Șandru, Andreea Pușcaș and Andruța Elena Mureșan; methodology, Anda Elena Tanislav, Simona Maria Man, Andreea Pușcaș and Adriana Păucean; project administration, Vlad Mureșan and Elena Mudura; resources, Adriana Păucean; supervision, Elena Mudura; writing-original draft, Anda Elena Tanislav and Bianca Șandru; writing-review and editing, Anda Elena Tanislav and Vlad Mureșan.

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Tanislav, A.E., Șandru, B., Man, S.M. et al. Investigating the complete replacement of conventional fat with oleogel on the structural behavior of five different pastry products. Eur Food Res Technol (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00217-024-04500-4

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Received : 12 November 2023

Accepted : 22 February 2024

Published : 25 April 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s00217-024-04500-4

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