about moral dilemma essay

18 Moral Dilemma Examples

Dave Cornell (PhD)

Dr. Cornell has worked in education for more than 20 years. His work has involved designing teacher certification for Trinity College in London and in-service training for state governments in the United States. He has trained kindergarten teachers in 8 countries and helped businessmen and women open baby centers and kindergartens in 3 countries.

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A moral dilemma is a situation in which an individual must choose between two moral options. Each option has advantages and disadvantages that contain significant consequences.

Choosing one option means violating the ethical considerations of the other option. So, no matter which option is selected, it both upholds and violates at least one moral principle.

When moral dilemmas are discussed formally, the individual that must make the decision is referred to as the agent .

Moral Dilemma Features

McConnell (2022) identifies the crucial features of a moral or ethical dilemma :

The agent (person) is required to do one of two moral options
The agent (person) is capable of doing each one
The agent (person) cannot do both

McConnell explains that the agent should choose option A, but at the same time, the agent should choose option B. All things considered, both options are equivalently positive and negative, but in different aspects.

Thus, no matter which option is chosen, it will result in a moral failure.

Types of Moral Dilemmas

Epistemic: This type of moral dilemma is when the person has no idea which option is the most morally acceptable. Although in many moral dilemmas it can be somewhat clear which option should take precedence, in the epistemic moral dilemma , the matter is ambiguous.
Ontological: This is a moral dilemma in which the options available are equal in every respect. The person knows and has a clear understanding that both options are equivalent. Most experts on morality agree that ontological moral dilemmas are genuine dilemmas.
Self-imposed: This is the type of moral dilemma that the person has created themselves. They have engaged in a wrongdoing of some kind and are then faced with resolving the matter.
World-imposed: When the moral dilemma is brought about by others and the person must resolve the matter, it is referred to as a world-imposed moral dilemma, and is also often an example of a social dilemma . The person is in the situation, but not due to any wrongdoing or mistake they are responsible for.
Obligation : Some moral dilemmas involve options in which the person feels they must enact each one. It is a sense of responsibility to engage both options that creates the moral dilemma. The tension arises because they can only choose one, but they are obligated to do both.
Prohibition: A moral dilemma in which each option is reprehensible is called a prohibition dilemma . Each option would normally not be considered due to its unethical nature. However, the person must choose.

Moral Dilemma Examples

1. Exposing Your Best Friend: The person (aka the ‘agent’) is in a supervisory position but recently discovered that his best friend has been faking the numbers on several sales reports to boost his commissions.

Type: This is a self-imposed moral dilemma . The person has not done any wrongdoing, but they are in the position to decide whether to expose their friend’s unethical behavior .

2. Tricking a Loved One with Alzheimer’s: In this scenario, a loved one has been placed in a special residential center, which is expensive. Their children don’t have the funds to pay, but the loved one does. Unfortunately, the only way to access those funds is to trick the loved one into revealing their bank account information.

Type: This seems to be an obligation moral dilemma . The person feels they must take care of their loved one’s expenses, but they also feel a duty to respect their loved one’s autonomy and not deceive them.

3. Cheating on a Boyfriend: The person/agent cheated on their boyfriend while at a conference, which occurred right after a huge fight where they both said they wanted to break up. However, now that they’re back together, the question becomes: should the boyfriend be told?

Type: This is a self-imposed moral dilemma , as the person’s actions led to the situation where they must decide whether to confess their infidelity.

4. Selling a Used Car: The person has two close friends. One is considering buying a car from the other. They know the car has a serious problem with the engine, but their friend is not disclosing it.

Type: This can be seen as an ontological moral dilemma , as the person must choose between two equivalent actions: betraying the trust of one friend by revealing the car’s problems or betraying the trust of the other friend by staying silent.

5. Recalling a Faulty Product: The CEO of a large corporation has been informed that one of their products causes cancer in lab rats. The mortality rate is low and the company has spent millions on R&D and marketing. Recalling the product could mean bankruptcy and thousands of lost jobs.

Type: This could be a world-imposed moral dilemma as the person/agent didn’t personally contribute to the faulty product but must decide whether to recall the product or risk public health.

6. Global Supply Chains: The BOD knows that the rare Earth minerals they need for their electronics products are being mined by children. Not using that source means the company would be required to raise the price of its products considerably. And that means competitors will win huge market share.

Type: This is an obligation dilemma . The person feels obligated to both keep their products affordable (and their company competitive) and to avoid supporting unethical labor practices.

7. Admitting a Mistake: The person only analyzes part of the data involved in a pharmaceutical study so that the medication looks effective. A year later, the BOD is charged with a crime because the government learned that the medication causes a severe health issue in users.

Type: This is a self-imposed dilemma because the agent’s decision to only analyze part of the data led to the current situation.

8. In Child Protection Services: The ‘agent’ in this dilemma is a case worker. They know that charges against a parent were fabricated by a vengeful ex, but yet the rules state that charges must be filed and the children removed from the household, most likely for several months until a full investigation has been completed.

Type: This could be an epistemic dilemma because the person doesn’t know which action – following the protocol or not filing charges knowing they were fabricated – is the most morally correct.

9. Playground Accident at School: The agent’s co-teacher was looking at their phone on the playground when one of the students under their supervision fell off the equipment and broke their arm. If the person tells the truth, the co-teacher, who is supporting three children as a single parent, will be fired.

Type: This could be seen as an ontological dilemma , as the person must choose between two equally significant outcomes: telling the truth and potentially causing their co-teacher to lose their job, or staying silent and potentially putting the school and other students at risk.

10. In Geo-Politics: The president of a company knows that they are dependent on doing business with another country that has severe human rights violations. If they move out of that market it will mean huge losses. If they stay, it means putting money in the pockets of people that commit crimes against humanity.

Type: This might be classified as a prohibition dilemma , as both options – supporting a regime that violates human rights or causing significant financial loss to the company and its stakeholders – are morally objectionable.

11. Conflict of Professional Ethics: Imagine a journalist finds sensitive but vital information about a potential major scandal involving a beloved public figure who happens also to be the journalist’s dear friend.

Type: This represents a self-imposed dilemma , as the journalist must reconcile their professional obligation with their personal relationship.

12. Prioritizing Elder Care: Imagine a working individual struggling to balance work responsibilities with eldercare. On one hand, they want to provide proper care for their elderly parent but on the other hand, they fear losing their job.

Type: This could be classified as an obligation dilemma , as the individual is torn between two significant responsibilities.

13. Intellectual Property Misuse: A computer engineer discovers their colleague is misusing intellectual property from a previous employer to boost productivity at the current firm.

Type: This scenario represents an ontological moral dilemma , where the engineer must choose between reporting their colleague and protecting the workplace.

14. Revealing Confidential Information: An employee learns that their company’s financial health is more severe than communicated publicly. They fear that if they don’t warn their co-workers, they all risk losing their jobs without prior notice.

Type: This could be seen as a world-imposed moral dilemma , as the employee had no hand in creating the financial instability but must decide how to handle the information.

15. Exploitative Marketing: A marketing manager at a fast-food company is asked to develop campaigns targeting low-income neighborhoods, where obesity rates are already high.

Type: This represents an obligation dilemma , as the manager is expected to fulfill their job duty while battling against contributing to societies’ health problem.

16. Academic Dishonesty: A student discovers their friend plagiarizing an entire assignment. On one hand, they feel they should report the violation, but they also fear losing their friend.

Type: This is a self-imposed dilemma as the student’s action led to the situation where they must decide whether to uphold academic integrity or maintain their friendship.

17. Unethical Labor Practices: A manufacturing company explicitly doesn’t use sweatshop labor. It’s discovered that their major supplier uses such practices.

Type: This is an obligation dilemma , as the company feels a responsibility to its reputation and ethical standards, but severing ties with the major supplier could risk business operations.

18. Business Versus Environment: A construction company discovers an endangered species habitat in an area planned for building a lucrative housing project.

Type: This is an epistemic dilemma , as the company has to choose between its economic interests and environmental responsibilities not knowing which is the morally correct decision.

Applications of Moral Dilemmas

1. in nursing .

According to Arries (2005), among all of the professionals in healthcare, nurses have the most frequent interactions with patients.

As a result, they confront moral dilemmas on a regular basis, and often experience severe emotional distress.

They often must balance obligations regarding professional duties and personal convictions involving their values and beliefs.

In fact, nurses face a wide range of moral dilemmas. Rainer et al. (2018) conducted an integrative review of published research from 2000 – 2017 which dealt with ethical dilemmas faced by nurses.

The review identified several main categories or moral dilemmas: end-of-life issues, conflicts with physicians, conflicts with patient family members, patient privacy matters, and organizational constraints.

In a meta-analysis of nine studies in four countries, de Casterlé et al. (2008) examined the moral reasoning of nurses based on Kohlberg’s (1971) theory of moral development.

The study used an adapted version of the Ethical Behaviour Test (EBT) to measure nurses’ moral reasoning as it applies to practical nursing scenarios (de Casterle´ et al. 1997).

The results suggested that nurses tended to function at a conventional level of moral reasoning, rather than at a higher, postconventional level in Kohlberg’s stages.

2. In Journalism

Many people that enter the field of journalism do so out of noble goals to promote truth, help the public stay informed, and reveal unethical practices in society.

The very nature of those goals leads to journalists being immersed in moral dilemmas stemming from a variety of issues.

Sources Journalists must gather information from sources that can be reluctant to reveal their identity. This presents the moral dilemma of somehow establishing credibility for one’s information, but at the same time protecting the rights and wishes of an anonymous source.

Victim’s Rights Protecting victims’ rights to privacy can be in direct conflict with the public’s right to know. This produces an ethical quandary that nearly every journalist will face in their career. This can be particularly tricky when dealing with public figures, elected officials, or children.

Conflicts of Interest Conflicts of interest come into play in journalism in several situations. Journalists are supposed to be impartial and cover stories fairly and objectively. However, conflicts of interest can emerge when the story might impact an advertiser negatively or reflect poorly on the company’s ownership.

Accuracy Particularly troublesome in the era of new media news is the moral dilemma regarding the accuracy of information presented in coverage. On the one hand, journalists are obligated to provide the audience with information that is valid. That takes time. On the other hand, being first has always been a priority in the journalism profession. Accuracy is tied directly to credibility, but at the same time, being second to go public with news tarnishes the agency’s reputation.

Credibility Deuze and Yeshua (2001) point out that one core moral dilemma in journalism centers on how to establish credibility in the age of social media and the lightning speed of the Internet. New media journalists struggle to establish credibility in an environment crowded with gossip, amateur journalists, and fake news (Singer, 1996).

3. In Business

There are no shortage of moral dilemmas in the business world, no matter how large or small the company (Shaw & Barry, 2015).

A small sample of ethical issues are described below.

Product Quality vs. Profit Nearly every item made can be produced to a higher standard. That is not the problem. The problem is that those higher standards usually entail higher costs. So, the tradeoff becomes an issue of competing priorities : product quality or product profitability.

Outsourcing Labor This seems to be a decision that a lot of US corporations have already completed. Offshoring labor is usually cheaper. But, it comes at a cost to the homeland. Fewer jobs means a weaker economy and possibly an array of psychosocial dysfunctions. If you ask the various BODs however, they will tell you that they have to honor their fiduciary obligation to make the most profit for the company they run. Often, that means offshoring jobs.

Employee Social Media Behavior On the one hand, what people do in their personal time is supposed to be just that, personal. On the other hand, each employee represents the company and if they engage in behavior online that reflects poorly on the company, then that can justify terminating their contract.

Honest Marketing It can be easy to stretch the truth a little bit to make a product or service look its best. How far to stretch that line is where the moral dilemma forms. In cases that are basically inconsequential, like foods and such, a little gloss is relatively harmless. However, when it comes to products that are consequential such as pharmaceuticals and insurance policies, the moral dilemma is so serious that the government has legislated marketing rules and regulations that must be strictly followed.

Labor Practices Many countries have strict laws about labor practices that involve child labor and working conditions. But, many countries do not. Some of the labor practices in those countries are absolutely shocking. Companies in industrialized countries such as in the EU are supposed to monitor their supply chains carefully. They can be held accountable if found in violation of their home country’s regulations. The moral dilemma occurs when the company feels it must turn a blind-eye to circumstances if it wants to stay in business.

Environmental Protection So many companies today are aware of their environmental footprint. They must make a calculated decision as to how much environmental damage they can accept in balance with expectations of their customers and damage to the environment. That balance is getting harder to ignore as societies become more environmentally conscious and social media increasingly powerful.

A moral dilemma is when an individual, referred to as an agent , is confronted with a situation in which they must choose between two or more moral options.

Unfortunately, each option has its own ramifications that make the choice between one or the other difficult.

Moral dilemmas are prevalent in our personal and professional lives. Several professions are especially rife with moral dilemmas. For instance, those in the healthcare industry must make decisions that can have life-and-death consequences.

Journalists must grapple with a range of moral dilemmas that involve establishing credibility of their content, verifying the accuracy of their information, plus issues of impartiality.

Business leaders today also cannot escape moral dilemmas. They must make decisions that impact employees, customers, and unseen individuals that work throughout fast supply chains.

As the world has become so interconnected, it seems that the number and severity of moral dilemmas continues to grow.

Arries, E. (2005). Virtue ethics: An approach to moral dilemmas in nursing. Curationis , 28 (3), 64-72.

de Casterlé, B. D., Grypdonck, M., & Vuylsteke-Wauters, M. (1997). Development, reliability, and validity testing of the Ethical Behavior Test: a measure for nurses’ ethical behavior. Journal of Nursing Measurement , 5 (1), 87-112.

de Casterlé, B., Roelens, A., & Gastmans, C. (1998). An adjusted version of Kohlberg’s moral theory: Discussion of its validity for research in nursing ethics. Journal of Advanced Nursing , 27 (4), 829-835.

de Casterlé, B. D., Izumi, S., Godfrey, N. S., & Denhaerynck, K. (2008). Nurses’ responses to ethical dilemmas in nursing practice: meta‐analysis. Journal of Advanced Nursing , 63 (6), 540-549.

Deuze, M., & Yeshua, D. (2001). Online journalists face new ethical dilemmas: Lessons from the Netherlands. Journal of Mass Media Ethics , 16 (4), 273-292.

Kohlberg, L. (1971). Stages of moral development. Moral Education , 1 (51), 23-92.

McConnell, T. (2022 Fall edition). Moral Dilemmas. In Edward N. Zalta & Uri Nodelman (Eds.). The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Archived at https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2022/entries/moral-dilemmas/

Rainer, J., Schneider, J. K., & Lorenz, R. A. (2018). Ethical dilemmas in nursing: An integrative review. Journal of Clinical Nursing, 27 (19-20), 3446–3461. https://doi.org/10.1111/jocn.14542

Sainsbury, M. (2009). Moral dilemmas. Think, 8 , 57 – 63. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1477175609000086

Shaw, W. H., & Barry, V. (2015). Moral issues in business . Cengage Learning.

Singer, J. B. (1996). Virtual anonymity: Online accountability and the virtuous virtual journalist. Journal of Mass Media Ethics, 11 , 95–106

Strauß, N. (2022). Covering sustainable finance: Role perceptions, journalistic practices and moral dilemmas. Journalism , 23 (6), 1194-1212.

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209 Ethical Dilemma Topics & Moral Issues

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These essay examples and topics on Ethical Dilemma were carefully selected by the StudyCorgi editorial team. They meet our highest standards in terms of grammar, punctuation, style, and fact accuracy. Please ensure you properly reference the materials if you’re using them to write your assignment.

This essay topic collection was updated on June 22, 2024 .

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Ethical Dilemma Essay

TOOLS FOR WRITING – THE ETHICAL DILEMMA ESSAY

Table of contents, defining an ethical dilemma, ethical dilemma essay topics, how to write an ethical dilemma essay, ethical dilemma essay examples.

We all have a sense of ethics – moral principles that are a part of who we are . Some people are fully opposed to the death penalty; others are opposed to abortion; some support mercy killing, or the “right to die.” But what happens when our moral principles are put to the test through an ethical dilemma?

Basically, an ethical dilemma is facing a decision that, in making that decision, violates a moral principle in order to follow another one . Either decision will mean violating one of your moral principles.

An ethical dilemma is facing a decision that, in making that decision, violates a moral principle in order to follow another one

A simple and often used example of a moral dilemma is this: You are on a ship that is sinking, and you must get into a lifeboat. That lifeboat can only hold 10 people without sinking, and there are 11 of you that need to get into it. Your moral principle is the preservation of life at all costs. How do you determine who does not get into that lifeboat? Or do you put all 11 in the lifeboat which will kill all of you? Any decision you make will compromise your principle of preserving life at all costs.

If you are assigned an ethical dilemma essay, chances are you are given a question or a prompt for that essay, but if not you can always search for a write my paper help on our web-site

Sample Ethical Dilemma Essay

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Have you ever faced an ethical dilemma? Write a personal ethical dilemma essay about one such dilemma and how you handled it. It will be in the first person and will not have to follow the formal writing rules of academic writing .

Here are several potential topics of an ethical dilemma essay. You will note that most provide scenarios in which a person will have to make a decision.

Best ethical dilemma essay topics:

You are a nurse who is committed to providing the best possible care according to the protocols that have been established. You have a patient who is dying. He is in extreme pain. You are charged with administering pain medication on a set schedule, but the patient remains in extreme pain and is asking for more pain medication on a shorter schedule. Do you follow your moral principle of relieving pain or the protocols that have been established?
You are the spouse of a woman who has gone into labor. There are complications. The doctor has informed you that you must make a decision to save the life or your wife or your as yet unborn child. What is your decision-making process, and how does either decision compromise your moral principles of the sanctity of life? Do you abort the child and condemn it to death or do you preserve the life of your wife?
You have witnessed your best friend cheating on an exam. Do you let loyalty to your friend prevail and not report this, or do you abide by your sense of what is right and report the incident to your instructor?
You are an animal rights advocate, believing that all life is sacred. A biological research company is conducting research using animals as subjects. The goal of this research is to eliminate a horrible disease that is afflicting many people all over the world., but animals will suffer even die, in the process. Can you reconcile your advocacy of animal rights with the greater good of saving human lives?

While your essay will follow the standard format – introduction, body, and conclusion – it may be of different types. You may be writing a narrative of personal experience; you may be writing a more academic piece on an ethical dilemma in a conceptual way; you may be writing an argumentative piece on a specific ethical dilemma. And some of these types of essays may require some research.

Once you have completed your mind map, and consolidated the items into specific points that you want to make, you are ready to craft at least a rough outline of the body paragraphs you will compose.

Develop your thesis statement based upon your points. What is it that you are trying to “prove” to your audience? What do you want your reader to take away from this essay? Your answer to these questions will help you to form your thesis statement.

Write your body paragraphs first. These must be well-formed, with topic sentences and lots of detail to support them.

One the body paragraphs are constructed, you are ready to craft your introduction – a part of your essay that will introduce the topic and provide your thesis for the essay. Work to create a “hook” for your reader – something that will pique their interest and motivate them to read on. This might be a startling statistic, a quote from a famous person, or a short anecdote to which they can relate.

Carefully think about your conclusion. You will want to re-state your thesis , of course, but you also may need to encourage those who are dealing with moral dilemmas , as they struggle with their own.

There are plenty of ethical dilemma essay examples out there on the web. And they will give you great ideas about structure and format. But understand this: your essay must be uniquely yours. You must insert your own style, your own ideas, your own style into your essay, or it won’t be compelling or engaging to your reader. Take the ideas; take the points. But make the essay yours alone.

External links

How to Mind Map with Tony Buzan. (2015). [YouTube Video]. In YouTube . https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u5Y4pIsXTV0

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Ethical Dilemma Essay | Essay on Ethical Dilemma for Students and Children in English

February 13, 2024 by Prasanna

Ethical Dilemma Essay: Our societal, professional, and personal values get affected by ethical dilemmas. One may think that their decision was good at that time, but now it cannot be the same. Many of our values get affected by time.

The ethical dilemma involves a clear mental clash in a situation that often makes you choose between two things. Between moral or immoral ways – a person has to choose only one way from two of them. If we obey one decision being in an ethical dilemma, we will bring about disobey.

You can also find more Essay Writing articles on events, persons, sports, technology and many more.

Long and Short Essays on Ethical Dilemma for Students and Kids in English

We provide students with essay samples on a long essay of 500 words and a short essay of 150 words on the topic of an ethical dilemma for reference.

Long Essay on Ethical Dilemma 500 Words in English

Long Essay on Ethical Dilemma is usually given to classes 7, 8, 9, and 10.

A situation that often involves a clear mental clash between two things or decisions is known as an ethical dilemma. If we obey one decision being in an ethical dilemma, we will bring about disobey. An ethical dilemma is often also termed as a moral dilemma. The situation one be in is made too difficult by an ethical dilemma.

Between moral or immoral ways – a person has to choose only one way from two of them. In our daily life, ethical dilemmas are seen everywhere. However, the experience of ethical dilemmas varies from person to person. In real life, good values participate in everyone’s life. Everyone just needs to oversee and take a look after our moral values and our desires.

Basically, to view moral problems, there are three conditions that must be available for particular circumstances. The primary circumstance happens when an individual name the “operator” settles the ideal strategy. Circumstances are not considered ethical dilemma where it does not require a decision. The second condition for ethical dilemmas is the look over of certain distinctive strategies. Third, regardless of what game-plan is taken in a moral situation, some moral guideline is traded off.

In any case, the ethics of care focuses on the moral hugeness of tending in a general sense about the association to the general population’s necessities for whom we accept the risk. A record of significant quality that adversaries traditional approaches and hypothetical frameworks about consideration the rights, value, sensible reason, commitments, and independence.

Our societal, professional, and personal values get affected by Ethical dilemmas. One may think that their decision was good at that time, but now it cannot be the same. Many of our values get affected by time. Taking the social costs into account, as the second person after parents, a child believes most is their teachers. In India, the teachers are considered the second parent of the children.

You can now access more Essay Writing on this topic and much more.

The member of society from which the other society members expects a lot are teachers. Teachers are provided with a high level of education and are professionally respected. Teachers protect them if they are in any problem, and they also teach them like their parents.

If a student hesitates from parents, share his problem but can communicate with the teacher. It is said that the students can never get harmed by their teachers. Education is described as a moral enterprise, and many of the professional dilemmas teachers encounter have an ethical aspect. Parents and students trust a lot on the teachers.

To conclude, the decision that one should be aware that students are the best and if one would have made this decision at the time when it could save their future. Students must be aware of teachers that care about them. The teachers have the ability to immediately sense hypocrisy and make students aware of the differences between authentic behaviour and snobbish.

Taking in regard to what students can see and hear around them is important with the moral impact on students. But now we think that we should not be selfish; rather, the student has the power to do anything. So, the future would be much better if the decision is made at the correct time.

Short Essay on Ethical Dilemma 150 Words in English

Short Essay on Ethical Dilemma is usually given to classes 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6.

To conclude, the decision that one should be aware that students are the best and if one would have made this decision at the time when it could save their future. But now we think that we should not be selfish; rather, the student has the power to do anything. So, the future would be much better if the decision is made at the correct time.

10 Lines on Ethical Dilemma Essay in English

1. Having a code of conduct makes a more comfortable time handling ethical issues. 2. Ethical dilemmas can be solved by modelling behaviour so that people will watch how the role model work and they can act the same way. 3. An ethical dilemma can also occur when a person is not ready to disclose his/her decision or action in advance. 4. An ethical dilemma occurs when a person doesn’t know to recuse themselves in the case of a conflict of interest. 5. Getting the consent of other key people about disclosing any kind of conflict might prevent a moral dilemma. 6. A person being in an ethical dilemma must try to think beyond the two choices of acceding and refuse. A third alternative that meets the other person’s objects can be considered ethical. 7. An ethical dilemma can be deal with another an alternate method of avoiding lying by avoiding the question in the first place, but this should be followed throughout your life. 8. An ethical dilemma can be dealt with by focusing on the issue rather than focusing on a particular person. 9. Stress plays a huge advantage in the ethical dilemma and confuses your approach to deal with it. 10. Documentation of key matters is critical to take an ethical stand on a circumstance.

FAQ’s on Ethical Dilemma Essay

Question 1. What are some ethical dilemma examples?

Answer: Some examples of an ethical dilemma is taking credits for others’ work or utilizing inside knowledge for your profit, or offering a client a worse product for your own profit.

Question 2. What causes an ethical dilemma?

Answer: A feeling of pressure to do immoral things to the boss when one feels that they cannot point out their co-workers’ bad behaviours or superior.

Question 3. What are the four ethical dilemmas?

Answer: The four ethical dilemmas are: individual vs community, short-long-term, truth vs loyalty, and justice vs mercy.

Question 4. What are three moral dilemmas?

Answer: Among the several types of moral dilemma, three are: obligation dilemma, epistemic dilemmas, and self-imposed dilemma.

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Moral Dilemmas

Moral dilemmas, at the very least, involve conflicts between moral requirements. Consider the cases given below.

1. Examples

2. the concept of moral dilemmas, 3. problems, 4. dilemmas and consistency, 5. responses to the arguments, 6. moral residue and dilemmas, 7. types of moral dilemmas, 8. conclusion, cited works, other worthwhile readings, other internet resources, related entries.

In Book I of Plato's Republic , Cephalus defines ‘justice’ as speaking the truth and paying one's debts. Socrates quickly refutes this account by suggesting that it would be wrong to repay certain debts — for example, to return a borrowed weapon to a friend who is not in his right mind. Socrates' point is not that repaying debts is without moral import; rather, he wants to show that it is not always right to repay one's debts, at least not exactly when the one to whom the debt is owed demands repayment. What we have here is a conflict between two moral norms: repaying one's debts and protecting others from harm. And in this case, Socrates maintains that protecting others from harm is the norm that takes priority.

Nearly twenty-four centuries later, Jean-Paul Sartre described a moral conflict the resolution of which was, to many, less obvious than the resolution to the Platonic conflict. Sartre [1957] tells of a student whose brother had been killed in the German offensive of 1940. The student wanted to avenge his brother and to fight forces that he regarded as evil. But the student's mother was living with him, and he was her one consolation in life. The student believed that he had conflicting obligations. Sartre describes him as being torn between two kinds of morality: one of limited scope but certain efficacy, personal devotion to his mother; the other of much wider scope but uncertain efficacy, attempting to contribute to the defeat of an unjust aggressor.

While the examples from Plato and Sartre are the ones most commonly cited, it should be clear that there are many others. If a person makes conflicting promises, she faces a moral conflict. Physicians and families who believe that human life should not be deliberately shortened and that unpreventable pain should not be tolerated face a conflict in deciding whether to withdraw life support from a dying patient.

What is common to the two well-known cases is conflict. In each case, an agent regards herself as having moral reasons to do each of two actions, but doing both actions is not possible. Ethicists have called situations like these moral dilemmas . The crucial features of a moral dilemma are these: the agent is required to do each of two (or more) actions; the agent can do each of the actions; but the agent cannot do both (or all) of the actions. The agent thus seems condemned to moral failure; no matter what she does, she will do something wrong (or fail to do something that she ought to do).

The Platonic case strikes many as too easy to be characterized as a genuine moral dilemma. For the agent's solution in that case is clear; it is more important to protect people from harm than to return a borrowed weapon. And in any case, the borrowed item can be returned later, when the owner no longer poses a threat to others. Thus in this case we can say that the requirement to protect others from serious harm overrides the requirement to repay one's debts by returning a borrowed item when its owner so demands. When one of the conflicting requirements overrides the other, we do not have a genuine moral dilemma. So in addition to the features mentioned above, in order to have a genuine moral dilemma it must also be true that neither of the conflicting requirements is overridden [Sinnott-Armstrong (1988), Chapter 1].

It is less obvious in Sartre's case that one of the requirements overrides the other. Why this is so, however, may not be so obvious. Some will say that our uncertainty about what to do in this case is simply the result of uncertainty about the consequences. If we were certain that the student could make a difference in defeating the Germans, the obligation to join the military would prevail. But if the student made little difference whatsoever in that cause, then his obligation to tend to his mother's needs would take precedence, since there he is virtually certain to be helpful. Others, though, will say that these obligations are equally weighty, and that uncertainty about the consequences is not at issue here.

Ethicists as diverse as Kant [1971/1797], Mill [1979/1861], and Ross [1930 and 1939] have assumed that an adequate moral theory should not allow for the possibility of genuine moral dilemmas. Only recently — in the last fifty years or so — have philosophers begun to challenge that assumption. And the challenge can take at least two different forms. Some will argue that it is not possible to preclude genuine moral dilemmas. Others will argue that even if it were possible, it is not desirable to do so.

To illustrate some of the debate that occurs regarding whether it is possible for any theory to eliminate genuine moral dilemmas, consider the following. The conflicts in Plato's case and in Sartre's case arose because there is more than one moral precept (using ‘precept’ to designate rules and principles), more than one precept sometimes applies to the same situation, and in some of these cases the precepts demand conflicting actions. One obvious solution here would be to arrange the precepts, however many there might be, hierarchically. By this scheme, the highest ordered precept always prevails, the second prevails unless it conflicts with the first, and so on. There are at least two glaring problems with this obvious solution, however. First, it just does not seem credible to hold that moral rules and principles should be hierarchically ordered. While the requirements to keep one's promises and to prevent harm to others clearly can conflict, it is far from clear that one of these requirements should always prevail over the other. In the Platonic case, the obligation to prevent harm is clearly stronger. But there can easily be cases where the harm that can be prevented is relatively mild and the promise that is to be kept is very important. And most other pairs of precepts are like this. This was a point made by Ross in The Right and the Good [1930, Chapter 2].

The second problem with this easy solution is deeper. Even if it were plausible to arrange moral precepts hierarchically, situations can arise in which the same precept gives rise to conflicting obligations. Perhaps the most widely discussed case of this sort is taken from William Styron's Sophie's Choice [1980] [Greenspan (1983)]. Sophie and her two children are at a Nazi concentration camp. A guard confronts Sophie and tells her that one of her children will be allowed to live and one will be killed. But it is Sophie who must decide which child will be killed. Sophie can prevent the death of either of her children, but only by condemning the other to be killed. The guard makes the situation even more excruciating by informing Sophie that if she chooses neither, then both will be killed. With this added factor, Sophie has a morally compelling reason to choose one of her children. But for each child, Sophie has an apparently equally strong reason to save him or her. Thus the same moral precept gives rise to conflicting obligations. Some have called such cases symmetrical [Sinnott-Armstrong (1988), Chapter 2].

We shall return to the issue of whether it is possible to preclude genuine moral dilemmas. But what about the desirability of doing so? Why have ethicists thought that their theories should preclude the possibility of dilemmas? At the intuitive level, the existence of moral dilemmas suggests some sort of inconsistency. An agent caught in a genuine dilemma is required to do each of two acts but cannot do both. And since he cannot do both, not doing one is a condition of doing the other. Thus, it seems that the same act is both required and forbidden. But exposing a logical inconsistency takes some work; for initial inspection reveals that the inconsistency intuitively felt is not present. Allowing OA to designate that the agent in question ought to do A (or is morally obligated to do A , or is morally required to do A ), that OA and OB are both true is not itself inconsistent, even if one adds that it is not possible for the agent to do both A and B . And even if the situation is appropriately described as OA and O ¬ A , that is not a contradiction; the contradictory of OA is ¬ OA . [See Marcus (1980).]

Similarly rules that generate moral dilemmas are not inconsistent, at least on the usual understanding of that term. Ruth Marcus suggests plausibly that we “define a set of rules as consistent if there is some possible world in which they are all obeyable in all circumstances in that world.” Thus, “rules are consistent if there are possible circumstances in which no conflict will emerge,” and “a set of rules is inconsistent if there are no circumstances, no possible world, in which all the rules are satisfiable” [Marcus (1980), p. 128 and p. 129]. I suspect that Kant, Mill, and Ross were aware that a dilemma-generating theory need not be inconsistent. Even so, they would be disturbed if their own theories allowed for such predicaments. If I am correct in this speculation, it suggests that Kant, Mill, Ross, and others thought that there is an important theoretical feature that dilemma-generating theories lack. And this is understandable. It is certainly no comfort to an agent facing a reputed moral dilemma to be told that at least the rules which generate this predicament are consistent. For a good practical example, consider the situation of the criminal defense attorney. She is said to have an obligation to hold in confidence the disclosures made by a client and to be required to conduct herself with candor before the court (where the latter requires that the attorney inform the court when her client commits perjury) [Freedman (1975), Chapter 3]. It is clear that in this world these two obligations often conflict. It is equally clear that in some possible world — for example, one in which clients do not commit perjury — that both obligations can be satisfied. Knowing this is of no assistance to defense attorneys who face a conflict between these two requirements in this world.

Ethicists who are concerned that their theories not allow for moral dilemmas have more than consistency in mind, I think. What is troubling is that theories that allow for dilemmas fail to be uniquely action-guiding . A theory can fail to be uniquely action-guiding in either of two ways: by not recommending any action in a situation that is moral or by recommending incompatible actions. Theories that generate genuine moral dilemmas fail to be uniquely action-guiding in the latter way. Since at least one of the main points of moral theories is to provide agents with guidance, that suggests that it is desirable for theories to eliminate dilemmas, at least if doing so is possible.

But failing to be uniquely action-guiding is not the only reason that the existence of moral dilemmas is thought to be troublesome. Just as important, the existence of dilemmas does lead to inconsistencies if one endorses certain widely held theses. Here we shall consider two different arguments, each of which shows that one cannot consistently acknowledge the reality of moral dilemmas while holding selected principles.

The first argument shows that two standard principles of deontic logic are, when conjoined, incompatible with the existence of moral dilemmas. The first of these is the principle of deontic consistency

Principle of Deontic Consistency ( PC ): OA → ¬ O ¬ A .

Intuitively this principle just says that the same action cannot be both obligatory and forbidden. Note that as initially described, the existence of dilemmas does not conflict with PC. For as described, dilemmas involve a situation in which an agent ought to do A , ought to do B , but cannot do both A and B . But if we add a principle of deontic logic, then we obtain a conflict with PC:

Principle of Deontic Logic ( PD ): □ ( A → B ) → ( OA → OB ).

Intuitively, PD just says that if doing A brings about B , and if A is obligatory (morally required), then B is obligatory (morally required). The first argument that generates inconsistency can now be stated. Premises (1), (2), and (3) represent the claim that moral dilemmas exist.

(1)
(2)
(3)	¬ ( &	[where ‘¬ ’ means ‘cannot’]
(4)	□ ( → ) → ( → )	[where ‘□’ means physical necessity]
(5)	□ ¬ ( & )	(from 3)
(6)	□ ( → ¬ )	(from 5)
(7)	□ ( → ¬ ) → ( → ¬ )	(an instantiation of 4)
(8)	→ ¬	(from 6 and 7)
(9)	¬	(from 2 and 8)
(10)	and ¬	(from 1 and 9)

Line (10) directly conflicts with PC. And from PC and (1), we can conclude

(11) ¬ O ¬ A

And, of course, (9) and (11) are contradictory. So if we assume PC and PD, then the existence of dilemmas generates an inconsistency of the old-fashioned logical sort. [Note: In standard deontic logic, the ‘□’ in PD typically designates logical necessity. Here I take it to indicate physical necessity so that the appropriate connection with premise (3) can be made. And I take it that logical necessity is stronger than physical necessity.]

Two other principles accepted in most systems of deontic logic entail PC. So if PD holds, then one of these additional two principles must be jettisoned too. The first says that if an action is obligatory, it is also permissible. The second says that an action is permissible if and only if it is not forbidden. These principles may be stated as:

(OP): OA → PA ;

(D): PA ↔ ¬ O ¬ A .

The second argument that generates inconsistency, like the first, has as its first three premises a symbolic representation of a moral dilemma.

(1) OA (2) OB (3) ¬ C ( A & B )

And like the first, this second argument shows that the existence of dilemmas leads to a contradiction if we assume two other commonly accepted principles. The first of these principles is that ‘ought’ implies ‘can’. Intuitively this says that if an agent is morally required to do an action, it must be possible for the agent to do it. We may represent this as

(4) OA → CA (for all A )

The other principle, endorsed by most systems of deontic logic, says that if an agent is required to do each of two actions, she is required to do both. We may represent this as

(5) ( OA & OB ) → O ( A & B )

The argument then proceeds:

(6) O ( A & B ) → C ( A & B ) (an instance of 4) (7) OA & OB (from 1 and 2) (8) O ( A & B ) (from 5 and 7) (9) ¬ O ( A & B ) (from 3 and 6)

So if one assumes that ‘ought’ implies ‘can’ and if one assumes the principle represented in (5) — dubbed by some the agglomeration principle [Williams (1965)] — then again a contradiction can be derived.

Now obviously the inconsistency in the first argument can be avoided if one denies either PC or PD. And the inconsistency in the second argument can be averted if one gives up either the principle that ‘ought’ implies ‘can’ or the agglomeration principle. There is, of course, another way to avoid these inconsistencies: deny the possibility of genuine moral dilemmas. It is fair to say that much of the debate concerning moral dilemmas in the last fifty years has been about how to avoid the inconsistencies generated by the two arguments above.

Opponents of moral dilemmas have generally held that the crucial principles in the two arguments above are conceptually true, and therefore we must deny the possibility of genuine dilemmas. [See, for example, Conee (1982) and Zimmerman (1996).] Most of the debate, from all sides, has focused on the second argument. There is an oddity about this, however. When one examines the pertinent principles in each argument which, in combination with dilemmas, generates an inconsistency, there is little doubt that those in the first argument have a greater claim to being conceptually true than those in the second. Perhaps the focus on the second argument is due to the impact of Bernard Williams's influential essay [Williams (1965)]. But notice that the first argument shows that if there are genuine dilemmas, then either PC or PD must be relinquished. Even most supporters of dilemmas acknowledge that PC is quite basic. E.J. Lemmon, for example, notes that if PC does not hold in a system of deontic logic, then all that remains are truisms and paradoxes [Lemmon (1965), p. 51]. And giving up PC also requires denying either OP or D, each of which also seems basic. There has been much debate about PD — in particular, questions generated by the Good Samaritan paradox — but still it seems basic. So those who want to argue against dilemmas purely on conceptual grounds are better off focusing on the first of the two arguments above.

Some opponents of dilemmas also hold that the pertinent principles in the second argument — the principle that ‘ought’ implies ‘can’ and the agglomeration principle — are conceptually true. But foes of dilemmas need not say this. Even if they believe that a conceptual argument against dilemmas can be made by appealing to PC and PD, they have several options regarding the second argument. They may defend ‘ought’ implies ‘can’, but hold that it is a substantive normative principle, not a conceptual truth. Or they may even deny the truth of ‘ought’ implies ‘can’ or the agglomeration principle, though not because of moral dilemmas, of course.

Defenders of dilemmas need not deny all of the pertinent principles, of course. If one thinks that each of the principles at least has some initial plausibility, then one will be inclined to retain as many as possible. Among the earlier contributors to this debate, some took the existence of dilemmas as a counterexample to ‘ought’ implies ‘can’ [for example, Lemmon (1962) and Trigg (1971)]; others, as a refutation of the agglomeration principle [for example, Williams (1965) and van Fraassen (1973)]. The most common response to the first argument was to deny PD.

Friends and foes of dilemmas have a burden to bear in responding to the two arguments above. For there is at a prima facie plausibility to the claim that there are moral dilemmas and to the claim that the relevant principles in the two arguments are true. Thus each side must at least give reasons for denying the pertinent claims in question. Opponents of dilemmas must say something in response to the positive arguments that are given for the reality of such conflicts. One reason in support of dilemmas, as noted above, is simply pointing to examples. The case of Sartre's student and that from Sophie's Choice are good ones; and clearly these can be multiplied indefinitely. It will tempting for supporters of dilemmas to say to opponents, “If this is not a real dilemma, then tell me what the agent ought to do and why ?” It is obvious, however, that attempting to answer such questions is fruitless, and for at least two reasons. First, any answer given to the question is likely to be controversial, certainly not always convincing. And second, this is a game that will never end; example after example can be produced. The more appropriate response on the part of foes of dilemmas is to deny that they need to answer the question. Examples as such cannot establish the reality of dilemmas. Surely most will acknowledge that there are situations in which an agent does not know what he ought to do. This may be because of factual uncertainty, uncertainty about the consequences, uncertainty about what principles apply, or a host of other things. So for any given case, the mere fact that one does not know which of two (or more) conflicting obligations prevails does not show that none does.

Another reason in support of dilemmas to which opponents must respond is the point about symmetry. As the cases from Plato and Sartre show, moral rules can conflict. But opponents of dilemmas can argue that in such cases one rule overrides the other. Most will grant this in the Platonic case, and opponents of dilemmas will try to extend this point to all cases. But the hardest case for opponents is the symmetrical one, where the same precept generates the conflicting requirements. The case from Sophie's Choice is of this sort. It makes no sense to say that a rule or principle overrides itself. So what do opponents of dilemmas say here? They are apt to argue that the pertinent, all-things-considered requirement in such a case is disjunctive: Sophie should act to save one or the other of her children, since that is the best that she can do [for example, Zimmerman (1996), Chapter 7]. Such a move need not be ad hoc , since in many cases it is quite natural. If an agent can afford to make a meaningful contribution to only one charity, the fact that there are several worthwhile candidates does not prompt many to say that the agent will fail morally no matter what he does. Nearly all of us think that he should give to one or the other of the worthy candidates. Similarly, if two people are drowning and an agent is situated so that she can save either of the two but only one, few say that she is doing wrong no matter which she saves. Positing a disjunctive requirement in these cases seems perfectly natural, and so such a move is available to opponents of dilemmas as a response to symmetrical cases.

Supporters of dilemmas have a burden to bear too. They need to cast doubt on the adequacy of the pertinent principles in the two arguments that generate inconsistencies. And most importantly, they need to provide independent reasons for doubting whichever of the principles they reject. If they have no reason other than cases of putative dilemmas for denying the principles in question, then we have a mere standoff. Of the principles in question, the most commonly questioned on independent grounds are the principle that ‘ought’ implies ‘can’ and PD. Among supporters of dilemmas, Walter Sinnott-Armstrong [Sinnott-Armstrong (1988), Chapters 4 and 5] has gone to the greatest lengths to provide independent reasons for questioning some of the relevant principles.

One well-known argument for the reality of moral dilemmas has not been discussed yet. This argument might be called “phenomenological.” It appeals to the emotions that agents facing conflicts experience and our assessment of those emotions.

Return to the case of Sartre's student. Suppose that he joins the Free French forces. It is likely that he will experience remorse or guilt for having abandoned his mother. And not only will he experience these emotions, this moral residue, but it is appropriate that he does. Yet, had he stayed with his mother and not joined the Free French forces, he also would have appropriately experienced remorse or guilt. But either remorse or guilt is appropriate only if the agent properly believes that he has done something wrong (or failed to do something that he was all-things-considered required to do). Since no matter what the agent does he will appropriately experience remorse or guilt, then no matter what he does he will have done something wrong. Thus, the agent faces a genuine moral dilemma. [The best known proponents of arguments for dilemmas that appeal to moral residue are Williams (1965) and Marcus (1980).]

Many cases of moral conflict are similar to this example. Certainly the case from Sophie's Choice fits here. No matter which of her children Sophie saves, she will experience enormous guilt for the consequences of that choice. Indeed, if Sophie did not experience such guilt, we would think that there was something morally wrong with her. In these cases, proponents of the argument (for dilemmas) from moral residue must claim that four things are true: (1) when the agents acts, she experiences remorse or guilt; (2) that she experiences these emotions is appropriate and called for; (3) had the agent acted on the other of the conflicting requirements, she would also have experienced remorse or guilt; and (4) in the latter case these emotions would have been equally appropriate and called for [McConnell (1996), pp. 37-38]. In these situations, then, remorse or guilt will be appropriate no matter what the agent does and these emotions are appropriate only when the agent has done something wrong. Therefore, these situations are genuinely dilemmatic.

There is much to say about the moral emotions and situations of moral conflict; the positions are varied and intricate. Without pretending to resolve all of the issues here, it will be pointed out that opponents of dilemmas have raised two different objections to the argument from moral residue. The first objection, in effect, suggests that the argument is question-begging [McConnell (1978) and Conee (1982)]; the second objection challenges the assumption that remorse and guilt are appropriate only when the agent has done wrong.

To explain the first objection, note that it is uncontroversial that some bad feeling or other is called for when an agent is in a situation like that of Sartre's student or Sophie. But the negative moral emotions are not limited to remorse and guilt. Among these other emotions, consider regret. An agent can appropriately experience regret even when she does not believe that she has done something wrong. For example, a parent may appropriately regret that she must punish her child even though she correctly believes that the punishment is deserved. Her regret is appropriate because a bad state of affairs is brought into existence (say, the child's discomfort), even when bringing this state of affairs into existence is morally required. Regret can even be appropriate when one has no causal connection at all with the bad state of affairs. It is appropriate for me to regret the damage that a recent fire has caused to my neighbor's house, the pain that severe birth defects cause in infants, and the suffering that a starving animal experiences in the wilderness. Not only is it appropriate that I experience regret in these cases, but I would probably be regarded as morally lacking if I did not.

With remorse or guilt, at least two components are present: the experiential component, namely, the negative feeling that the agent has; and the cognitive component, namely, the belief that the agent has done something wrong and takes responsibility for it. Although this same cognitive component is not part of regret, the negative feeling is. And the experiential component alone cannot serve as a gauge to distinguish regret from remorse, for regret can range from mild to intense, and so can remorse. In part, what distinguishes the two is the cognitive component. But now when we examine the case of an alleged dilemma, such as that of Sartre's student, it is question-begging to assert that it is appropriate for him to experience remorse no matter what he does. No doubt, it is appropriate for him to experience some negative feeling. To say, however, that it is remorse that is called for is to assume that the agent appropriately believes that he has done something wrong. Since regret is warranted even in the absence of such a belief, to assume that remorse is appropriate is to assume , not argue, that the agent's situation is genuinely dilemmatic. Opponents of dilemmas can say that one of the requirements overrides the other, or that the agent faces a disjunctive requirement, and that regret is appropriate because even when he does what he ought to do, some bad will ensue. Either side, then, can account for the appropriateness of some negative moral emotion. To get more specific, however, requires more than is warranted by the present argument. This appeal to moral residue, then, does not establish the reality of moral dilemmas.

Matters are even more complicated, though, as the second objection to the argument from moral residue shows. The argument assumes that remorse or guilt is appropriate only if the agent believes that he has done something wrong. But this is questionable. Consider the case of a middle-aged man, Bill, and a seven-year-old boy, Johnny. It is set in a midwestern village on a snowy December day. Johnny and several of his friends are riding their sleds down a narrow, seldom used street, one that intersects with a busier, although still not heavily traveled, street. Johnny, in his enthusiasm for sledding, is not being very careful. During his final ride he skidded under an automobile passing through the intersection and was killed instantly. The car was driven by Bill. Bill was driving safely, had the right of way, and was not exceeding the speed limit. Moreover, given the physical arrangement, it would have been impossible for Bill to have seen Johnny coming. Bill was not at fault, legally or morally, for Johnny's death. Yet Bill experienced what can only be described as remorse or guilt about his role in this horrible event.

At one level, Bill's feelings of remorse or guilt are not warranted. Bill did nothing wrong. A friend might even recommend that Bill seek therapy. But this is not all there is to say. Most of us understand Bill's response. From Bill's point of view, the response is not inappropriate, not irrational, not uncalled-for. To see this, imagine that Bill had had a very different response. Suppose that Bill had said, “I regret Johnny's death. It is a terrible thing. But it certainly was not my fault. I have nothing to feel guilty about and I don't owe his parents any apologies.” Even if Bill is correct intellectually, it is hard to imagine someone being able to achieve this sort of objectivity about his own behavior. When human beings have caused great harm, it is natural for them to wonder if they are at fault, even if to outsiders it is obvious that they bear no moral responsibility for the damage. Human beings are not so finely tuned emotionally that when they have been causally responsible for harm, they can easily turn guilt on or off depending on their degree of moral responsibility. [See Zimmerman (1988), pp. 134-135.] And this is not a bad thing; for it likely makes agents more cautious about their actions, more sensitive about their responsibilities, and more empathetic regarding the plight of others.

All of this suggests that there are situations in which an agent's remorse or guilt is not inappropriate even though the agent has done nothing wrong. Because of this and because in any given situation the appropriate response may be regret and not remorse, opponents of dilemmas have a way to respond to the argument that appeals to the appropriateness of remorse.

It should be noted, however, that there is a complex array of issues concerning the relationship between ethical conflicts and the moral emotions, and the discussion here has been quite brief. [See Greenspan (1995).]

In the literature on moral dilemmas, it is common to draw distinctions among various types of dilemmas. Only some of these distinctions will be mentioned here. It is worth noting that both supporters and opponents of dilemmas tend to draw some, if not all, of these distinctions. And in most cases the motivation for doing so is clear. Supporters of dilemmas may draw a distinction between dilemmas of type V and W . The upshot is typically a message to opponents of dilemmas: “You think that all moral conflicts are resolvable. And that is understandable, because conflicts of type V are resolvable. But conflicts of type W are not resolvable. Thus, contrary to your view, there are some genuine moral dilemmas.” By the same token, opponents of dilemmas may draw a distinction between dilemmas of type X and Y . And their message to supporters of dilemmas is this: “You think that there are genuine moral dilemmas, and given certain facts, it is understandable why this appears to be the case. But if you draw a distinction between conflicts of types X and Y , you can see that appearances can be explained by the existence of type X alone, and type X conflicts are not genuine dilemmas.” With this in mind, let us note a few of the distinctions.

One distinction is between epistemic conflicts and ontological conflicts. The former involve conflicts between two (or more) moral requirements and the agent does not know which of the conflicting requirements takes precedence in her situation. Everyone concedes that there can be situations where one requirement does take priority over the other with which it conflicts, though at the time action is called for it is difficult for the agent to tell which requirement prevails. The latter are conflicts between two (or more) moral requirements, and neither is overridden. This is not simply because the agent does not know which requirement is stronger; neither is. Genuine moral dilemmas, if there are any, are ontological. Both opponents and supporters of dilemmas acknowledge that there are epistemic conflicts.

Another distinction is between self-imposed moral dilemmas and dilemmas imposed on an agent by the world , as it were. Conflicts of the former sort arise because of the agent's own wrongdoing [Aquinas; Donagan (1977 and 1984); and McConnell (1978)]. If an agent made two promises that he knew conflicted, then through his own actions he created a situation in which it is not possible for him to discharge both of his requirements. Dilemmas imposed on the agent by the world, by contrast, do not arise because of the agent's wrongdoing. The case of Sartre's student is an example, as is the case from Sophie's Choice . For supporters of dilemmas, this distinction is not all that important. But among opponents of dilemmas, there is a disagreement about whether the distinction is important. Some of these opponents hold that self-imposed dilemmas are possible, but that their existence does not point to any deep flaws in moral theory. Moral theory tells agents how they ought to behave; but if agents violate moral norms, of course things can go askew. Other opponents deny that even self-imposed dilemmas are possible. They argue that an adequate moral theory should tell agents what they ought to do in their current circumstances, regardless of how those circumstances arose. And given the prevalence of wrongdoing, if a moral theory did not issue uniquely action-guiding “contrary-to-duty imperatives,” it would be severely lacking.

Yet another distinction is between obligation dilemmas and prohibition dilemmas . The former are situations in which more than one feasible action is obligatory. The latter involve cases in which all feasible actions are forbidden. Some [especially, Valentyne (1987 and 1989)] argue that plausible principles of deontic logic may well render obligation dilemmas impossible; but they do not preclude the possibility of prohibition dilemmas. The case of Sartre's student, if genuinely dilemmatic, is an obligation dilemma; Sophie's case is a prohibition dilemma. There is another reason that friends of dilemmas emphasize this distinction. Some think that the “disjunctive solution” used by opponents of dilemmas — when equally strong precepts conflict, the agent is required to act on one or the other — is much more plausible when applied to obligation dilemmas than when applied to prohibition dilemmas.

As moral dilemmas are typically described, they involve a single agent . The agent ought, all things considered, to do A , ought, all things considered, to do B , and she cannot do both A and B . But we can distinguish multi-person dilemmas from single agent ones. The two-person case is representative of multi-person dilemmas. The situation is such that one agent, P1, ought to do A , a second agent, P2, ought to do B , and though each agent can do what he ought to do, it is not possible both for P1 to do A and P2 to do B . [See Marcus (1980), p. 122 and McConnell (1988).] Multi-person dilemmas have been called “interpersonal moral conflicts.” Such conflicts are most theoretically worrisome if the same moral system (or theory) generates the conflicting obligations for P1 and P2. A theory that precludes single-agent moral dilemmas remains uniquely action-guiding for each agent. But if that same theory does not preclude the possibility of interpersonal moral conflicts, not all agents will be able to succeed in discharging their obligations, no matter how well-motivated or how hard they try. For supporters of moral dilemmas, this distinction is not all that important. They no doubt welcome (theoretically) more types of dilemmas, since that may make their case more persuasive. But if they establish the reality of single-agent dilemmas, in one sense their work is done. For opponents of dilemmas, however, the distinction may be important. This is because at least some opponents believe that the conceptual argument against dilemmas applies principally to single-agent cases. It does so because the ought-to-do operator of deontic logic and the accompanying principles are properly understood to apply to entities about which decisions can be made. To be clear, this position does not preclude that collectives (such as businesses or nations) can have obligations. But a necessary condition for this being the case is that there is (or should be) a central deliberative standpoint from which decisions are made. This condition is not satisfied when two otherwise unrelated agents happen to have obligations both of which cannot be discharged. Put simply,while an individual act involving one agent can be the object of choice, a compound act involving multiple agents is difficult so to conceive. [See Smith (1986) and Thomason (1981).] To the extent that the possibility of interpersonal moral conflicts raises an intramural dispute among opponents of dilemmas, that dispute concerns how to understand the principles of deontic logic and what can reasonably be demanded of moral theories.

Debates about moral dilemmas have been extensive during the last five decades. These debates go to the heart of moral theory. Both supporters and opponents of moral dilemmas have major burdens to bear. Opponents of dilemmas must show why appearances are deceiving. Why are examples of apparent dilemmas misleading? Why are certain moral emotions appropriate if the agent has done no wrong? Supporters must show why several of many apparently plausible principles should be given up — principles such as PC, PD, OP, D, ‘ought’ implies ‘can’, and the agglomeration principle. Much progress has been made, but the debate is apt to continue.

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[Please contact the author with suggestions.]

-->Kant, Immanuel --> | logic: deontic | Mill, John Stuart | Plato | Sartre, Jean-Paul

Acknowledgments

I thank Michael Zimmerman for helpful comments on this essay.

Reflecting on Moral Dilemmas with Practical Wisdom

Students will develop practical wisdom by reading and reflecting on a moral dilemma with a set of guiding questions. Question sets prompt students to draw on past knowledge, understand the current context, and weigh various options up against guiding principles in order to determine next steps.

Planning For It

When you might use this practice.

To encourage greater self-awareness
To cultivate practical wisdom in students
To encourage empathy
At the start of the school year

Time Required

Upper Elementary
Middle School
High School

Learning Objectives

Students will:

Practice working effectively in groups
Reflect on what they have learned from other students
Practice sharing their own thoughts, feelings, and/or life stories

Additional Supports

Making Practices Culturally Responsive
Adapting Practices for Students with Special Needs
Making Classrooms and Schools Trauma-Informed and Healing-Centered

Character Strengths

Practical Wisdom

SEL Competencies

Self-Awareness
Social Awareness
Relationship Skills

Mindfulness Components

Focused Attention
Open Awareness
Non-Judgment

How To Do It

Reflection before the practice.

Consider a moral dilemma that you and/or a friend may be trying to address. As you think about the actions to be taken, consider the following questions: What past knowledge might inform your response to this situation? What might a friend or person you respect do in this situation? What emotions are you experiencing and how might they be clouding your thinking about next steps? What other factors might be influencing your thinking about the situation?
Consider the potential actions you could take and what the consequences would be. Is there a solution or action that might best meet the needs of all individuals involved? What virtues might be relevant to this situation

Instructions

Introduce students to the concept of practical wisdom by sharing the following definition with them:

“Practical wisdom refers to your ability to know what the right thing to do is , know how to do the right thing, and to have the will to actually do the right thing across various situations.”

Explain to students that practical wisdom is important because it can help them navigate difficult decisions in ways that support their longer term goals and their ability to maintain strong, positive relationships. Thus, the goal is to practice the skills that can facilitate the development of practical wisdom by reflecting on the provided questions below as they decide how to respond to a moral dilemma.

Present students with a few moral dilemma scenarios. For examples of specific dilemmas look at the following links:

https://www.theclassroom.com/moral-dilemma-scenarios-children-8434575.html
https://studylib.net/doc/7725442/ethical-dilemma-scenarios-for-students

Have students break up into groups. Assign a dilemma to each group, or invite students to choose one dilemma to address.

Ask each group to read the dilemma and discuss the questions from each of the three categories below:

What lessons have your parents or teachers taught you that could help you think about how you might respond in this situation? What values have they encouraged you to develop?
Think of your closest friends, what qualities do they display, which you admire and how might they respond to this situation?
Have you or a close friend ever encountered a similar situation? How did you or your friend respond to the situation? What was the outcome? What did you learn from your or your friend’s experience?
Have you ever responded to a similar situation without much thinking? Was that useful? Why might taking sometime to think through your response be helpful?
What are some contextual factors that might influence your response?
How might you work to process your emotions, so that they don’t override your thinking and completely sway your decision?
Who might you turn to, to get some input on the situation? What might that person say to you?
Consider what actions you might take, write down what would be the consequences of each of those actions for all individuals involved in the situation? How severe are the consequences? Is harm being caused?
Are there virtues that you value which are relevant to this situation? What are they and how might they be applied?
Take a moment to consider why each person involved is engaged in a particular behavior.
Is there a solution or action that might best meet the needs of all individuals involved?
What might be the impact of your decision in the short-term?
What about in the long-term? How might you take this into account?

After the discussion, and if time permits, have each group present their dilemma to the class and discuss what they will do and why. End the activity by having students write a short reflection about what they learned through this process.

Claire Briggs, Ph.D., Middlesbrough Psychology Service, Middlesbrough Council

Reflection After the Practice

Was there anything that surprised you as your students shared influences to their thinking and potential responses to the dilemma (e.g., cultural values that were unfamiliar to you)? How might their responses inform your capacity to better support them in developing practical wisdom?
Have you noticed a difference in student’s behavior, particularly in their responses to moral dilemmas?

The Research Behind It

Evidence that it works.

Social cognitive theories suggest that character develops through our day-to-day lived experiences, which are stored in our brains, providing us with helpful information that informs our responses to dilemmas as they arise. Such theories suggest that giving adolescents’ opportunities to develop reflective thinking skills can increase their practical wisdom. Practical wisdom refers to one’s ability to know what the right response is at the right time, particularly when faced with difficult situations.

In one study , researchers interviewed students between the ages of 12-15 to better understand how they approach decision-making, particularly when faced with moral dilemmas. Researchers were particularly interested in understanding what kinds of thinking skills needed to be developed and practiced so that they become more internalized and intuitive to students—or how students develop “practical wisdom.”

Researchers found that there are three interrelated processes that occur as students decide how to respond to a moral dilemma. Specifically, students activate and draw on existing knowledge, they pay attention to factors within the immediate context, and they weigh consequences against guiding principles to judge the best course of action.

Why Does It Matter?

Often, teachers focus on developing virtues in students like honesty, generosity, and forgiveness. Yet, many of the decisions we face in life are complicated and can often pit virtues against each other.

For example, a student may wonder whether to tell the teacher that his friend cheated on an exam or whether to remain loyal to his friend. Practical wisdom allows students to navigate dilemmas like these more thoughtfully, helping students understand what action is best in a particular situation—for all individuals involved. Thus, as students develop practical wisdom, it will help them navigate moral dilemmas with greater attentiveness to all the factors in play so that they can make values-based decisions that are responsive to a given context and the people involved.

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Moral Dilemma: Philosophical Studies Essay

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The moral dilemma presented here happened to the student’s friend, during his visit to Saudi Arabia, for a vacation. That country is known for its restrictive laws against women, with them not being able to travel or use certain public amenities without being accompanied by a male member of the family. The friend witnessed a situation, when an acquaintance of his was arguing with his sister about her desire to learn to drive a car. In Saudi Arabia, women have been allowed to drive a car since the 2018. However, despite the official law coming into place, progress has been slow, and there is a stigma towards women driving transport, which could amount to trouble.

The male acquaintance, her brother, argued that it would be dangerous to drive still, and that it would be better to wait until it becomes more socially acceptable. The friend was involved in this conversation, and was forced to pick a side. The dilemma involved between supporting the sister’s claim, despite it going against local cultural norms, with a potential to insult her brother and make her plight worse. The alternative was to support the brother and potentially squash the sister’s desire for independence. The option to not interfere was also present, but it would have amounted to withdrawing support from the woman, who was at a disadvantage due to Saudi culture.

A moral relativist would have approached the dilemma by inaction. Since their position stipulates that there are no moral constants in the universe, each and every person is entitled to their own subjective truth on the matter (Perez-Navarro, 2022). As such, neither the sister nor her brother hold an implicit high ground, meaning that there is no clear reason to support one side or the other (Rachels, 2019). In a way, both have good points, with the woman wanting to be able to drive a car, and the man pointing out that learning to do so right now would invite all sorts of issues from police and the government.

From the perspective of a cultural relativist, the morals of particular people are shaped by their culture. Therefore, what is considered moral for people that belong to a specific culture is moral for them (Österman, 2021). Between the two arguing parties, whoever would hold the higher ground based on cultural morality is, by definition, right. Since women driving is not yet seen as widely culturally-acceptable, the brother would be in the right, worrying about how the action would be perceived in the society, and trying to protect his sister. Being protective of women is another cultural trait in Saudi Arabia (Österman, 2021). That approach may fit in particular cultural contexts, but is criticized by thinkers who believe in the existence of universal moral norms, which supersede cultural interpretation. The belief that all are created equal is considered such a moral norm.

The friend ardently supported the sister, saying that “outdated and backwards cultural traditions should not decide what free people can or cannot do,” which greatly offended the brother. It resulted in him withdrawing support from the cause until an apology was given. The moral justification he gave for his actions is similar to that of Kant’s categoric imperative, that all people should stand up and speak out against injustice, no matter the context (Rachels, 2019). I do not believe their approach was right in terms of execution, as his ardent and heedless words only worsened the feud between the siblings, and brought neither to a desired conclusion.

The student believes that the objectively right thing to do was to support the sister’s desire for independence, while taking account of the cultural context. When standing up for someone, the objective should always be to benefit that person. If not, then it is self-gratification based on self-righteousness. The friend should have been more tactful and acknowledged the points that the brother was making, while pushing forward the idea that culture is not a static entity and is subject to change, bit by bit.

Österman, T. (2021). Cultural relativism and understanding difference. Language & Communication, 80, 124-135.

Pérez-Navarro, E. (2022). The way things go: Moral relativism and suspension of judgment. Philosophical Studies, 179 (1), 49-64.

Rachels, J. (2019). The Elements of Moral Philosophy (9 th ed.). McGraw Hill.

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Bibliography

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A moral dilemma: P’burg’s Kneedler Avenue to be renamed after Class of ‘69 grad

Updated: Sep. 01, 2024, 9:11 a.m.
| Published: Sep. 01, 2024, 9:00 a.m.
Glenn Epps | For lehighvalleylive.com

Phillipsburg’s Kneedler Avenue is now Williams Way.

Town council announced the road inside the Phillipsburg Public Housing Authority complex will be renamed after another notable local instead of the former mayor.

An ordinance authorizing the renaming passed unanimously on Wednesday.

Richard Williams was a member of the 1969 graduating class of Phillipsburg High School and one of three graduates of color, the largest number at that time to have graduated Phillipsburg High School, the town explained. Williams also served in the U.S. Navy.

The avenue’s original namesake Frank Kneedler was disavowed earlier this year when historical fact resurfaced about the mayor’s intent to perpetuate segregation and encourage the displacement of Black residents of Phillipsburg in the 1920s.

A recently published book by local historian Wayne Sherrer is credited with bringing the context of Kneedler’s tenure to light, councilmen said in February.

In the book, Sherrer cites a 1916 article published in the Easton Daily Express, now the Express-Times and lehighvalleylive.com , where the ex-mayor is quoted: “We Don’t Want a Lot of N****rs to Come Here and Create a Nuisance.”

Kneedler was speaking in opposition to a decision by the Warren Pipe Foundry to board some of its Black employees who were in need of housing.

Sherrer’s book “Phorgotten No More: Glimpses of the presence of African Americans in Phillipsburg,” traces more than 200 years of Black American existence in Phillipsburg and surrounding towns. It is the most complete record of the presence of Black Americans in Warren County to date.

“Continuing to honor a person whose values are not aligned with the citizens of Phillipsburg, its moral code and ethos, would make the council complicit in the perpetuation of a belief system that is antithetical to the town’s values,” the town stated in the ordinance approving the name change.

The town’s governing body has the authority to provide for the naming and the changing of the names of streets and highways as well as the erection of signs.

Kneedler Avenue is located inside the Phillipsburg Housing Authority housing development, managed by the U.S. Department Housing and Urban Development. The housing complex was established in 1946, records show; 30 years after Kneedler’s comments were published in print.

Phillipsburg Housing Authority, or “The Projects,” “The PJ’s” or “The Bricks” as they’re popularly called among residents who live there, is one of the most densely populated and diverse neighborhoods in Phillipsburg. More than a dozen Black families currently live along the 13-row home street called Kneedler Avenue.

Glenn Epps can be reached at [email protected] or glenn_epps_ on X (formerly known as Twitter.com ), Facebook and Threads.

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Moral Dilemma Essay
Omelas Moral Dilemma In "The Ones Who Walk Away from Omelas" Ursula LeGuin is raising the moral dilemma of justice vs. happiness. The happiness of the citizens in Omelas depends on the suffering of a child locked in a closet. She briefly describes the contrast between the child's situation and the citizens' position, portraying a moral ...
The Rattler: Moral Dilemma and a Critical Analysis
This essay has analyzed The Rattler, delving into the protagonist's moral dilemma, the themes of compassion and responsibility, and the implications of his ultimate decision. The story serves as a reminder of the moral and ethical considerations that accompany our choices, prompting introspection and critical reflection on the complexities of ...
Ethical Dilemma Sample Essay
Essay on Moral Dilemma. Moral Dilemma Everyday we are tested as individuals to make the right choice. How we view ourselves as individuals and how others view us are directly correlated to our moral decision-making. But morals are somewhat misleading. What might be a wrong decision for one person might be a solution to another.
Reflecting on Moral Dilemmas with Practical Wisdom
Students will develop practical wisdom by reading and reflecting on a moral dilemma with a set of guiding questions. Question sets prompt students to draw on past knowledge, understand the current context, and weigh various options up against guiding principles in order to determine next steps. Level: Upper Elementary, Middle School, High ...
Moral Dilemma: Philosophical Studies
The moral dilemma presented here happened to the student's friend, during his visit to Saudi Arabia, for a vacation. That country is known for its restrictive laws against women, with them not being able to travel or use certain public amenities without being accompanied by a male member of the family.
Ethics
Moral dilemmas refer to conflicts involving choices that have moral implications. study m/academy/less on/moral- dilemma- definition- examples- quiz A moral dilemma is a conflict situation in which the choice one makes causes a moral harm, which cannot be restlessly repaired. https://embassy. science/wiki/Th eme:17d406f9- 0b0f-4325-aa2d- 2fe186d5ff
Unravelling Copyright Dilemma of AI-Generated News and Its Implications
Developing such AI programmes in-house may also not be economically viable for many newsrooms, especially small and local ones. This economic-centric value also ties to the profit motive operating within and in opposition to journalism as a public good. In addition, downplaying moral rights is at odds with the journalistic norm of transparency.
A moral dilemma: P'burg's Kneedler Avenue to be renamed after Class of
A moral dilemma: P'burg's Kneedler Avenue to be renamed after Class of '69 grad. Published: Sep. 01, 2024, 9:00 a.m. By . ... its moral code and ethos, would make the council complicit in ...

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