what is a thesis for beowulf

• Literature Notes
• Major Themes in Beowulf
• Poem Summary
• About Beowulf
• Character List
• Summary and Analysis
• Lines 1-193
• Lines 194-606
• Lines 607-836
• Lines 837-1062
• Lines 1063-1250
• Lines 1251-1491
• Lines 1492-1650
• Lines 1651-1887
• Lines 1888-2199
• Lines 2200-2400
• Lines 2401-2630
• Lines 2631-2820
• Lines 2821-3182
• Character Analysis
• Grendel's Mother
• Character Map
• The Beowulf Poet
• The Beowulf Manuscript
• Critical Essays
• Major Symbols in Beowulf
• Famous Quotes from Beowulf
• Film Versions of Beowulf
• Full Glossary for Beowulf
• Essay Questions
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• Cite this Literature Note

Critical Essays Major Themes in Beowulf

A theme in a literary work is a recurring, unifying subject or idea, a motif that allows us to understand more deeply the character and their world. In Beowulf, the major themes reflect the values and the motivations of the characters.

One of the central themes of Beowulf, embodied by its title character, is loyalty. At every step of his career, loyalty is Beowulf's guiding virtue.

Beowulf comes to the assistance of the Danes (Scyldings) for complicated reasons. Certainly he is interested in increasing his reputation and gaining honor and payment for his own king back in Geatland. However, we soon learn that a major motivation is a family debt that Beowulf owes to Hrothgar. The young Geat is devoted to the old king because Hrothgar came to the assistance of Beowulf's father, Ecgtheow, years before. Now deceased, Ecgtheow had killed a leader of another tribe in a blood feud. When the tribe sought vengeance, Hrothgar, then a young king, sheltered Beowulf's father and settled the feud by paying tribute (wergild) in the form of "fine old treasures" (472) to Ecgtheow's enemies. Hrothgar even remembers Beowulf as a child. The tie between the families goes back many years, and Beowulf is proud to be able to lend his loyal services to Hrothgar.

When the hero returns to Geatland, he continues his loyalty to his uncle and king, Hygelac, risking his life even when the tactics of the ruler are not the best. After Hygelac is killed in an ill-advised raid on Frisia, Beowulf makes a heroic escape (2359 ff.) back to Geatland. Beowulf could become king then but is more loyal than ambitious. Queen Hygd offers Beowulf the throne after her husband dies, thinking that her young son (Heardred) is unable to protect the kingdom; Beowulf refuses and serves the young king faithfully. After Heardred is killed, Beowulf does become king and rules with honor and fidelity to his office and his people for 50 years. In his final test, the burden of loyalty will rest on other, younger shoulders.

Preparing for his last battle, with the fiery dragon, Beowulf puts his trust in 11 of his finest men, retainers who have vowed to fight to the death for him. Although the now elderly king insists on taking on the dragon alone, he brings along the 11 in case he needs them. When it is apparent that Beowulf is losing the battle to the dragon, however, all but one of his men run and hide in the woods. Only Wiglaf, an inexperienced thane who has great respect for his king, remains loyal. Wiglaf calls to the others in vain. Realizing that they will be no help and that his king is about to be killed, he stands beside the old man to fight to the death — theirs or the dragon's. For Beowulf, sadly, it is the end. Although he and Wiglaf kill the dragon, the king dies. As he dies, Beowulf passes the kingdom on to the brave and loyal Wiglaf.

Another motivating factor for Beowulf — and a central theme in the epic — is reputation. From the beginning, Beowulf is rightly concerned about how the rest of the world will see him. He introduces himself to the Scyldings by citing achievements that gained honor for him and his king. When a drunken Unferth verbally assaults Beowulf at the first banquet, at issue is the hero's reputation. Unferth's slur is the worst kind of insult for Beowulf because his reputation is his most valuable possession. Reputation is also the single quality that endures after death, his one key to immortality. That's why Beowulf later leaves the gold in the cave beneath the mere, after defeating the mother, preferring to return with Grendel's head and the magic sword's hilt rather than treasure. He has and continues to amass treasures; his intent now is in building his fame.

Unferth's slur accuses Beowulf of foolishly engaging in a seven-day swimming contest on the open sea, as a youth, and losing. If Beowulf can't win a match like that, Unferth asserts, he surely can't defeat Grendel. Beowulf defends his reputation with such grace and persuasion that he wins the confidence of King Hrothgar and the rest of the Danes. He points out that he swam with Breca for five nights, not wanting to abandon the weaker boy. Rough seas then drove them apart, and Beowulf had to kill nine sea monsters before going ashore in the morning. His reputation intact, Beowulf prepares to meet Grendel and further enhance his fame.

As he discusses Beowulf's later years, the poet lists the virtues (2177 ff.) leading to the great man's fine reputation. Beowulf is courageous and famous for his performance in battle but equally well known for his good deeds. Although aggressive in war, Beowulf has "no savage mind" (2180) and never kills his comrades when drinking, an important quality in the heroic world of the mead-hall. Beowulf respects the gifts of strength and leadership that he possesses.

As he prepares to meet the dragon, near the end of the poem, now King Beowulf again considers his reputation. He insists on facing the dragon alone despite the fact that his death will leave his people in jeopardy. Hrothgar's Sermon warned Beowulf of the dangers of pride, and some critics have accused the great warrior of excessive pride (hubris) in the defense of his reputation. A more considerate judgment might be that Beowulf is an old man with little time left and deserves the right to die as a warrior. The final words of the poem, stating that Beowulf was "most eager for fame' (3182), might be best understood by a modern audience by remembering that, in Beowulf's world, fame is synonymous with reputation.

Generosity and Hospitality

The Scyldings' King Hrothgar and Queen Wealhtheow embody the themes of generosity and hospitality. The code of the comitatus is at the heart of the Beowulf epic. In this system, the king or feudal lord provides land, weapons, and a share of treasure to his warriors (called thanes or retainers) in return for their support of the leader in battle. The leader's generosity is one of his highest qualities. There are more than 30 different terms for "king" in the poem, and many of them have to do with this role as provider. He is the "ring-giver' (35) or the "treasure-giver" (607); his seat of power is the "gift-throne" (168).

When booty is seized from an enemy in battle, everything goes to the king. He then allots treasure to each warrior according to the man's achievements as a soldier. When Beowulf defeats Grendel and Grendel's mother, he expects and receives great riches as his reward, including a golden banner, helmet, and mail-shirt, as well as a jeweled sword, magnificent horses with golden trappings that hang to the ground, a gem-studded saddle, and a golden collar. Such generosity is emblematic of Hrothgar's character. In turn, Beowulf will present these treasures to his own king, Hygelac, who will then honor Beowulf with appropriate gifts. Propriety/generosity is, thus, a crucial part of the political, military, social, and economic structure of the culture.

Wealhtheow shares in the gift giving and is the perfect hostess. When she serves mead in Heorot, it is an act of propriety and diplomacy, attending first to her king and then to various guests, paying special attention to Beowulf. An improper queen would be one like Modthrytho (1931 ff.) who was so inhospitable as to have her own warriors executed for the offense of merely looking into her eyes.

Hospitality is such an established part of the culture that the poet feels free to refer to it with casual humor. When Beowulf reports to Hrothgar on his victory over Grendel (957 ff.), he ironically speaks in terms of hospitality. He tried, he says, to "welcome my enemy" (969) with a firm handshake but was disappointed when he received only a "visitor's token" (971), Grendel's giant claw, "that dear [meaning 'precious'] gift" (973), a kind of macabre gratuity for services rendered. Beowulf had, ironically speaking, tried to be the perfect host; but he wanted the entire ogre body as his tip . Grendel left only his claw as a cheap compensation.

Despite Unferth's jealous rant at the first banquet, the most serious embodiment of envy in the poem is Grendel. The ogre who has menaced Hrothgar's people for 12 years is envious of the Danes because he can never share in mankind's hope or joy. The monster's motivation is one of the few undeniably Christian influences in the epic. Grendel is a descendant of Cain, the biblical son of Adam and Eve who killed his brother Abel out of jealousy (Genesis 4). The legend is that the monsters of the earth are Cain's descendants and eternally damned. Grendel resents men because God blesses them but will never bless him. The bright lights and sounds of joy emanating from Hrothgar's magnificent mead-hall, Heorot, especially annoy the ogre.

The scop 's "Song of Creation" angers Grendel because it reminds him of the light and hope of God's creation and the loss he suffers because of Cain's sin. Grendel stomps up from the mere to devour Danes and rule nightly over Heorot as a form of revenge stemming from this envy.

Revenge serves as a motivating factor for several characters throughout the poem, initially stirring Grendel and his mother. Grendel seeks revenge upon mankind for the heritage that he has been dealt. He delights in raiding Heorot because it is the symbol of everything that he detests about men: their success, joy, glory, and favor in the eyes of God. Grendel's mother's revenge is more specific. She attacks Heorot because someone there killed her son. Although she is smaller and less powerful than Grendel, she is motivated by a mother's fury. When Beowulf goes after her in the mere, she has the added advantage of fighting him in her own territory. As she drags him into her cave beneath the lake, her revenge peaks because this is the very man who killed her son. Only Beowulf's amazing abilities as a warrior and the intervention of God or magic can defeat her.

Revenge also motivates the many feuds that the poet refers to and is a way of life — and death — for the Germanic tribes. Old enmities die hard and often disrupt attempts at peace, as the poet recognizes. Upon his return to Geatland, Beowulf (2020 ff.) speculates about a feud between Hrothgar's Scyldings and the Heathobards, a tribe in southern Denmark with whom Hrothgar hopes to make peace through the marriage of his daughter. Beowulf is skeptical, envisioning a renewal of hostilities. In fact, the Heathobards do later burn Heorot in events not covered by the poem but probably familiar to its audience. Another example of revenge overcoming peace occurs in the Finnsburh section (1068-1159).

Beowulf's final battle is the result of vengeance. A dangerous fire-dragon seeks revenge because a fugitive slave has stolen a valuable cup from the monster's treasure-hoard. His raids across the countryside include the burning of Beowulf's home. Beowulf then seeks his own revenge by going after the dragon.

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Beowulf Themes

Themes are overarching ideas and beliefs that the writers express in their texts including poetry, fiction , and plays. These recurring ideas become very important when readers interpret their understanding of the literature to apply or compare various incidents or things. Beowulf has themes that surpass cultures and races. Some of the major themes of Beowulf have been discussed below. The quotations given in the thematic ideas are borrowed from Beowulf translated by Seamus Heaney.

Themes in Beowulf

Heroic Code

The theme of the heroic code of chivalry is the leading theme of Beowulf. The honorable behavior and manners have dominated the Anglo-Saxon culture. Courage , bravery and the will to fight were considered basic norms of that heroic code. Beowulf sticks to these norms from the very beginning as he comes across the Danes. He fights against Grendel and kills him after pledging that he will “settle the outcome in single combat.” These words resonate again when he goes to find Grendel’s mother. When he is older, he proves his bravery again when fighting the last enemy, the dragon. He becomes a dragon slayer but at the cost of his own life. Wiglaf, his young companion pays tribute to him saying, “vowed you would never let your name and fame / be dimmed while you lived.” This heroic code lasts until Beowulf’s death.

Good against Evil

Good against evil is another major theme of this classic English epic . Epics mostly used to demonstrate the themes of good and evil, encouraging future generations to be virtuous. The good is demonstrated through the characters of Hrothgar and Beowulf, and the evil can be seen through the three antagonists Grendel, his mother, and the dragon. Good traits are connected with the ideas of glory, loyalty, honesty and heroic feats. Hrothgar shows generosity and fairness in his rule, while Beowulf shows bravery, courage, and wisdom when fighting Grendel, his mother, and the dragon. Grendel and his mother’s actions of killing the Danes must be considered evil.

The epic of Beowulf demonstrates the true characters of warriors. During the war and on the battlefield it is crucial for every soldier to be loyal to their country and comrades. Loyalty is one of the central themes of this epic poem and also shows through the conflict between two major characters; Unferth and Beowulf. Beowulf’s loyalty to King Hrothgar is due to the refuge and help the King extended to his father. Unferth, on the other hand, taunts Beowulf and proves disloyal companion to the king until he knows the truth. During the battle with the dragon, Wiglaf proves his loyalty as he stands by Beowulf throughout the fight against while the other warriors flee the scene in terror.

Bravery is another element of medieval chivalry and theme of the epic, Beowulf. Beowulf, himself, is an epitome of bravery and courage as he visits the Danes and offers his services to King Hrothgar. He displays confidence when telling the royal guards on the border that his father “was a famous man.” He further adds, “We come in good faith” to prove his bravery and to help the king. Then he demonstrates his bravery when fighting Grendel and also goes under the lake to kill his mother. He finally locks horns with the dragon despite knowing that these are his last days.

Revenge can also be considered as one of the major themes of the epic of Beowulf. Beowulf, though, comes to help the King Hrothgar, he, in fact, wants to take revenge for the death of the Danes killed by Grendel. Grendel’s killing spree is also to take revenge because the Danes singing disturbs his peace. Moreover, Grendel’s mother seeks revenge against them for the brutal death of her son. Beowulf, in his old age, heads to seek revenge against the dragon because of its senseless killings. Surprisingly, the dragon’s madness is revenge for the lost cup. Blind revenge ruled that period and was part of the medieval culture.

Generosity is another theme and the life-affirming value shown in Beowulf. The first sign of generosity comes from the King Hrothgar who gives refuge to Ecgheow, Beowulf’s father when he is at war with his enemy tribes. Then Beowulf comes to pay back that generosity by saving the Danes from the wrath of Grendel and his mother’s vengeance. The queen herself accepts this generosity of Beowulf and praises him. Beowulf’s rule is also filled with generous acts of rewarding his thanes. He also proves his love and generosity by defending the people from the dragon.

Hospitality

Hospitality is a minor theme of this epic. King Hrothgar extended his hospitality to Beowulf’s father and offered him refuge. Beowulf expresses his gratitude to King Hrothgar as he enjoys his hospitality. His words “Here we have been welcomed / and thoroughly entertained. You have treated us well” show his joy. Later, Beowulf also repays the hospitality by putting his life in danger for King Hrothgar and other Danes when fighting Grendel.

Denying Defeat

The epic of Beowulf shows that heroes of the medieval period do not accept defeat. They are trained to win even at the cost of their own death. Beowulf wins two battles against Grendel and his mother, and the third victory costs him his life. Despite his death, he doesn’t display cowardice or retreats while fighting the dragon. That is why the Geats remember him after his death as the king “kindest to his people and keenest to win fame.” The defeat is considered an act of shame during the medieval time. Hence, this is one of the reasons that denying defeat is minor and yet prominent themes of the epic.

Despite winning fights and battles, heroes face death. Beowulf, too, faces death during the battle with dragon though he kills it. Beowulf’s death becomes legendary, as he passes all the responsibility to Wiglaf. However, during Wiglaf’s era, the kingdom of the Geats sees its end due to the onslaughts of other tribes and nations. Therefore, death not only means the end of life but also an end to an era or a kingdom.

Ruler’s Obligation

The ruler must keep his people safe and rule justly. The two most important examples of this theme are King Hrothgar and Beowulf. Both are very popular among their people. Hrothgar felt obligated to entertain his Danes, so he builds the mead-hall where all Danes can enjoy and sing. Beowulf took responsibility for the safety of all the Geats’ tribes for several years. His obligation to costs his life when he fights the dragon. Hence, rulers at any periods or position are obligated to protect their people.

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MUsings: The Graduate Journal

Millersville University

Reading Beowulf :  Paradoxical Paradigms

by Jaclyn Gingrich

When a person thinks of Old English, he or she likely cannot help but think of the most popular piece of literature of that language’s time, the legendary Beowulf .  In fact, if that same person were to search for discussions on Old English, he or she would find many academic articles covering a variety of theories concerning Beowulf .   One can agree that this poem is often under scrutiny; these discussions cover everything from the allegorical meaning of Beowulf   to the monsters’ roles.  A very popular discussion explores the purpose of using both Anglo-Saxon paganism and Christian themes in Beowulf   since they are often contradicting in morals and nature.  Some scholars dedicate their observations to the thought that Christianity is a fluid, cohesive part of the poem (Fisher 171-172), while others argue that Christianity is just an incoherent concept that was inserted into the poem to appease the beliefs of the poem’s scribes and that the story of Beowulf originated far before Christianity infiltrated the Anglo-Saxons (Moorman, “The Essential” 5).  Even still, others argue that these two concepts coexist in a unified manner and that this unification is appropriate for the time, as scholars writing the poem were Christian and writing to a Christian audience, although the people still took pride in their Germanic, pagan history.

Another relatively common argument concerning Beowulf   is the question of whether it is an epic or a tragedy.  Some argue that Beowulf   is an epic poem because the main character, Beowulf, exemplifies the characteristics of an epic hero, and the ending is just a tragic component in a poem that reeks of epic quality.  Greenfield, in his article “ Beowulf and Epic Tragedy,” even goes on to make a distinction between what an epic tragedy is versus a dramatic tragedy (91-105).  He differentiates these two concepts by focusing on how the hero falls, stating, “[W]e should expect the falls of epic and dramatic heroes to affect their societies differently” (94).  The fall of an epic hero directly affects the fate of the society of which the hero is a part, while the fall of a dramatic hero only directly affects himself (94).

I argue that these two very different discussions are interconnected.  Beowulf uses both Christian and pagan elements to create a paradoxical paradigm in which the characters cannot successfully abide by these competing concepts.  Therefore, regardless of whether they abide consistently by pagan expectations or Christian expectations that shape the story, or even if they try to abide by both simultaneously, they are hypocritical, which becomes their tragic flaw in a sense, and they are damned to destruction or tragic fate.  In order to fully understand this concept, though, it is appropriate to revisit each theory individually beforehand.

The first concept is that Christianity is a cohesive element of Beowulf.   Fisher argues in his article “The Trials of the Epic Hero in Beowulf  ” that Beowulf’s trials are a test displaying the “basic struggle between the divine, the natural, and the demonic within the field of the hero’s experience.… [T]he natural is made to serve the purpose of redemption, while the demonic is resisted and uprooted” (172).  He exemplifies this concept in his discussion of Heorot.  Heorot is the “natural” that becomes demonized by Grendel (172).  Heorot’s eventual purging of Grendel is “a preparation for rule over this field of experience which is later represented by the realm of the Geats and the fifty-year reign of the heroic king—the successor in epic myth to the original ‘divine king’” (172).  What Fisher assumes is that Beowulf takes on “divine” qualities (172).  It is my position that Beowulf is caught in the paradoxical paradigm between paganism and Christianity.  He tries to abide by both, unsuccessfully, and his tragic flaw of hypocrisy creates his tragic downfall.  After all, one cannot ignore the pagan elements of the poem.  One could take out the Christian elements in the poem, and the plot would remain for the most part unchanged, but to take out the pagan elements would result in the deconstruction of the poem altogether.  Therefore, the Christian elements cannot exist without the pagan elements.

One has to ask, then, how characters in Beowulf can possibly be successful if they are asked to be proud, revengeful, and pay monetary amounts when they kill, while at the same time they are also supposed to be forgiving, humble, and ashamed of their killings.

Unfortunately, this scenario makes it rather difficult for all the characters found in Beowulf, including the title character.  Paganism and Germanic tribal beliefs centered on the concept of comitatus and wergild which demanded that deaths of kin were avenged, or the perpetrator paid wergild as compensation for these deaths.  Revenge and bribery are completely contradictory elements to Christianity, which centers on forgiveness and penitential atonement.  Germanic tribes also sought to achieve l ōf or fame; they were very prideful and often boasted of their accomplishments.  Again, this concept is in complete opposition to Christianity.  In Beowulf , “The relationship between heroes, monsters, and gods can be said to experience a sea change…if we realize that the important pagan virtue of pride has become the principle vice for Christianity” (Asma B14).  In Christianity, pride is seen as one of the seven deadly sins; Christian followers should remain humble and not boastful, and in biblical stories, monsters are often seen as possessing hubris (B14).  However, in Beowulf , killing monsters is Beowulf’s job, and he is celebrated for doing so.  In the pagan realm, victory is celebrated in the current life; in Christianity, it is celebrated in the afterlife (B14).  So how should Beowulf act when he slays Grendel?

One has to ask, then, how characters in Beowulf can possibly be successful if they are asked to be proud, revengeful, and pay monetary amounts when they kill, while at the same time they are also supposed to be forgiving, humble, and ashamed of their killings.  They cannot act successfully within these contradicting demands, creating a paradoxical paradigm.  To abide by one is to neglect the other, resulting in a damned-if-you-do-damned-if-you-don’t situation.  The characters are bound to choose one over the other even though the plot holds them to both standards, consequently forcing them to be hypocritical.

According to the pagan expectations, Unferth has committed a crime against the comitatus , and according to the concept of comitatus , the Danes should avenge Unferth’s brothers’ deaths, or Unferth should pay wergild .  But Unferth is a Dane, so if the Danes avenge his brothers’ deaths, they will also disobey the law of comitatus .  The Danes, and Germanic tribes for that matter, have no answer for fratricide (Reinhard 371).  The Danes do not reprimand Unferth, nor does Unferth pay wergild , but instead he “sits at the foot of the Danish throne” (371).  This solution, or lack thereof, suggests that the Danes are not living by the expectations of pagan rule.  One could argue that the Danes are acting more Christianly by forgiving Unferth for his mishaps.  Unfortunately, the Danes are not abiding by the Christian rule either;  Christians have an answer for fratricide.  According to the story of Cain and Abel, Cain is banished by God after He finds out Cain killed his brother Abel.  The Danes do not banish Unferth, though.  Hence, they are acting hypocritically. They uphold these expectations when Grendel kills Danes, but Unferth is not punished.

The Danes choose the Christian-like route and forgive these killers, but they hold Grendel to the pagan expectations and do not forgive him. They are not consistent, thus they are hypocritical in their expectations.

Another example of fratricide is seen in the relationship between Hrothulf and Hrothgar’s sons.  Wealhtheow is worried about Hrothulf, so she talks to Hrothgar about Beowulf and says, “They tell me that you are going to treat this heroic fighting-man as your son.…[L]eave your people and your kingdom to your children when the time comes for you to die!” ( Beowulf 55).  Hrothgar’s attempt to adopt Beowulf suggests that he would rather have Beowulf than his own sons as his heir.  Wealhtheow reminds him that it is proper to pass ruling down to a biological family member, but she also is unsure of her sons’ abilities.  Later, she asks Beowulf to watch over her boys, suggesting that she does not necessarily trust Hrothulf (56).  She implies that she is concerned for her sons, and she should be, as evidence and scholars suggest that Hrothulf kills his cousin after Hrothgar’s death (Hughes 390).

Fratricide can be seen even before Hrothgar and his children.  During one of the many digressions in the poem, we learn of a man named Heremod who ruled the Danes long before Hrothgar.  He is described as one who “took no pleasure in the happiness, but in the death and destruction of the Danes.…[H]e used to kill his drinking companions and close friends” ( Beowulf 67).  The curse of fratricide can thus be seen as a theme through the entire ruling line of the Danes.  But again, the people in the poem are being held to the expectations of both the pagan and Christian ethics.  To kill Unferth, Heremod, and Hrothulf would avenge the deaths they committed and allow the Danes to remain loyal to the concept of the comitatus in a way, but the Danes would not be abiding by the Christian morals of forgiveness.  To forgive Unferth, Heremod, and Hrothulf would abide by Christian expectations, but the Danes would not abide by the rule of the comitatus .  The Danes choose the Christian-like route and forgive these killers, but they hold Grendel to the pagan expectations and do not forgive him.  They are not consistent, thus they are hypocritical in their expectations.

The Geats are no better.  A reader sees the theme of fratricide extend to this tribe with the story of Haethcyn and Herebeald.  Beowulf tells a story about these two, saying:

For Haethcyn struck down his friend and liege with an arrow from his bow.  He missed his aim and shot his brother   Herebeald.  One brother killed the other with a bloodstained shaft!  This was an inexpiable accident, and a heartrending crime; for whatever happened, Herebeald must die unavenged. ( Beowulf 84)

Haethcyn, for whatever reason, kills his brother, and just like the Danes, the Geats handle the situation the same way.  They do not avenge Herebeald, though later Beowulf avenges Heardred’s death ( Beowulf 83).  Therefore, the Geats, just like the Danes, are hypocritical.  They do not hold their own accountable to the comitatus and act more Christianly towards them, but they understand when others outside their own tribe remain true to the comitatus .

The Danes and the Geats are not the only tribes that are forced to be hypocritical;  Grendel is caught in the paradoxical paradigm as well.  Grendel is said to have been a descendent of Cain, therefore, he is banished ( Beowulf 29).  Grendel, although originally not a committer of fratricide, is punished for his ancestor’s mistake.  This anger and suffering boils into jealousy, and Grendel avenges himself by essentially destroying the people who continue to enforce this unfair retribution.  Even though no one was killed in Grendel’s “tribe” originally, Grendel is forced to live a life of expulsion that he did not cause.  This is the reason for his attack; he is following an inner sense of comitatus .  Unfortunately, that is not how it is seen from the Danes’ point of view.  When Grendel kills many of the Danes, he does not truly fulfill all the aspects of the pagan beliefs, as he does not pay wergild for those he kills.  He also does not follow  Christian beliefs because he does not feel remorse for his actions.  As Reinhard puts it, “[H]e is a thoroughly unrepentant penitent, a determined transgressor of penitential practice” (372).  Maybe this is why he is seen as such a monster in the poem.  He is, after all, “not just in violation of the human conventions of wergild. …He is a rebel against the divine law of the penitential, too, an enemy of men and an enemy of God” (378).  However, Grendel is following something that the Anglo-Saxons stressed: pride.  He is too proud to forgive the humans for their unfair banishing, and he is too proud to pay wergild for his revenge.  He also temporarily follows the Christian solution for fratricide, banishment, even though he did not personally commit it.  Even still, he does not consistently follow either pagan or Christian doctrines and is thus a hypocrite.

The combination of the Christian and pagan expectations creating an environment the characters cannot live by also leads the characters to tragic fates.

What is even more interesting is that if we assume Grendel is a direct descendant of Cain, then Grendel is kin to the Anglo-Saxons, especially if they believe they are all God’s children.  So should we not consider the killing of Grendel as a form of fratricide?  As Phillips describes it, “[T]he monster is unsettling not simply because it is intent on our destruction, but also because it is related to us: the uncanniness of the monster is tied up with the questionability of what it means to be human” (42).  Grendel is inhumane and defined as a monster, maybe even the ultimate monster, because he does not abide by either the pagan or Christian expectations that shape the poem.  Yet, he is also a reminder of what we as humans can become, of what our epic hero can become—monstrous—for the implication is that Grendel is kin since he is related to Cain.  Beowulf kills Grendel; therefore, Beowulf commits fratricide.  He is not expected to pay wergild, though, and is instead celebrated for killing Grendel.  Kahrl would even argue that this hypocrisy is seen through a linguistic connection.  He says that the same word choice pattern is used:  “The effect of the normative maxim is to underline that fact that Beowulf’s attitude is praiseworthy, whereas Grendel’s is not, yet the same words are used to describe both” (Kahrl 191).  Both characters get no joy from participating in feuds, but Grendel’s response to the feud is seen as monstrous while Beowulf’s response is seen as praiseworthy (191).

The pattern of inconsistencies continues.   By killing Grendel, Beowulf commits a crime against the comitatus of the monster tribe.  In the vicious cycle of comitatus , the monsters have every right to avenge Grendel’s death, or Beowulf should pay wergild .  The incident with Grendel’s mother shows the true hypocrisy of Beowulf.  Beowulf is somewhat forgiving of Unferth and his fratricide; he does not take action, but assumes God will handle this sin ( Beowulf 40). However, when Grendel commits a similar sin, Beowulf seeks revenge.  It is acceptable for him to do this, and the Danes accept this as a noble pursuit.  When Grendel’s mother does the same thing and avenges Grendel’s death, the Danes are not so forgiving.  They see her too as a monster, even though she is simply abiding by the same pagan beliefs by which they are abiding.  Beowulf does not pay wergild to Grendel’s mother for her son’s death, and Grendel’s mother does not pay wergild for the life she took as compensation for her son’s death.  Yet, even though Beowulf’s and Grendel’s mother’s actions are the same, Beowulf is seen as the hero and Grendel’s mother, the villain.

A similar situation develops between the dragon and Beowulf.  Some scholars argue that the dragon is hoarding the treasure it guards, and that it represents greed (Kahrl 195).  One of the Geats steals from its treasure, and so it wreaks havoc on the Geat tribe.  The poet tries to justify the stolen cup by saying, “The man who so provoked the Worm did not violate its treasure willfully or on purpose, but through sheer necessity” ( Beowulf 79).  Even so, this act goes against Christian doctrine.  Beowulf does not see this act as such, though, and does not commit to Christian expectations in this case, even though he earlier acts Christianly towards Unferth when Unferth insults him.  But one could speculate that he has a political agenda in impressing Hrothgar, and killing Unferth would jeopardize that agenda, so one has to question what his intentions are in being forgiving to Unferth’s insults. Of course, the dragon has committed a crime against the Geat comitatus , and so Beowulf must avenge his tribe’s deaths.  Beowulf chooses to follow the rules of the pagan doctrine and does not take into consideration the wrong that is done to the dragon beforehand; he only looks at the fact that the dragon burns down his property and kills his people.  He has different expectations for Unferth than for the dragon and thus is a hypocrite because in one situation he acts like a Christian and in the other he acts like a pagan.

From the very start, the poet creates a situation in which the characters cannot survive. If they choose to live by one belief system, they are neglecting the other.

The corkscrew in all of these accounts is the last character who is trapped in this paradoxical paradigm, Grendel’s mother.  All the other characters act based on selfish tendencies, choosing to abide by Christian expectations and pagan expectations separately when they are most convenient.  Grendel’s mother is probably the only character who successfully tries to abide by both for selfless reasons.  She is an ancestor of Cain as well, so she abides by the Christian expectations of fratricide; she willingly remains banished and keeps to herself.  When her son dies, she avenges his death as the pagan laws prescribe, taking one life for the life of her son.  After that, she goes back to her dwellings and wreaks no more havoc on the Dane tribe.  Beowulf takes no time to go after Grendel’s mother, and whereas Beowulf is capable of killing Grendel with his bare hands, Grendel’s mother is harder to kill.  Some have suggested this is the case because she is not monstrous; she is a tragic character caught in the middle of a feud she did not create nor of which she was a part.  She cannot be killed with just bare hands because she is not as deserving of being killed.  Basically, she did not kill just to kill (Moorman, “Beowulf” 67).  Even still, she finds the same fate that the Danes, Geats, and Beowulf find: death.

The other discussion concerning Beowulf is the concept of whether this poem is an epic poem or a tragic poem.  I argue that these two discussions: Christian and pagan expectations and the epic poem versus tragic poem question are interrelated.  The combination of the Christian and pagan expectations creating an environment the characters cannot live by also leads the characters to tragic fates.  After all, every character mentioned dies or is conquered.  The poem suggests that the Geats and the Danes suffer tragic downfalls after the deaths of their kings,  Beowulf is eventually conquered and killed by the dragon, and the monsters are killed by Beowulf.  Greenfield argues that Beowulf is more an epic poem than a dramatic tragedy (91-105).  His biggest support for this is that Beowulf is not an affirmation of defeat but is more aligned to the concept that there is no chance to achieve (101).  This may be true, as all the characters are eventually defeated, and this concept is consistent with pagan perceptions that life does not get better and chaos reigns supreme.

However, Aristotle defines a tragedy as “an imitation not only of a complete action, but also of incidents arousing pity and fear” (57).  He defines tragic heroes as needing to be consistent even if that means consistently inconsistent (59-60).  Lastly, he also defines the tragic hero as one “whose misfortune, however, is brought upon him … by some error of judgement” (58).   All of the characters mentioned—the Danes, the Geats, Grendel, Grendel’s mother, and even Beowulf—can exemplify these definitions of tragedy.  They all are pitied because the poet writes with contradicting themes that force them to live hypocritically and inconsistently.  They cannot abide by both Christian and pagan doctrines; these implications suggest that Christianity and paganism cannot exist simultaneously.  From the very start, the poet creates a situation in which the characters cannot survive.  If they choose to live by one belief system, they are neglecting the other.  Their flaws are inevitable because they are forced to choose.  Their tragic flaws force them to become hypocritical, and eventually they all die as a result.  Therefore, regardless of whether the poem was originally a pagan story or a Christian story, the poet writes a tragic story of right versus wrong, and the characters can do nothing but be both.

Works Cited

Aristotle. “Poetics.” Critical Theory Since Plato . 3 rd ed. Eds. Hazard Adams and Leroy Searle. Boston, MA: Michael Rosenberg, 2005. 52-69. Print.

Asma, Stephen T. “Never Mind Grendel.  Can Beowulf Conquer the 21 st -Century Guilt Trip?.” Chronicles of Higher Education 54.15 (Dec. 2007): B14-B15. Academic Search Complete . Web. 21 Nov. 2015.

Beowulf . Trans. David Wright. Bungay, England: Richard Clay & Company, Ltd., 1961. Print.

Fisher, Peter F. “The Trials of the Epic Hero in Beowulf .” PMLA 73.3 (Jun. 1958): 171-183. JSTOR . Web. 20 Nov. 2015.

Greenfield, Stanley B. “ Beowulf and Epic Tragedy.” Comparative Literature 14.1 (1962): 91-105. JSTOR . Web. 22 Nov. 2015.

Hughes, Geoffrey. “Beowulf, Unferth and Hrunting: An Interpretation.” English Studies 58.5 (Oct. 1977): 385-395. Academic Search Complete . Web. 21 Nov. 2015.

Kahrl, Stanley J. “Feuds in Beowulf : A Tragic Necessity?.” Modern Philology 69.3 (Feb. 1972): 189-198. JSTOR . Web. 20 Nov. 2015.

Moorman, Charles.  “The Essential Paganism of Beowulf .” Modern Language Quarterly 28.1 (Mar. 1967): 3-18. Academic Search Complete . Web. 22 Nov. 2015.

—. “Beowulf.” Kings and Captains: Variations on a Heroic Theme . University Press of Kentucky, 1971. JSTOR . Web. 19 Nov. 2015.

Phillips, James. “In the Company of Predators: Beowulf and the Monstrous Descendants of Cain.” Angelaki: Journal of the Theoretical Humanities 13.3 (Dec. 2008): 41-52. Academic Search Complete . Web. 25 Nov. 2015.

Reinhard, Ben. “Grendel and the Penitentials.” English Studies 94.4 (2013): 371-385. Academic Search Complete . Web. 20 Nov. 2015.

Jaclyn E. Gingrich is a graduate student in the Master of Arts in English program . “Reading Beowulf :  Paradoxical Paradigms” received the English Department’s Danny Ducker Graduate Merit Award in 2016.

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Beowulf Analysis

Beowulf is the first text written in Old English. The described events date back to the 6 th century, but the manuscript appeared between the 8 th and 11 th century AD. It explains why the poem needs a translation to Modern English for an unprepared reader to understand it. Moreover, some literary devices sound “strange” for a contemporary ear. But it does not make the poem less valuable from a theoretical point of view.

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Is Beowulf an epic? Where does Beowulf take place? Find all the answers on this Beowulf analysis page! This article by Custom-Writing.org experts explores the context, style, and figurative language in Beowulf . The symbolism of the opening lines and some Biblical allusions will open the deep meaning of the poem. Finally, you will learn why Beowulf is so important for understanding medieval history.

📜 Is Beowulf an Epic?

Figurative language, foreshadowing.

• Biblical Allusions
• Opening Lines Analysis

🔗 References

Beowulf is an epic poem because the protagonist is a hero who travels to prove his strength in battles against demons and beasts. The narration starts “in the middle of things,” which is typical for ancient epics. It is not a lyric poem, although some scholars classify it as an elegy.

🦄 Beowulf Symbols

The most important symbols in Beowulf are Heorot (Horthgar’s hall) and Beowulf’s sword.

Heorot (Hrothgar’s Hall)

In Beowulf , Heorot is the seat of the Danish government and the residence of the king’s warriors. Hrothgar built it as the largest mead-hall ever known. It serves as a symbol of human culture and civilization, as well as the king’s power. In short, it represents everything positive in Beowulf.

In due time it happened Early ’mong men, that ’twas finished entirely, The greatest of hall-buildings; Heorot he named it The hall is completed, and is called Heort, or Heorot. Who wide-reaching word-sway wielded ’mong earlmen. Beowulf , part 2

Hrothgar’s hall is bright and warm. People use it to celebrate happy events, sing songs, and share food. Here the scop sings his songs about the past kings and heroes. This activity preserves the values and history of society. Meanwhile, the mead-hall contrasts with the darkness of Grendel ’s swamps. This juxtaposition underlines how critical it is to unite.

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Beowulf’s Sword

Throughout the poem , Beowulf uses 4 swords:

• The first is his own sword . It defeats the sea monsters , showing the superhuman strength of the hero.
• The second is Hrunting , which failed to pierce Grendel’s mother. Unferth lent it to Beowulf before the battle. The sword represents Unferth’s unwillingness to fight for his people, as he could have used it himself. Even provided that the gift was sincere, the blade is associated with moral weakness. That is why it was useless in battle.
• Beowulf found the third sword in Grendel’s mother’s hoard . The weapon was made by giants (who were Cain ’s descendants like Grendel and his mother). This relation means that evil can be defeated only with evil. Besides, the giant sword melted to the hilt when Beowulf decapitated Grendel’s corpse. Thus, the monster is dead, so no weapon is needed anymore.
• Nægling is supposedly the sword of Hrethel given to Beowulf by Hygelac. The hero uses this fourth sword against the dragon in his last battle . Beowulf is too strong, so the weapon falls into two parts. The sword symbolizes that real power does not require any additional objects.

🏰 Beowulf Setting

Where does beowulf take place.

The epic poem takes place in Scandinavia , in the territory of modern Denmark and Sweden. Geatland was where Beowulf came from. The Geats lived in the south of today’s Sweden. Hrothgar and his mead-hall Heorot were located on the Danish island, Sjaelland . However, the descriptions of the landscape in the poem are fictional. Most likely, the poet never visited Scandinavia.

When Does Beowulf Take Place?

Based on the descriptions from the text, scholars have found that some of the characters of the poem lived in the 6 th century. The tribal groups of Scyldings and Geats really existed around 500 AD. So, Hrothgar, Wiglaf, and Hygelac could have been historical figures. Besides, the feud of Geats and Swedes was a real fact.

Anglo-Saxon Culture in Beowulf

The Anglo-Saxons were Germanic tribes that migrated to Great Britain from the continent. They lived on the island between 450 and 1066 AD. Anglo-Saxon society was divided into working men, churchmen, and warriors. They were pagans and believed in lucky charms that protected them from evil spirits and illnesses.

Loyalty, bravery, duty, and honor were the critical Anglo-Saxon values in Beowulf . Warriors were the most respected people. They lived according to the code of conduct, and cowardice meant “a life of disgrace,” as the poem claims.

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Death is more pleasant To every earlman than infamous life is! Beowulf , part 39

The main characters of Beowulf were role models for the Anglo-Saxons. The protagonist was “The mildest of men and the gentlest, kindest to his people, and most eager for fame.” In combination with strength and bravery , it made him a perfect hero. 

The custom of wergild in Beowulf is an important tradition. People could pay for injuries or death they caused to be rehabilitated. For instance, Grendel refused to pay wergild to Hrothgar.

In conclusion, Beowulf is an instructive poem that showed people the difference between good vs. evil. It answered the moral questions of gratitude, hospitality, courage, and selflessness.

📝 Beowulf Literary Analysis

A metaphor is a description of one thing as if it was something different. For this comparison, an author does not use the words “like” or “as.” Otherwise, it would be a simile .

• “He crept inside a narrow crack in the rock…Teeth tore at him as he wriggled along.” In this passage, the metaphor is created by comparing the rocky cave walls to teeth.
• “Twelve winters of grief for Hrothgar, king of the Danes, sorrow heaped at his door by hell-forged hands.” Here the narrator speaks about Grendel, comparing his hands to metal objects forged in hell.
• The line “That shepherd of evil, guardian of crime” compares Grendel to a shepherd or a guardian of malicious actions. By the way, the words “evil” and “crime” are used as personification because only living creatures require a shepherd or a guardian.

These poetic devices communicate a message beyond the literal meaning of the words. The following types of figurative language can be found in Beowulf.

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• Alliteration is created by the repetition of first consonants in successive words. It is a traditional device in oral storytelling. The ear-pleasing effect makes it easier to perceive and memorize information. E.g., “He b ound to the b ank then the b road- b osomed vessel.”
• Personification arises when an animal or object is endowed with human characteristics. E.g., “vengeful creatures, seated to banquet at bottom of sea,” which means the sea monsters.
• Onomatopoeia means words, the pronunciation of which is similar to the sounds they describe. E.g., “The dragon roared with anger.”
• A simile compares objects, people, or phenomena, using the words “like” or “as.” E.g., “His anger clouded the hearts of men like smoke .”
• Hyperbole is a literary exaggeration. E.g., Beowulf is “ the mightiest man on Earth,” which is surely an overstatement.

The imagery appears when an author uses words that address the reader’s senses. Below you can find examples of imagery in Beowulf .

• “The only sound was the roaring sea, the freezing waves.” “Fastened those claws in his fists till they cracked .” These lines appeal to the sense of hearing. The sounds transmit the reader inside the text, creating real-time experiences.
• “Sorrow heaped at his door.” The word “heaped” creates a visual picture of sorrow. Metaphors often represent visual imagery, like in this case.

Almost all events in Beowulf are foreshadowed . Many of them are predicted right before they happen. For the first readers (or listeners) of the poem, foreshadowing did not equal “a spoiler,” as we know it now. Medieval people were familiar with the described events and characters. That is why foreshadowing emphasizes the inevitability of fate, which is one of the poem’s central themes .

For example, the lines “He was sad at heart, unsettled yet ready, sensing his death” foreshadow Beowulf’s death. He knows that he is too old, but still, he wants to try and win. The reader is warned that this might be the last battle, and the protagonist might die.

Kennings in Beowulf

A kenning is a literary device traditional for Anglo-Saxon and Norse poetry. The definition of this stylistic device is a group of two words describing an object instead of a single-word noun. It is a “compressed metaphor.” For example, “whale-road” in Beowulf represents the sea. Kennings make the reader a part of the story, creating a visual experience.

The poem is full of kennings: “horse of the sea,” “sea monster’s home,” “ocean stallion,” “wave skimmer,” “sword’s dew,” “Midnight Stalker,” “Bone Crusher,” “sky-plague,” to name a few. Approximately one-third of Beowulf consists of kennings. The protagonist is rarely called by name. Instead, the narrator names him “The Geatish hero,” “Chief of the Strangers,” “the Lord of the Seamen,” and “the Son of Ecgtheow.” These phrases help us to visualize the character and make him memorable.

Biblical Allusions in Beowulf

An allusion is a reference to events, people, or things that are well-known to the reader. A medieval reader of Beowulf would find many more allusions in the text than we can. Most of the described events, including the kings’ deaths of scop’s stories, were familiar to the first readers.

But some allusions are identifiable for us as well. The poem recalls or hints at several Biblical stories, including the death of Christ , Cain and Abel , the ten commandments , and the Great Flood .

Some pagan traditions also allude to the Bible. In the Book of Exodus, God tells people through Moses not to have other gods before him. This passage represents the author’s disapproval of Paganism: “Sometimes they sacrificed to the old stone gods… hoping for Hell’s support, the Devil’s guidance.”

What do Opening Lines of Beowulf Mean?

In Beowulf, the opening lines tell us a legendary tale of the first great Danish king, Shield Sheafson. His heroic deeds set the mood or the entire poem. Sheafson was an orphan found in the sea but grew to become the terror of all the other tribes. Then the author describes his pompous funeral. The king was put in a ship full of treasures and set out to the sea.

The narrator draws a genealogical tree from Shield Sheafson to Hrothgar, who eventually becomes the King of the Danes. Thus, the text starts by explaining the Hrothgar’s noble and heroic ancestry. This lineage justifies Beowulf’s loyalty and desire to assist a great king in defeating the evil.

The opening lines introduce the heroic code as the central theme of the poem.

Thank you for reading this article! If you need help with formulating a thesis for your paper on Beowulf, try our thesis statement generator . If you are looking for an essay idea on the play, you might want to take a look at the essay topics collection . Any questions left? Check the QA section ! 

• Symbolism in Beowulf | Symbols, Importance & Examples
• Where is Beowulf set? What’s the significance of that setting?
• The History Behind Beowulf
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• Beowulf – The Three Evil and Powerful Monsters | Great Works
• Beowulf | Figurative Language, Analysis & Examples
• Grendel as a Personification of Evil in “Beowulf” Poem
• “Beowulf”: Cultural Elements of the Anglo-Saxon Piece of Literature
• Beowulf, The National Epic of the Anglo-Saxons
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Beowulf killed Grendel’s mother using a sword he found in her cave. It was an ancient sword forged by giants, Cain’s descendants, like Grendel and his mother. When Beowulf killed the mother and decapitated Grendel, the sword melted away because of the mother’s poisonous blood. In that battle, Beowulf went...

When the night came, and Beowulf was getting ready for the battle, he took off all of his armor. He also put away the sword to fight Grendel barehanded. He motivated it by the fact that the monster was unarmed, so that they would be equal. Besides, Beowulf relied on...

Rising action features the conflicts and challenges of the characters in a fictional plot. The story escalates when all the characters start experiencing various negative things. In Beowulf, rising action takes place between Grendel’s attack on the mead-hall and Beowulf’s battle with Grendel’s mother. The latter marks the climax of...

Hrothgar plays a father figure in Beowulf’s life, and their relationship is full of mutual respect and loyalty. These two words represent the message the author wanted to convey by describing these two characters’ communication. In the end, Beowulf becomes a wise king, just as Hrothgar was. The heroic code...

105 Beowulf Essay Topics & Examples

See tips on writing the Beowulf thesis statements and critical analysis of the poem. Also, our experts have prepared a list of ideas and prompts that allow you to explore the archetypal epic hero and more!

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In Beowulf (and in the medieval Germanic culture that produced Beowulf ), family and tribal allegiances determine one's identity. Characters are constantly identified as the son, wife, or daughter of a particular man, and as members of this or that tribe. Men or beings without tribes—such as Grendel and Heremod —are described as lonely and joyless. Without a community or family, these men are incomplete. All of the cultural institutions described in Beowulf , from the giving of gold and gifts to the emphasis placed on loyalty above any personal desire, exist to preserve and strengthen the family and tribe.

The importance placed on family and tribe in medieval Germanic culture also leads to the incredible number of inter-tribal feuds in Beowulf . Preservation of a family or tribe within a hostile environment demands not only unity within the tribe, but the willingness to defend and protect the tribe from outsiders. The necessity of tribal and family self-defense created a set of formal rules of vengeance between individuals and feuding between tribes.

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Theses, Dissertations and Capstones

A feminist critique of beowulf: women as peace-weavers and goaders in beowulf's courts.

Charles Phipps Follow

Date of Award

Degree name.

College of Liberal Arts

Type of Degree

Document type, first advisor.

Gwyneth Hood

Second Advisor

Timothy Burbery

Third Advisor

This thesis documents the relationship between “Goaders" and "Peace-Weavers" amongst the women of Beowulf. These roles have a large place to play within the framework of the Beowulf narrative and all of its female characters fall into one of these descriptors. Goaders are women who have the role of driving men to violence with words. They do not actually perform the violence themselves but instead induce it in others, souring relationships and compelling men to war. Peace-weavers, by contrast, urge men toward reconciliation with speech and encouragement. Examining the poem's context for these two roles and how they relate to one another provides insight not only into the Beowulf poem but also the culture which created it. It, further, provides information on the nature of expected gender roles for women of the period.

Beowulf - Criticism and interpretation.

Women in literature.

Recommended Citation

Phipps, Charles, "A Feminist Critique of Beowulf: Women as Peace-Weavers and Goaders in Beowulf's Courts" (2012). Theses, Dissertations and Capstones . 297. https://mds.marshall.edu/etd/297

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Any time you open up a new translation of Beowulf — bloody, baffling Beowulf , which begins with a cannibal assassin and ends with a dragon; Beowulf, which set off the whole of English literature — your edition will begin with a tell. How does this version of the poem handle the opening Old English word hwæt ?

Hwæt is an Anglo-Saxon intensifier/maybe interjection, and since it begins Beowulf , it sets the tone for the whole poem to follow. So if the edition you’re reading translates it as “Lo!” (Tolkien) or “Hail!” (John McNamara) or “Hark!” (too many to count), then you are probably going to read a version of the poem written forsoothly, in a self-consciously archaic voice. But if your translator goes all Seamus Heaney on you and translates hwæt as something like “So.”, then you’re going to be reading a version of Beowulf that wants you to think of it as fresh and modern.

In her lively and vigorous new translation of Beowulf , the novelist Maria Dahvana Headley translates hwæt as “Bro!”

“Bro! Tell me we still know how to talk about kings!” she begins. “In the old days, / everyone knew what men were: brave, bold, glory-bound. Only / stories now, but I’ll sound the Spear-Danes’ song, hoarded for hungry times.”

Look, if this translation isn’t going to work for you, you’ll know right away from that one word. But personally, I am delighted . I’ve never read a Beowulf that felt so immediate and so alive.

There are pluses and minuses to any translation strategy. Tolkien famously argued in the introduction to his edition that any truly faithful translation of Beowulf would have to be written in “literary and traditional” language — by which he meant, essentially, language that evoked the Middle Ages — “because the diction of Beowulf was poetical, archaic, artificial (if you will), in the day the poem was made.” Heaney, meanwhile, writes in the introduction to his edition that what he finds most distinctive about the poem is that its voice is “attractively direct,” and so he wrote his own translation with an eye toward achieving the same sense of directness.

All translators have to pick and choose which ideas embedded in the original language to prioritize and which to set aside . Beowulf forces its translators to show their cards from the first word, and Headley’s priority is storytelling and a sense of linguistic play.

“The original reads, at least in some places, like Old English freestyle,” she writes in her introduction, “and in others like the wedding toast of a drunk uncle who’s suddenly remembered a poem he memorized at boarding school.” And so Headley’s Beowulf is a rambling, boastful, word-drunk poem, one where a worshipful young soldier “stanned for Beowulf,” while Beowulf himself “began, sick-hearted, to hear his death knell, his sure feet fumbling, his fight-spirit fugitive.” It’s profane and funny and modern and archaic all at once, and its loose and unstructured verses are full of twisting, surprising kennings.

Headley has published a take on Beowulf before: 2018’s The Mere Wife , a modernization of the poem told from the point of view of Grendel’s mother, who is one of Beowulf’s three central opponents, fighting to avenge the death of her son. In that novel, Headley made much of the idea that while the traditional epithet for Grendel’s mother, aglæca-wif , is often translated as “fiend” or “monster,” in Old English it’s only the feminine form of the epithet often used for Beowulf himself: aglæca , “warrior,” “soldier,” “hero.”

So in her new translation of Beowulf , Headley once again works to bring humanity back to Grendel’s mother. In this translation, the mother is a “warrior-woman” driven into a blood frenzy by grief; she is a warlord and a ruler, “she who’d ruled these floodlands proudly for / a hundred seasons, ferocious, tenacious, rapacious.” She is an old woman, and fully mortal, but even so, her strength is a match for Beowulf’s. He only succeeds in defeating her because he’s specially favored by God.

And when Grendel’s mother is off the page, Headley works to illuminate femininity in this poem about men and their wars and their machismo. Her version of the poetic speaker playfully flags every time he fails to mention a woman by name in his long lists of men and their conquests and marriages: “I heard he hand-clasped his daughter / (her name’s a blur) to Onela,” she notes. Images of captive women and miscarrying women work their way into the poem’s metaphorical vocabulary, and the queens of the courts Beowulf visits become subjects in their own rights, waging diplomatic war with their words. Even the dragon, the monster that finally defeats Beowulf, becomes feminine in this telling.

But most striking of all is the final woman of Beowulf , the Geatish Woman who appears at Beowulf’s funeral as the poem closes. In many translations, she is only one among many mourners, and easy to skim over, but Headley sets her apart from the others, noting that she is “louder than the rest”:

Then another dirge rose, woven uninvited by a Geatish woman, louder than the rest. She tore her hair and screamed her horror at the hell that was to come: more of the same. Reaping, raping, feasts of blood, iron fortunes marching across her country, claiming her body. The sky sipped the smoke and smiled.

It’s the Geatish Woman who makes it clear what is at stake for the powerless in this poem about the exploits of the powerful, all the horror and violence waiting to be unleashed on anyone unable to protect themselves. Her grief and terror come through with an unexpected ferocity, and it doesn’t take Headley’s gloss that “we are, some of us anyway, living the Geatish woman’s lament, writ large” to get there from the text.

Beowulf is a poem about power and battle and gold and kingship and monsters, about words and metaphors and alliteration and storytelling. It’s English’s oldest poem, and in some ways our oddest poem. And Headley brings it to vivid, visceral life.

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