technical writing memo assignment

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Sample Memo

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This handout will help you solve your memo-writing problems by discussing what a memo is, describing the parts of memos, and providing examples and explanations that will make your memos more effective.

TO: Kelly Anderson, Marketing Executive

FROM: Jonathon Fitzgerald, Market Research Assistant

DATE: June 14, 2007

SUBJECT: Fall Clothes Line Promotion

Market research and analysis show that the proposed advertising media for the new fall lines need to be reprioritized and changed. Findings from focus groups and surveys have made it apparent that we need to update our advertising efforts to align them with the styles and trends of young adults today. No longer are young adults interested in sitcoms as they watch reality televisions shows. Also, it has become increasingly important to use the internet as a tool to communicate with our target audience to show our dominance in the clothing industry.

Internet Advertising

XYZ Company needs to focus advertising on internet sites that appeal to young people. According to surveys, 72% of our target market uses the internet for five hours or more per week. The following list shows in order of popularity the most frequented sites:

Shifting our efforts from our other media sources such as radio and magazine to these popular internet sites will more effectively promote our product sales. Young adults are spending more and more time on the internet downloading music, communicating and researching for homework and less and less time reading paper magazines and listening to the radio. As the trend for cultural icons to go digital, so must our marketing plans.

Television Advertising

It used to be common to advertise for our products on shows like Friends and Seinfeld for our target audience, but even the face of television is changing. Young adults are tuning into reality television shows for their entertainment. Results from the focus group show that our target audience is most interested in shows like American Idol ,  The Apprentice , and America's Next Top Model . The only non-reality television show to be ranked in the top ten most commonly watched shows by males and females 18-25 is Desperate Housewives . At Blue Incorporated, we need to focus our advertising budget on reality television shows and reduce the amount of advertising spent on other programs.

By refocusing our advertising efforts of our new line of clothing we will be able to maximize the exposure of our product to our target market and therefore increase our sales. Tapping into the trends of young adults will help us gain market share and sales through effective advertising.

Attachments: Focus Group Results, January- May 2007; Survey Findings, January - April 2007

This is a sample memo; facts and statistics used are fictional.

1.4 Memorandums

A memo (or memorandum, meaning “reminder”) is normally used for communicating policies, procedures, or related official business within an organization. It is often written from a one-to-all perspective (like mass communication), broadcasting a message to an audience, rather than a one-on-one, interpersonal communication. It may also be used to update a team on activities for a given project, or to inform a specific group within a company of an event, action, or observance.

Memo purpose

A memo’s purpose is often to inform, but it occasionally includes an element of persuasion or a call to action. All organizations have informal and formal communication networks. The unofficial, informal communication network within an organization is often called the grapevine, and it is often characterized by rumor, gossip, and innuendo. On the grapevine, one person may hear that someone else is going to be laid off and start passing the news around. Rumors change and transform as they are passed from person to person, and before you know it, the word is that they are shutting down your entire department.

One effective way to address informal, unofficial speculation is to spell out clearly for all employees what is going on with a particular issue. If budget cuts are a concern, then it may be wise to send a memo explaining the changes that are imminent. If a company wants employees to take action, they may also issue a memorandum. For example, on February 13, 2009, upper management at the Panasonic Corporation issued a declaration that all employees should buy at least $1,600 worth of Panasonic products. The company president noted that if everyone supported the company with purchases, it would benefit all. [1]

While memos do not normally include a call to action that requires personal spending, they often represent the business or organization’s interests. They may also include statements that align business and employee interest, and underscore common ground and benefit.

Memo format

A memo has a header that clearly indicates who sent it and who the intended recipients are. Pay particular attention to the title of the individual(s) in this section. Date and subject lines are also present, followed by a message that contains a declaration, a discussion, and a summary.

In a standard writing format, we might expect to see an introduction, a body, and a conclusion. All these are present in a memo, and each part has a clear purpose. The declaration in the opening uses a declarative sentence to announce the main topic. The discussion elaborates or lists major points associated with the topic, and the conclusion serves as a summary. Figure 2 provides a sample memo using the format explained above.

Figure 2. Sample memo (click image for an accessible PDF)

Five tips for effective business memos

Audience orientation.

Always consider the audience and their needs when preparing a memo. An acronym or abbreviation that is known to management may not be known by all the employees of the organization, and if the memo is to be posted and distributed within the organization, the goal is clear and concise communication at all levels with no ambiguity.

Professional, formal tone

Memos are often announcements, and the person sending the memo speaks for a part or all of the organization. While it may contain a request for feedback, the announcement itself is linear, from the organization to the employees. The memo may have legal standing as it often reflects policies or procedures, and may reference an existing or new policy in the employee manual, for example.

Subject emphasis

The subject is normally declared in the subject line and should be clear and concise. If the memo is announcing the observance of a holiday, for example, the specific holiday should be named in the subject line—for example, use “Thanksgiving weekend schedule” rather than “holiday observance.”

Direct format

Some written business communication allows for a choice between direct and indirect formats, but memorandums are always direct. The purpose is clearly announced.

Objectivity

Memos are a place for just the facts, and should have an objective tone without personal bias, preference, or interest on display. Avoid subjectivity.

Chapter Attribution Information

This chapter was derived by Annemarie Hamlin, Chris Rubio, and Michele DeSilva, Central Oregon Community College, from the following sources:

• Online Technical Writing by David McMurrey – CC: BY 4.0
• Professional Writing by Saylor Academy – CC: BY 3.0
• Lewis, L. (2009, February 13). Panasonic orders staff to buy £1,000 in products. Retrieved from http://business.timesonline.co.uk/tol/business/markets/japan/article5723942.ece ↵

Technical Writing Copyright © 2017 by Allison Gross, Annemarie Hamlin, Billy Merck, Chris Rubio, Jodi Naas, Megan Savage, and Michele DeSilva is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Writing Memos

The purpose of this web page is to provide guidance for those using memos for technical communication purposes.

The Purdue University Online Writing Laboratory provides an excellent set of guidelines for memo writing.   Be sure to read this overview before completing your memo.

Memos are a type of informal report. Memos should be clear and concise documents.

• The purpose of your memo should be clearly stated.
• Headings can be used to make your memo clearer.
• In some memos, especially longer memos, it may be appropriate to summarize your message before going into a detailed discussion related to the purpose of your memo.
• Your memo should clearly state what you expect to happen next.  You should either provide a recommendation or a suggested action.

Microsoft Word has Memo Templates that can assist you with the overall format of your memo.  After Word is open, under File , choose New .   You should get a dialog box asking you what kind of document you would like to create. Look for the tab that says Memos. You will see that Word provides a selection of styles of memos.   Choose the one that best suits you.

This example memo uses Word's Elegant Memo format.

Your memo should have at least 4 parts:

Clearly state: 1) who the memo is to, 2) who the memo is from, 3) the date, 4) the specific subject of the memo, and possibly 5) the list of those receiving a copy of the memo

Purpose Paragraph

The first sentence of the memo should tell the reader the topic of the memo.  The reader will use this first paragraph to determine if  the rest of the memo needs to be read.

Summary Paragraph(s) [optional]

For a longer memo, these paragraph(s) can be used to summarize the contents of the entire memo.

Discussion Paragraph(s)

These paragraphs provide the information the reader is expecting.

Action or Recommendation

The final paragraph(s) should provide a closing that is often a recommendation or suggested action for what the reader should do next.

Types of Memos

Below are some examples of common types of memos that engineers and scientists write.

Trip Reports

Trip reports are used to summarize the experiences that an employee had while away from the organization.  The purpose is to provide the organization information about the trip.  Trip reports can be used when an employee goes to visit a client or attends a conference.  Below is a link to a trip report written by a senior environmental resources engineering student.

Example Trip Report

Field or Lab Reports

When an employee wants to provide an informal report of a field visit, or of some laboratory studies, a memo format can be used to summarize the work.  The memo should still address the expected components of a lab reports such as: 1) purpose, 2) methods, 3) results 4) discussion of the results.  In addition, the memo may suggest what should be done next.

Progress or Status Reports

Progress or status reports are used to provide a periodic update to a project.   The memo should honestly and clearly state the progress of the project.  If your project is not progressing well, avoid sounding defensive.  Do your best to "just state the facts".

A directive is a memo that states what task or procedure you want your readers to undertake.  Most the class assignments you have received from a faculty member are directives in a memo format.

The information in this web page is based on the following sources:

• Markel, Michael (1998) Technical Communication, Situations and Strategies, 5th addition, St. Martins Press, New York
• Purdue University Online Writing Laboratory

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Advanced workshop in writing for science and engineering (els), technical memo checklist.

Before you hand in your best draft of your technical memo, be sure you can make the following claims:

• The memo is single spaced
• The memo is composed of unified and coherent paragraphs
• Section headings are used where appropriate
• My main message (conclusion) is in the first paragraph, within the first few sentences, of the memo. The reader can easily find the key contents.
• No sections are redundant or unnecessary for the reader.
• I have eliminated any excessive or irrelevant details.
• Where appropriate, I have presented data in a table, graph or appendix.
• The style and tone of the memo is appropriate to the audience and to the context.
• If necessary, I have included an “Action Step” at the end of the memo to clarify to the reader what I expect from him / her or what step I will take next.

You are leaving MIT OpenCourseWare

ENGL210: Technical Writing

2.1.1: purpose.

In a page (150–300 words), describe a recent memo you received or one you have written. What purpose drove this communication? Did it make use of the Five Tips for Effective Business Memos? Why or why not?

2.1.2: Format and Delivery

Watch this video on the basics of the memo format.

This assessment involves using a table to describe the parts of a memo and how they function. Place each statement alongside the appropriate number that corresponds with each segment of the memo.

Using what you learned in the previous video, write a one-page (150–300 words) memo of your own regarding change in location for a weekly meeting. You will have an opportunity to assess your writing and revise it in the next step.

2.1.3: Subject Lines

Read this article and review the linked sample memos for an example of well-constructed memos.

In a brief paragraph (25–50 words), discuss the role of a subject line in a memo. Discuss examples of memos you have received or written in addition to the samples provided by the website. What makes for an effective subject line?

2.1.4: Paragraphs, White Space, and Bullets

Watch this video, which emphasizes why white space and brevity are important in memos.

In a brief paragraph (25–50 words), summarize what makes a memo reader-friendly.

In a paragraph (50–75 words), analyze a few memos you have received or this sample memo . How did they use paragraphing, whitespace, and bullets to make the document reader friendly? What could be improved in the memos you reviewed?

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• Technical Memo

Description

The ChE Technical Memorandum is used primarily for simple experiments in which the methods (apparatus, procedure, and theory) are familiar to your readers. Imagine your primary reader as a busy manager who reads very quickly. This memo highlights the elements distinctive to your team’s experience with a particular lab. It focuses on results, your conclusions, and recommendations. The methods section gives context to your experiment, but it does not contain enough detail for the experiment to be duplicated.

Reminder : Write the bulk of your technical memo in the 3rd person. Also, use the past tense, except to describe equipment or to express facts that are always true. See  FAQs  for more guidelines on technical writing.

Note : This format is designed to cover different experiments in courses taught by different instructors. Depending on the course, experiment, and instructor, the contents of each section will vary in depth, detail, and emphasis.

The technical memo has seven sections:

1. Summary The most important section of your technical memo is the summary. A well-prepared summary enables your reader to identify the contents of the memo quickly and accurately. There are  two options  for the summary. Check with your instructor about which one to use. a. Enumerated summary . This summary concisely states the purpose, conclusions, and recommendations in an enumerated list. b. Abstract (attached to the memo) . The abstract is a condensation of the subject matter. It gives a quantitative summary of your procedure, results, and conclusions. Read more on the  abstract .

2. Introduction

The introduction answers the questions:  What were your goals? Why is this experiment important?

The introduction states your purpose or objectives. It also summarizes your basic approach to the problem, giving an overview of the procedures. If you had a design problem, the introduction restates the problem and its significance. The introduction may also include background on previous work.

The methods section answers the questions:  What was measured? How was it measured? What was the theoretical basis of the experiment? This section briefly describes the apparatus and procedures and specifies any modifications. A concise discussion of the theory (1-2 equations) is also included. Note that this Methods section condenses three parts of the Research Report (the theory, apparatus, and procedures) because your readers do not need to duplicate the experiment. However, your instructor may require that you refer to fuller descriptions of the apparatus, procedures, and theory in the appendix.

The results section answers the questions:  What data were collected? How were the data analyzed? What conclusions were drawn from the analysis?

The results section is a discussion that links your data analysis to your conclusions. It develops conclusions with reference to the figures, graphs, and tables of your analysis. Its depth and detail will vary according to your experiment and your instructor’s preferences.

5. Conclusions/Recommendations

The conclusions and recommendations section answers the questions:  What were the tasks? What were the most important conclusions and recommendations developed from each task?

Your results section has already stated your conclusions, but they are buried in the discussion. This final section re-presents them so they are accessible to someone reading quickly.

6. Appendices

The appendices of the technical memo generally include raw data and sample calculations. Some instructors may also require a discussion of safety issues, fuller descriptions of the apparatus, fuller descriptions of the procedure, derivatives of theory, an effort report, and other assignments specified by your instructor.

7. References

Your text should cite all sources used, including the lab handout. References should be listed at the end of the appendix using APA documentation style.  NoodleBiB (UT Library)  will generate the reference list for you. For example, you may cite a source like this in the text (Henry, 1998). The reference would look like this:

Henry, J. (1998, Summer).  Liquid-Liquid Extraction . Lab Handout ChE 264, The University of Texas at Austin.

Length The body of the technical memo (from the Introduction through the Conclusion) should be no longer than  four single-spaced pages , including figures and tables. The four pages should include approximately two pages of text.

Template for the Technical Memo   Download

Follow the Technical Memo template in preparing your assignment. Instructions are in square brackets [like this]. If you cut-and-paste your writing onto a template, it helps if you (1) save a copy of your work as “text only.” and (2) transfer the “text only” version to the template. That way, you avoid importing new formatting.

Example  Download

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Writing format.

The format or flow of information is important in helping the reader easily understand and process the information. Learn more about the common format used in technical reports and how to use citations and references.

General Format

The format or flow of information is important in helping the reader easily understand and process the information. The format builds the scaffold upon which the communication is based. A strong consistent and recognizable format aids the reader in processing the information

In general, there is an orderly explanation that explains the logic of the work. The paragraphs are also arranged in a consistent format usually starting with a topic sentence and then other sentences related to the topic of the paragraph.

The format of the technical writing depends on the audience and purpose. A short memo may simply describe the purpose of the memo in the first paragraph and answer a few key questions in the subsequent paragraphs. A comprehensive lab or design report will be longer and typically divided into many sections. There is not one “correct” format. The main importance is that the writing is structured so that the reader can easily and quickly recognize important information. This section provides some format examples for technical reports and memos. The formatting requirements for citations, references, cross-references, and cover sheets are the same for all written communications.

Most technical reports reference other sources of information. As such, the use of citations and cross-references is important. If you are discussing the ideas in a source at length (for example, in a summary), you do not need to cite every consecutive sentence. Cite the first time you mention the source, as long the following sentences clearly indicate that the ideas come from the same source.

There are two common conventions in Engineering: 1) the author-date format and 2) the numerical format. You will use the author date format for all assignments in Engineering, however the numerical format is required by some journals (such as the American Concrete Institute journals).

Author-date format

The author-date format is the default format used by the ASCE style guide ( https://ascelibrary.org/doi/10.1061/9780784479018.ch03 ) and will be the default format you will use in reports for the Civil Engineering program. The in-text citations consist of the names of individuals and corporate authors and the year of publication of the cited work in parentheses immediately following the information cited. All citations must appear in the list of references.

Basic format:

• Reinforced concrete (RC) flat-plate structures, as compared with other RC structural systems, generally cost less and are faster to construct (Gilsanz et al. 2015).
• “Buildings and other structures shall be designed to sustain local damage with the structural system as a whole remaining stable and not being damaged to an extent disproportionate to the original local damage.” (ASCE 2002, p. 2)
• Qian and Li (2014) performed static and dynamic loading tests of multi-panel flat-plate subassemblies with reduced scales to examine the collapse resistance of flat plates.
• Construction failure is avoidable (Feld and Carper 1977).
• Innovative technologies can be used to determine the longevity of key infrastructure features (McCullough et al. 2004).
• Previous cases of progressive collapse of buildings have been investigated by Sasani et al. (2007a, 2007b).

Numerical format

The numerical format is preferred by some journals and other publications. In this format, all the references are arranged numerically by the order in which they appear in the text. The citation simply consists of the number related to that reference either as a superscript or in brackets. This uses less room for the citation, but also does not provide information on who wrote the report or when the report was written.

• Construction failure is avoidable 1 . -Or- Construction failure is avoidable [1].

If the author is mentioned in the sentence, the number is still used.

• According to Wynham 2 , no additional support is necessary. -Or- According to Wynham [2], no additional support is necessary.

References give the reader the information they need to know so that they can find the reference for more information. Depending on where the report is published, the required format for the references may be slightly different. In Civil Engineering, the default format is the ASCE style. The excerpt below is directly from the ASCE style guide .

If a whole book is used (or pages here and there throughout the book), page numbers need not be given. If no author is listed, titles should be alphabetized. If a specific chapter is being used, the chapter title and inclusive page numbers should be included. Reports must include the full institution name and location.

• Evans, G. M., and Furlong, J. C. (2003). Environmental biotechnology: Theory and applications , Wiley, Chichester, U.K.
• Moody’s municipal and government manual. (1988). Moody’s Investors Service, New York.

Building Codes and Provisions

Building codes, provisions, and standards should be listed alphabetically by the name of the promulgating institution. If a title and code number are given, the title should be in quotes, and the code number in italics; if only a title is given, the title should be in italics.

• ACI (American Concrete Institute).(1989). “Building code requirement for reinforced concrete.” ACI 318-89,Farmington Hills, MI.
• Building Officials and Code Administrators International (BOCA). (1993). The BOCA national building code , Country Club Hills, IL.
• CEN (European Committee for Standardization). (1992). “Design of steel structures, part 1.1.” Eurocode 3 , Brussels.

Electronic Materials

CD-ROM—The section, chapter, and page numbers should be provided if available:

• Liggett, J. A., and Caughey, D. A. (1998). “Fluid statistics.” Fluid mechanics(CD-ROM), ASCE, Reston, VA, Section …, Chapter …, pp. …

The following elements should be included: author’s name (if known); year of publication or last revision (if available); full title of the document, in quotation marks; title of the complete work (if applicable), in italics; full web address, enclosed within angle brackets; and date of the visit (if applicable), in parentheses. If the Web page shows no year of publication, the year of the visit may be used in its place.

• Arizona Dept. of Commerce. (2005). “Community profile: Hualapai Indian Reservation.” 〈http://www.azcommerce/com/doclib/commune/ualapai.pdf〉(Mar. 17, 2014).
• “Acquisition reform network.” (1998). Arnet, 〈http://www.arnet.gov〉(Jan. 21, 2010)

Journal Articles

The standard format for a paper published in a U.S. journal is as follows:

Beskos, D. E. (1987). “Boundary element methods in dynamic analysis.” Appl. Mech. Rev.,40(1), 1–23.

ASCE Journals

ASCE no longer uses page numbers and has adopted a new format for its references (including those older papers that still contain page numbers). Use the following style for citation to an ASCE journal:

• Authors. (Year of initial publication). “Title of paper.” Journal abbr. , DOI, CID/page range.
• Irish, J. L., and Resio, D. T. (2013). “Method for estimating future hurricane flood probabilities and associated uncertainty.” J. Waterway, Port, Coastal, Ocean Eng ., 10.1061/(ASCE)WW.1943-5460.0000157, 04013015.

ASCE Committee/Technical Reports

ASCE committees, task forces, etc. publish reports, proposed codes and standards, commentaries on codes and standards, and so on. The committee is the author.

• ASCE Task Force on Friction Factors in Open Channels. (1963). “Friction factors in open channels.” J. Hydraul. Div., 89 (2), 97–143.

Cross-References

In addition to referencing other sources of information, cross-references are also used to refer to figure, tables, and equation s within the report. You must refer to every table, figure, equation used in the text . For documents in Engineering use the full reference (i.e. Figure #, Table #, Equation #) instead of an abbreviation (i.e. Fig., Eq.). If the item (figure, table, or equation) is a noun in the sentence then use it as a proper noun and capitalize the first letter.

• Figure 1 shows the stress-strain curve of aluminum.
• The stress-strain curve of aluminum is shown in Figure 1.

If the item (figure, table, equation) serves as a reference (where to go for more information), then include it in parentheses.

• The stress-strain curve of aluminum is non-linear (Figure 1).

All exhibits (Figures, Tables, Equations) should be sequentially numbered throughout the report (don’t skip numbers) and the cross-reference in the text should occur before the figure. If you change the order of your figures you have to renumber them. If the report is in several chapters, then the number may contain a chapter and/or sub-chapter number (i.e. Figure 3-4). The use of automatic features in Word makes keeping track of these things easier.

You can also use cross-references to refer to different sections in the report. This is common in technical reports in which the chapters and sub-sections are numbered.

• Refer to Section 4.13 for details of the test setup.

Cover Sheet

Many reports will contain a cover sheet that provides basic information. The layout of the cover sheet may be dictated by whomever is to receive the report (i.e. the Graduate School has a pre-determined layout for thesis and dissertations). The cover sheet will generally include the following information:

• Title of report
• Names of group members (where appropriate)
• Date submitted

Example Cover Sheet

Alternatively, you may be asked to provide a cover letter to a report or homework assignment. The cover letter also serves to identify the topic and authors of the report, but is written in the format of a letter and contains contact information.

Example Cover Letter

Technical Reports

Sample Technical Report

Technical Report Template

Technical Report Organization

Most technical reports follow the well-recognized general organization described in this section. This can be applied to technical reports, lab reports, journal papers, etc. A technical report is usually divided into distinct sections. A common format for a report is as follows:

Introduction – explains what the report is about and why is it is needed.

• Procedures – If the report is based on an experiment (lab) then this describes the procedure and apparatus used. If the report is a design report, then this may be the design procedures and calculations.
• Analysis/Results – reports the outcomes of the experiment or design.
• Discussion – explains the significance of the results and suggested recommendations.
• Conclusions – summarizes the main points of the report. Nothing new is presented in the conclusions.

Each section should be able to “stand on its own”. Meaning that if you need to refer to information in a previous section you should use an appropriate cross-reference (i.e. see Section 4.3.2 for …). In addition, the sections should have a logical flow and structure within themselves. Each paragraph should define or explain a single topic, and there should be organization, transitions, and flow between the paragraphs.

Abstract/Executive Summary

Introduction.

The first part of the technical report is the introduction. This sets the stage for the reader and provides needed background information. As such, the introduction must cover the purpose of the design/experiment, scope of work, and any needed background knowledge.

• Scope of Work – The scope of work is a description of the design or laboratory. This section should include a brief description of the project and outline the calculation requirements.
• Given Information – This section should include information given in the problem statement. Typically, this section includes information that is provided by the professor or client and does not require interpretation.
• Assumptions – This section should briefly describe any assumptions that are made in addition to the project description and requirements. Typically, assumptions are made by the engineer, not the client, and can be modified or changed.
• Background – This section provides the needed technical background for the reader. If the reader is not familiar with this area of study this section will need to be quite detailed so that the reader can fully understand the experiment and results. Sometimes the background is it’s own separate chapter/section in a report.

This can be used to describe the equipment and procedures used for a lab experiment, or the basis/assumptions, codes, etc. used for a design. Usually one of the easiest sections to write – you are simply saying what was done and how it was done. Be sure to be concise with your writing (no overly long explanations) and make sure you completely cover the procedure (someone else could repeat the experiment or design based on the information you give them).

The results section simply states the results of the design or laboratory experiments. Depending on your writing style you may combine this section with the discussion section. It consists of properly formatted tables and figures with explanations and descriptions of the tables and figures (you must reference every table and figure in the text). You should present without analyzing or commenting on significance (unless you are combining it with discussion).

In an experimental or laboratory research report the results will typically consist of the results of the calculations and/or experimental data. It typically consists of the tables and figures as well as clear and direct wording that highlights the most important results. Do not draw conclusions or make comparisons to other work in this section (that is for the discussion). Reference to the table and figures must be provided in the main body of the report.

In a design report the results typically consist of calculation work done in interpreting the design. If the calculations required are not extensive then this can be included in the main body of the report. Each step in the calculations should have a brief description. Provide equations used. Each equation should have a number for reference and all variables should be defined. If the calculations are extensive they can be included in the appendix (i.e. Sample Calculations), however a brief summary of the procedure should be in the main body of the report.

The next section is the discussion of the results. This is the heart of the technical report and shows what you determined in the design or learned from the experiment.

In an experimental or laboratory research report, you should analyze your results by discussing the data and interpreting your results. State the significance of your results clearly, and compare your results with theory or other work. Be sure to use quantitative comparisons in your discussion. Indicate if the results support the underlying theory or contradict it.

In a design report, you should highlight the main recommendations of the design or compare the design with other alternatives. This may be where you evaluate the value vs. cost of the proposed design. The reader should have a clear understanding of why this design was chosen.

Conclusions

The final section of the report is the conclusions.  This section sums up what was learned from the experiment or recommended in the design.  It generally focuses on restating the main discussion points.   There should be nothing new presented in this section – all points were previously covered in more detail earlier in the report.

The appendices are used to document the information that is not included in the main body of the report. For example, the data that you measured in the laboratory, sample calculations, and mathematical derivations should be presented in the appendices. You can have more than one appendix. Assign each appendix a letter and a title, and group the items in a sensible manner – for example, “Appendix A: Measured Data.” Data that are not mentioned in your results should not be included in the appendices. When mathematical terms are used in the report, include an appendix titled “Notation.”

Technical Memos

Sample Technical Memo

Technical Memo Organization

Technical memos are essentially short technical reports geared to answer specific client questions. Generally, memos are much shorter than reports (only 1 to 2 pages) and have less introductory and background information. Often the memos are in the form of a letter or an email. Results are often given in a supplementary section (enclosure in a letter or attachment to an email).

• Subject line – regardless of whether the form is a letter or email, there needs to be a short subject line for the memo Addressee – Memos are written for someone. You should address the memo to a person or a committee or group.
• Introductory paragraph – Although the introduction is not a long as in a report, the memo still needs to state the purpose of the memo and any assumptions or given information that was used in the experiment or design.
• Discussion paragraphs – These paragraphs answer the specific questions of the client. They are similar to a report discussion, but more targeted to the audience and the questions asked. All discussions should be quantitative.
• Conclusion – This optional paragraph may sum up some important points or recommendation. It can also provide encouragement for the client to contact you for more information.

Example Technical Memo

Chapter 6: Emails, Memos, and Texting

Katrina Peterson

Chapter Synopsis

This chapter introduces the basics of email writing and etiquette, also providing information on memos and texting. It offers suggestions about when (and when not to!) use email in business communication. It details the basic conventions of structure: the header/address information, greeting, message body, and closing. It gives an overview of Netiquette, the expectations of online etiquette, which has application for other genres of online communication as well. The chapter concludes with a bulleted list of takeaways and tips, followed by additional teaching and learning resources.

6.1 Email Introduction

Electronic mail, or email, is among the most versatile genres of business writing.  It is used to communicate issues ranging from serious to trivial, and its formality level varies greatly based on context and rhetorical situation. It may be used like text, or synchronous chat, and recipients often choose to access email messages on a cell phone. When composing an email, a sender must account for the time constraints readers may face due to high email volume. Recipients, on the other hand, should plan to answer a business email within 24 hours, or the general time frame that they would respond to a text. Strong subject lines, clear formatting, and concise writing are all characteristics of a well-written email. Emails may also present ethical challenges as the forwarding and carbon copy functions enable communications to be shared with additional recipients.

Email, texting, and microblogs are all workplace tools that are used both internally and externally. Prior to email, genres of business writing were more clearly differentiated based on function: hard copy letters were sent outside the company, and memos were directed to those inside the company. This distinction still exists in some business contexts, but email has largely replaced hard copy letters in external and internal correspondence. Email can be very useful for messages that have more content than a text message, but conciseness remains one of its major features. A clear structure with a greeting, message body, and closing is also expected of this genre.

Many businesses use automated emails to acknowledge communications from the public, or to remind associates that periodic reports or payments are due. The form email is also common; in this case, a recipient chooses from a menu of sentences to make the wording suitable for a specific transaction. Email may be informal in personal contexts, but business communication requires attention to detail, awareness that an email reflects both you and your company, and a professional tone. Although email may have an informal feel, remember that it needs to convey professionalism and respect. Never write or send anything that you would not want to share publicly, or in front of your company president.

6.2 When (and When Not!) to Email

Email is a good way to communicate when:

• You need to contact a person who is difficult to reach via telephone, does not come to campus regularly, or is located in another part of the country or world (for instance, someone who lives in a different time zone).
• The information you want to share is not time-sensitive. Email is instantaneous, but it does not guarantee an instantaneous response. For many people, keeping up with their email correspondence is a part of their job, and they only do it during regular business hours. Unless readers have promised otherwise, assume that it may take a few days for them to respond.
• You need to send someone an electronic file, such as a document for a course, a spreadsheet full of data, or a rough draft of your paper.
• You need to distribute information quickly to many people (for example, a memo that needs to be sent to the entire office staff).
• You need a record of the communication. Saving important emails can be helpful if you need to recall what someone said in an earlier message, provide proof (for example, as receipt for a service or product), or review the content of an important meeting or deadline.
• You are unable to ask a direct question or make a request in person. In this case, frame your question/request politely, being careful to avoid a demanding tone or the underlying assumption that your request will be granted.

Email is not an effective means of communication when:

• Your message is long (i.e. could not be read in 20 minutes or less), complicated, or requires additional face-to-face discussion. For example, if you want feedback from your supervisor, or if you are asking your professor a question that requires more than a yes/no answer, you should schedule a meeting instead.
• Information is highly confidential. Email is NEVER private! Keep in mind that your message could be forwarded to other people without your knowledge. A backup copy of your email is always stored on a server where it can be retrieved, even when you have deleted the message and think it is gone forever.
• The tone of the message could be misconstrued. If you would hesitate to say something to someone’s face, do not write it in an email.
• The information itself is emotionally charged. For example, if you must communicate bad news to someone, it is better to deliver it in person.  

6.3 Email Structure

Professional communication requires careful attention to the specific writing context. In addition to its language and content, the structure of a email should also reflect a writer’s understanding of audience and purpose; a well-crafted email helps to establish credibility with an audience by showing awareness of the genre’s conventions, or its standard moves and expectations. The principles explained here apply to the educational context as well as business writing, so be sure to use them when communicating with your instructors and classroom peers. Four elements of structure should be considered when composing an email: the header/address information, greeting, message body, and closing.

Header/Address Information

As used here, header/address information refers to the subject line and the recipient lines: To, Cc, and Bcc. Make sure you include a clear, brief, and specific subject line. This helps recipients to quickly grasp the essence of a message. Email subject lines are like newspaper headlines. They should convey the main point of your email or the idea that you want readers to take away from it. They may also keep the email from being diverted to a junk mail folder, so be as specific as possible. One-word subjects such as Hi, Question, or FYI are not informative and may undercut the message’s importance. Overly long or rambling subjects may result in a similar problem. Instead, consider using a subject line like Economics Proposal Attached or Your English 110 Question . If the message is time sensitive, it may be helpful to include a date: Meeting on Thurs, Dec 2. Also keep in mind: just as an email’s subject line can communicate either professionalism or a lack of it, so also does your own email address. Consider two brief examples: [email protected] and [email protected] . The former address is clearly more professional, including the sender’s name for easy recall. In contrast, the latter lacks professionalism, coming across as overly casual and informal.

The email’s recipient lines should be given careful thought as well. In general, copying individuals on an email is a good way to deliver your message simultaneously to several people. In professional settings, copying someone else on an email can help get things done, especially if the person receiving the copy is in a supervisory role. For example, copying your boss on an email to a nonresponsive co-worker might prompt the co-worker to respond. Be aware, however, that when you send a message to more than one address using the Cc: (or carbon copy) field, both the original recipient and all the recipients of the carbon copy can see all the email addresses in the To: and Cc: fields. Each person receiving the message will be able to see the addresses of everyone else. Also, while carbon copying supervisors on an email may prompt immediate action from the original recipient, this option may raise important ethical and/or rhetorical considerations. If injudiciously used, it may have the appearance of manipulating recipient(s).

Blind carbon copying (Bcc-ing) emails to a group of people can be useful when you do not want everyone on the list to see each other’s email addresses. The only address that will be visible to all recipients is the one in the To: field. If you prefer not to show any of the listed email addresses, you can put your own address in the To: field and use Bcc: for recipients’ addresses.

Based on previous discussion, you may be wondering, “In what situations would the Cc: and Bcc: functions be helpful and appropriate to use?” As a student and a professional you will work collaboratively at some point—for example, on a class project—and need to ask a question of a supervisor or professor, perhaps at the request of group members. You would of course have the option to email the inquiry directly, later sending the response you receive to your group. However, you might also choose to include classmates in the Cc: line of the original email: 1) to keep them in the loop and confirm that you have followed through on their request, 2) to provide the professor with the option of hitting Reply All in order to inform the group directly, and 3) to preclude the need for a separate email if/when the professor responds to the group as a whole. If you do include others in the Cc:, however, you will may want to draw attention to that fact in your email, so that the respondent does not overlook the carbon copied individuals due to high email volume.

The previous information gives a sense of just how useful carbon copying can be—it may offer a means of cutting out an extra step in the communication process, while keeping others informed. However, the Bcc: may be trickier to determine when to use, due to the blind aspect of its communication. As noted, it may be a good option if you wish to deliver information to additional recipients while obscuring their email addresses. Perhaps you did not obtain permission to share their email information with others, but you had offered to send them the information as well. In such an instance, the Bcc: will enable you to be respectful of their privacy, while avoiding sending a separate email.

In other instances, you may be called upon to make a more difficult decision, for example, when working with a challenging co-worker. Perhaps this co-worker has a history of unwise decision-making, like violating company policy or not following through on required procedures. If your supervisors are aware of the situation, they may ask that you keep them updated on developments as a form of documentation. As part of your job, you might have to remind the individual of a company procedure that has not been followed. Your supervisor may want to know that the individual has been informed of the policy, and you may simultaneously wish to avoid fallout with a co-worker who could misunderstand the supervisors’ request for information. Including your supervisors in the Bcc: would be one way to make them aware of the steps you have taken to address a situation or fulfill the duties of your job position.

When drafting a message with sensitive content, you might consider waiting to enter recipients’ email addresses to ensure that the email is not sent until after you have edited the document; after all, send is only one click away. The same holds true for the Cc: and Bcc: lines, which raises another important consideration. The instantaneous aspect of email communication can be both blessing and curse. No writer wants to send an email inadvertently, and yet many senders make the mistake of emailing a quick reply when strong emotions have the upper hand. Especially when an individual is on the receiving end of an angry email, anger may seem like the appropriate response. However, such a step is unprofessional and may have serious ramifications. Avoid flame wars. When tempted to send an emotional response, always wait; instead, consider holding off until the message can be phrased in a more objective, professional manner.

When first initiating contact by email, open with an appropriate greeting or salutation. Avoid simply starting with the message body and be sure to include a polite signature. Proper greetings and closings demonstrate respect, also helping to avoid mix-ups in case a message is sent to the wrong recipient. For example, you might consider using a greeting like Dear Ms. X (formal, for someone external to the company) or Hi Barry (informal, for someone you know well). Unless someone has expressed an individual preference, never use the title Mrs. as you cannot assume a woman is married.

If the gender of a person is not evident, use the entire name, like this: Dear Sam Jones. If you do not know the person well, it may be confusing to identify an appropriate greeting (What do I call my TA/professor?) or closing (From? Sincerely?). When in doubt, address recipients more formally to avoid offending them. Some common ways to address readers are: Dear Professor Smith, Hello Ms. McMahon, or Hi Mary Jane. If a person’s name is not available, or if the email addresses a diverse group, try something both generic and polite: To whom it may concern, Dear members of the selection committee, or Hello everyone.

Message Body

When writing an email, here are some tips to ensure that the message is clear and accessible. In general, avoid using all caps since it may have the appearance of yelling. Emojis, though helpful in informal communications like texting with friends, may also be perceived as unprofessional in business contexts. Use bolding, underlining, and italics as needed to increase clarity, but be careful not to overload readers with too much at once. Bullet points may be helpful for sharing listed information, while included links may permit recipients to access information quickly. Double-check these links before sending, however, to ensure that they work.

State your purpose for writing directly at the email’s beginning to provide a context for your message. Reference any included attachments up front as well, so that readers are aware of the additional content and its purpose; in your email state the name of the file, along with the type of document and program needed to open it, for example: “Please see the attached Word document of my essay, The Many Facets of Richard III. ” In the case of an included question, cut and paste any relevant text (for example, computer error messages, assignment prompts, segments of a previous message, etc.) into the email so that the reader has a frame of reference from which to answer. When replying to someone else’s email, it may be helpful to either include or restate the sender’s message. Conversely, if you are emailing back and forth with the same person, you might delete the previous messages to avoid clutter and make communication more direct.

Use paragraphs to separate thoughts (or consider writing separate emails if you have many unrelated points or questions), and state the desired outcome at the end of your message. When requesting a response, let the reader know what type of response you require (for example, an email reply, possible meeting times, a recommendation letter, etc.). If you request something that has a due date, be sure to place the due date in a prominent position in your email. Ending your email with the next step may be helpful in work settings (for example, you might write “I will follow this email up with a phone call this week” or “Let’s discuss this further at the Wednesday meeting”).

An email’s closing is extremely important because it identifies the sender and provides contact information. Always include your full name at the end of your email. In an educational context, keep in mind that your professor may be teaching multiple students with the same name, or multiple sections of many students, so including your class/section number along with first and last name is a good idea. When closing, end with something brief but friendly: Thank you, Best wishes, See you tomorrow, or Regards. For a very formal message, such as a job application, use the kind of closing that you might see in a business letter: Sincerely, or Respectfully yours. If you do not know the reader well, you might also consider including your title and the organization you belong to, for example:

Mary Watkins Senior Research Associate or Bain and Company or Joseph Smith UNC-CH, Class of 2009

6.4 Netiquette

Netiquette refers to etiquette on the net, or protocols and norms for online communication. These general guidelines apply to most forms of electronic communication, including email. We may send or post messages, create personal pages, and interact via online technologies as a normal part of our careers, but how we conduct ourselves will leave a lasting image. The photograph you posted on your Facebook page or Twitter feed may be seen by a potential employer, or a nasty remark in a post may come back to haunt you later. Since the days when the Internet was a new phenomenon, Virginia Shea and others have sought to establish ground rules like the following for online contexts:

• Remember the human on the other side.
• Make an effort to forgive mistakes.
• Avoid assumptions about your readers .
• Ask for clarification and delay judgment.
• Consider possible cultural differences.
• Check your tone before you publish.
• Think of the text as permanent.
• Be aware that jokes and sarcasm may be misunderstood.
• Establish ground rules when working collaboratively.
• Respect original ideas by quoting correctly and asking permission.
• Research your organization’s Acceptable Use Policy.
• Respect people’s privacy.
• Do not abuse your power.
• Keep flame wars under control.
• Know where you are in cyberspace.
• Respect others’ time and bandwidth.
• Create a positive online image.
• Share expert knowledge.

Basically, you should adhere to the same polite standards of behavior online that you follow in real life. Such rules remind us that the golden rule (treat others as you would like to be treated) is relevant in any human interaction. Because basic social conventions for writing and responding to email are continually in flux, miscommunication can easily occur when people have different expectations about the communications that they send and receive.

6.5 Takeaways and Tips

• Electronic mail, or email, is among the most versatile genres of business writing.
• Email has largely replaced hard copy letters in external and internal correspondence.
• Context and the conventions of genre help to determine when/when not to use email.
• A clear structure (header/address information, greeting, body, and closing) is expected.
• Netiquette matters—remember the golden rule in all communications.
• Always proofread for tone, spelling, grammar, and content before hitting send.
• When possible, respond to an email within 24 hours, but account for possible delays in response from others.
• Be aware of the uses and ethics associated with Reply All and Carbon Copy functions.
• Avoid using all caps; use formatting like underlining and bolding to make reading easier.
• Test links before sending, to ensure they work properly.
• Follow up politely when necessary to ensure that the information was received.
• Always remember that electronic communications are not private.

6.6 Sample Emails for Discussion

6.7 Sample Activities

Use what you have just learned to explain why Student 2’s email to Professor Jones is more effective than the email written by Student 1. How does the tone of the messages differ? What makes Student 2’s email look and sound more appropriate? What are the elements that contribute its clarity? If you were Professor Jones and you received both emails, how would you respond to each one?

Email from Student 1:

i need help on my paper can i come by your office tomorrow

Email from Student 2:

Hi Dr. Jones

I am in your ENGL 101 class on Thursdays, and I have a question about the paper that is due next Tuesday. I’m not sure that I understand what is meant by the following sentence in the prompt: “Write a 10 page paper arguing for or against requiring ENGL 101 for all UNC freshmen and provide adequate support for your point of view.” I am not sure what you would consider  adequate  support. Would using 3 sources be o.k.? Can I come by your office tomorrow at 2:00 pm to talk to you about my questions? Please let me know if that fits your schedule. If not, I could also come by on Friday after 1:00.

Here are two versions of an email from a supervisor, Jane Doe, to a group of her employees. Which version do you think is most effective? Why? Version 1 of Jane Doe’s Email:

Version 2 of Jane Doe’s Email:

Subject: Materials for Wed. Staff Meeting Hi, everyone— For tomorrow’s 3 p.m. staff meeting in the conference room, please bring 15 copies of the following materials:

·       Your project calendar

·       A one-page report describing your progress so far

·       A list of goals for the next month

·       Copies of any progress report messages you have sent to clients this past month

6.8 Sample Slides

6.9 Memo Introduction

A memo—or memorandum, meaning reminder —is used for communicating policies, procedures, or related official business. It is less versatile than the typical email in audience and formality level; its recipients usually consist of individuals within rather than outside of an organization, and it rarely adopts an informal tone. It tends to be written from a one-to-all perspective (like mass communication), broadcasting a message to multiple recipients, rather than a single individual. A memo must be concise, well organized (following the guidelines given in the next section), and addressed to specific audiences with standard subject lines.

Memos are a place for just the facts, and should have an objective tone without personal bias, preference, or interest on display. The successful operation of a company may depend on memos—possibly even memos that are sent via email—for communication between the employees of the company. Types of memos include: inquiries, recommendations, problem-solution, etc. The memo’s message is direct and follows a preset format for easy access to information. While it may contain a request for feedback, the memo is linear, from the organization to the employees, or from one employee to another. It may be used to update a team on activities for a given project, or to inform a specific group within a company of an event, action, or observance. The memo as a genre may have legal standing, as it often reflects policies or procedures; it may reference an existing or new policy in the employee manual, for example.

All organizations have both informal and formal communication networks. One effective way to address informal, unofficial speculation involves sending a memo that clearly states what the status of a specific issue. If budget cuts are a concern, then it may be wise to send a memo explaining imminent changes. A memo’s primary purpose is informational in nature, but it occasionally includes an element of persuasion or a call to action. This call to action does not often require personal spending, but it does represent the organization’s interests. Memos may also include statements that align business and employee interest, thereby underscoring common ground and benefit. For example, on February 13, 2009, upper management at the Panasonic Corporation issued a declaration that all employees should buy at least $1,600 worth of Panasonic products. The company president noted that if everyone supported the company with purchases, it would benefit all.

Memo Format

A memo includes a header or heading block, an introduction, a body, and a conclusion. The header identifies the recipient (To:), the sender (From:), the date (Date:), and the subject of the message (Re: or Subject:). Similarly to the email, the memo’s subject is declared in the subject line and should be clear and concise (Oregon 20). If the memo announces the observance of a holiday, for example, the holiday should be named in the subject line—for example, use Thanksgiving Weekend Schedule rather than Holiday Observance . Again, as with the email, pay particular attention to the title of the individual(s) in this section to ensure accuracy and communicate respect.

The order of the parts of the memo heading block and location of specific part of the block varies, according to different companies’ expectations. However, the message body itself has three parts, as noted. The introduction references background information and informs the purpose of the message. The body, consisting of one simple paragraph or multiple paragraphs, communicates the message. The conclusion expresses the action expected of the recipient. The conclusion could consist of one paragraph or several, or it could be simple sentence that asks for the recipient to contact the sender if there are questions.

Sample Memo

The following memo illustrates the format explained above.

6.10 Business Texting

Whatever digital device you use, written communication in the form of brief messages, or texts, is becoming a common way to connect in the business world. It is useful for short exchanges, when talking on the phone would be cumbersome. Texting is not useful for long or complicated messages, and careful consideration should be given to the audience. It can be a great tool for connecting while on the go, but consider your company, and choose words, terms, or abbreviations that will deliver your message clearly. Here are some useful tips for texting within a business context:

• Know your recipient: “? % dsct” may be a clear way to ask a close associate what discount to offer a certain customer, but if you are writing a text to your boss, it might be wiser to write, “What % discount does Murray get on $1K order?”
• Anticipate unintentional misinterpretation. Texting often uses symbols and codes to represent thoughts, ideas, and emotions. Given the complexity of communication, and the useful but limited tool of texting, keep in mind its limitations. Also be wary of using text speak like lol and fyi that might be considered overly informal.
• Be aware that contacting someone too frequently can border on harassment. Texting is a tool. Use it when appropriate.
• Unplug yourself occasionally. Do you feel lost or out of it if you do not have your cell phone and cannot connect to people, even for fifteen minutes? Sometimes being unavailable for a time can be healthy—everything in moderation, including texting.
• Never text and drive. Research shows that the likelihood of an accident increases dramatically if the driver is texting behind the wheel. Being in an accident while conducting company business would not only endanger your own health; it would reflect poorly on your employer and on your own judgment.

Attribution

Material in this chapter was adapted from the works listed below. The material was edited for tone, content, and localization.

Technical Writing , by Allison Gross, Annamarie Hamlin, Billy Merck, Chris Rubio, Jodi Naas, Megan Savage and Michele DiSilva, licensed CC-BY-NC-SA .

ENGL 145 Technical and Report Writing ,  by the Bay College Online Learning Department , licensed CC-BY .

Chapter 6: Emails, Memos, and Texting Copyright © 2019 by Katrina Peterson is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Module 8: Final Project

Comparison memo.

Using the following outline for the body of your memo, write a comparison of three significant points about the two documents. You should create your table first, listing 10 to 15 similarities and differences. Then you can pick and choose the three most important, from a technical-writing perspective.

In the Introduction:

• Write a brief description of the two documents you are comparing.
• Explain the purpose of the comparison (to choose the best option; to illustrate differences, to impress the instructor, etc.
• List the features which you will analyze in some detail (refer to the table of data) and which will be the basis of your judgments and inferences about the way these two documents affect the reader.

In the Body:

• Analyze the three most significant points using headings for each point and subheadings and bullets for supporting details. You should eventually end up with three sections, each one of fairly balanced length.
• Use your technical-writing prowess. Make this document look professional and sound professional.
• Keep your reader in mind. What does he know about the topic? What is his attitude toward the topic? You don’t have to submit a Cover Sheet with this assignment, but you do have to consider the ideas we used the Cover Sheet for.

In the Conclusion:

• Briefly state your recommendations or summary judgments of these two documents.

Remember to:

• Use proper memo format with the organization (where you’re writing from) in the letterhead position.
• Define unfamiliar terms for your audience.
• Use headings to name the documents and the features you discuss. Use parallel form (parallelism).

Turn to the “Writing the Comparison Memo” section to complete this assignment

• Eng 235. Authored by : Jeff Meyers. Provided by : Clinton Community College. License : CC BY: Attribution

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59 Writing a Memorandum

This assignment will be somewhat different from the other two. You will not need to include a Cover Sheet for this assignment (though you certainly are free to pre-write). You are concerned about a problem in one of the two organizations you wrote about earlier. Write a memo to a person or persons in your organization addressing one of the following scenarios:

a. If you have been given the responsibility of dealing with the problem, write to your supervisor and explain your response (actions, suggestions, decisions).

b. If you have discovered the problem and want another person or group to solve it, then write to that audience and persuade them to respond (to come up with a solution or to follow one you’ve suggested).

Use short sentences and short paragraphs. Don’t try to fit everything into one big section. Also, provide some depth to this. I can’t analyze a document that is too brief to include technical content and design components.

Technical Writing Copyright © by Lumen Learning is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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• FRONT MATTER
• TABLE OF CONTENTS

In many courses, you are asked to submit your writing in memo form, and in some cases your assignments are given to you as memos. This not only gives you practice in writing a professional document, it invites you to see your writing as purposeful and aimed at a particular audience. A detailed instructional memo about memo writing—a "metamemo," if you will—follows.

DATE : August 9, 2008 TO : Users of Style for Students Online FROM : Joe Schall SUBJECT : Writing Memos for your Classes

This memo provides you with tips on writing memos for your classes, with special attention to a memo’s audience, format, organization, content, tone, and style. Because my advice comes in the form of a memo, you can use this document as a model for writing your own memos.

The Audience for a Memo It is useful to begin by considering that a memo is essentially a one-on-one communication between writer and reader. Although a memo may be written to a group of people or with various audiences in mind, usually it is a highly goal-oriented communication between two people who need to share information. When you write a memo to a professor in the classroom setting, you are much like the employee who has been assigned to investigate a problem and report back to a supervisor. Therefore, you are expected to provide concrete information, even information that the supervisor might already know, in a form that clarifies ideas and puts them into context. Finally, a memo enjoys a broader context than an essay; hence, you might refer to other related memos as you write, or you might respond to specific requests made by the audience in your text, in effect, carrying on a professional conversation.

Typical Memo Format The overall format of a memo can be broken down into the heading, the body, and the closing notations. What follows is a brief description of each component.

The Heading The heading has two parts: part one includes two centered lines at the top of page 1, identifying the name of the company or institution on the first line, with the word "memorandum" on the second line; part two includes the "DATE," "TO," "FROM," and "SUBJECT" lines at the left margin, filled in appropriately.

The Body The body of the memo follows the Introduction, and it is usually presented in single-spaced paragraphs with a line skipped between each paragraph. The first lines of new paragraphs can appear at the left margin or they can be indented five spaces.

The Closing Notations The closing notations, used to identify such things as attachments, appear at the left margin two lines below the text of the final paragraph. By simply typing the word "Attachment" as a closing notation, you automatically refer the reader to any attachment, such as a map, a set of calculations, spreadsheets, or a References page.

How Memos are Organized The general organization of a memo mirrors that of an essay: an introduction, followed by body paragraphs, followed by a conclusion. However, the first paragraph of a memo is typically used as a forecasting device. Note how the opening paragraph of this memo defines the memo’s function and reflects its organization. It is sensible to open memos for your classes in the same way, first directly stating the memo’s purpose, then setting forth the organization and noting how the memo can be used.

Organization in the body of a memo is typically characterized by the use of section headings and short paragraphs. Paragraphs should not be too bulky—five or six per page is usually ideal. On the sentence level, you should take full advantage of the same organizational tools that you employ when you write an essay: meaningful topic sentences; carefully selected transition words; focused section headings; indented blocks of cited text; a bulleted series of examples; powerful punctuation marks such as the colon, semicolon, and dash.

Selection and Citation of Content A memo’s content, of course, is guided by the assignment and the research required. It is important to remember as you present the content that selectivity and relevance matter greatly. Your job is to select and present the most pertinent, most current information available to you. Do not hesitate, of course, to let your memo’s content be heavily informed by your research, but also provide your own interpretation and organization of this research.

As in any essay, you must document the sources of your information so that your reader could find the original source of the information if desired. If your memo uses sources, provide the bibliographic information related to your sources on a References page as an attachment at the end of the memo—just as I have in this memo.

A Memo’s Tone and Style Memos for your classes require a highly informative and straightforward tone, but allow for a slightly informal style compared to essays. As in this memo, "I" and "you" are handy because they provide a straightforward way of communicating, but you must be careful not to overuse these terms. Stylish prose is key to good memo writing, and you should not hesitate to use active, interpretive adverbs and verbs and concrete, carefully chosen adjectives and nouns.

A memo need not be written in a dry, dull fashion; rather, it should emulate the same stylistic standards that good prose has always embraced. These standards are summed up neatly in the popular style guide, The Elements Of Style, as follows:

A sentence should contain no unnecessary words, a paragraph no unnecessary sentences, for the same reason that a drawing should have no unnecessary lines and a machine no unnecessary parts (Strunk and White 1979).

As this quote suggests, good prose can achieve elegance by its clarity, efficiency, and sense of purpose.

Conclusion The conclusion of a memo should not simply provide a summary of the memo’s entire contents, but it should be a true conclusion—that is, an articulated conviction arrived at on the basis of the evidence presented. The closing paragraph is the place to spell out the bottom line to the reader. Therefore, I close with my bottom line about writing memos for your classes:

• Study and use standard memo format to present your text;
• Use internal organizational tools such as section headings, topic sentences, transition words, and powerful punctuation marks to enhance the flow of ideas;
• Write with the same clarity, grace, and efficiency expected of you in any essay.

Strunk, William Jr and White, E.B., 1979: The Elements of Style. Macmillan Publishing Company, Inc., New York, 92 pp.

For more information on memo writing, chase down these two websites:

Advice on writing memos from the Writing Center at Rennselaer Polytechnic Institute

Advice on memo writing from The Ohio University College of Business