literature review of hybrid and electric vehicles

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Integration of solar energy in electrical, hybrid, autonomous vehicles: a technological review

• Review Paper
• Published: 22 October 2019
• Volume 1 , article number  1459 , ( 2019 )

Cite this article

• Mohammad Waseem   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-8929-7047 1 ,
• Ahmad Faizan Sherwani 1 &
• Mohd Suhaib 1  

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Conventional energy resources are depleting very fast and to meet the global energy demand, the scarcity of these resources is the most crucial factor in the present era. One of the major contributors to carbon emissions is transportation sector which survives mostly on conventional energy resources. In the Indian context, the transportation sector contributes about 18% of CO 2 emissions of total emissions. To decarbonize this sector, the vehicles utilizing renewable resources such as solar PV technology would be a sustainable step. Solar energy which is abundant in nature and present everywhere can prove to be a great alternative to conventional resources. In the present study, solar PV technology is integrated with electric and hybrid vehicles. Additional literature review of solar electric vehicles including three-wheeled as well as four-wheeled is carried out. Autonomous vehicles and robots utilizing PV technology are also studied and presented. Finally, the foremost barriers and challenges to adopting PV technology in electric and autonomous vehicles are identified and presented.

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1 Introduction

The conventional resources of energy are the primary pillar for the survival of human beings in the current era. Coal, oil and natural gas are the essential sources of conventional energy and globally 74% of the total population’s fuel consumption depends on these sources [ 1 , 2 ]. The conventional energy sources are depleting day-by-day simultaneously the rate of proliferating is also high which has resulted in an imbalance between the supply and demand for global energy [ 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 ]. Hence, there is a scarcity of conventional resources to meet the present energy demand and additional energy is needed to keep the present mankind development [ 7 ]. Solar, wind, biomass and geothermal are the renewable energy resources and can fulfil the present energy requirement. Additionally, these resources have meritorious characteristics such as clean-environment and non-polluting nature [ 8 ].

Internal combustion engine (ICE) is the most widely used technology in the existing transportation sector that utilizes oil and natural gas as fuel [ 9 , 10 , 11 , 12 , 13 , 14 ]. Greenhouse gas emissions, depletion of the ozone layer, global warming, air, land, and water etc. are the several environmental as well as pollution issues associated with conventional vehicles [ 15 , 16 , 17 ]. Therefore, alternate engine technology is required to mitigate these problems associated with conventional vehicles. Electric vehicles (EVs) and hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) are the alternate solutions to decarbonize the transportation sector. Additionally, these vehicles are less polluting and have the potential to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions of conventional vehicles [ 15 , 16 , 17 , 18 , 20 , 21 , 22 ].

Among the available renewable resources of energy, solar energy is considered as one of the promising resources to meet the present and future energy demand [ 23 ]. Solar energy has the exclusive potential to generate electricity through Photovoltaic (PV) panels technology [ 24 , 26 , 26 ]. The capability of electricity generation from solar PV technology is versatile from milliwatt to gigawatt [ 27 , 28 , 29 ]. Additionally, solar PV technology can also be used with electric, hybrid and autonomous vehicles either directly integrating PV panel with these vehicles or indirectly through PV power station to recharge these vehicles. In the present study, integration of solar PV technology either directly or indirectly with electric, hybrid and autonomous vehicles is carried out to meet the sustainable development goals.

Several studies related to the ICE, electric and autonomous vehicles are reported in the literature. However, no efforts have been made to compile and update the work related to vehicles utilizing PV technology. From the literature survey, it has been established that the number of research documents on this subject has increased considerably over the previous decade. A comprehensive status report on the state-of-the-art technology of how renewable energy systems are being employed in the ICE, electric and autonomous vehicles is very acute. This makes the case for the present literature review to motivates on this important issue. In this paper, an effort has been made to showcase the major studies with a focus on the electric, hybrid and autonomous vehicles utilizing non-conventional solar energy.

The discussion begins with a brief overview of electric and hybrid vehicles. Further, the integration of PV technology with electric and hybrid vehicles is presented. This is followed by studies of solar powered assisted electrical and hybrid vehicles including three and four-wheel-drive structure. Next, the study of solar powered assisted autonomous vehicles and robots are presented. Thereafter, the overall discussion and limitation of relevant studies are outlined.

2 Overview of electric and hybrid vehicles

India contributes around 18% of CO 2 emissions in the transportation sector and imports 70% of crude oil to fulfil the demand [ 30 ]. Maximum numbers of existing vehicles such as two-wheeler, three-wheeler and four-wheeler including private and commercial vehicles in Indian cities are based on ICE drive technology. These ICE vehicles utilize conventional energy resources such as crude oil, compressed natural gas and petrol [ 30 , 31 ]. According to the Society of Indian Automotive Manufacturers (SIAM), the Indian auto industry is one of the largest in the world with a production rate of 29.07 Million vehicles in the year 2017–2018. The total production rate of passenger, commercial, three and two-wheelers vehicles for the financial year 2012–2013 to 2017–2018 is shown in Fig.  1 [ 32 ]. Hence, there is a need to utilize alternative power system technology for the road transportation sector. Electric vehicles (EVs) including battery electric vehicles (BEVs), Hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) and plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) are the appropriate solution offering a clean mode of mobility. Overview of electric vehicles in place of the conventional engine vehicles reported in the literature is discussed below.

Total Indian automobile production trends

The merits of the electric vehicles for a better future and demerits of conventional fuel powered vehicles are presented [ 33 , 34 ]. Designing, fabrication, testing and conversion of conventional fuel engine vehicle into a hybrid electric vehicle are proposed [ 35 ]. Light hybrid electric vehicles have better fuel economy and efficiency than conventional ICE vehicles is verified experimentally [ 36 ]. A compact size electric vehicle is developed and analysed in MATLAB tool to reduce carbon emissions of internal combustion engine vehicle [ 37 ].

Van Keulen et al. [ 38 ] propose a supervisory energy management control strategy for electric drive vehicle to reduce fuel consumption and enhance the vehicle’s dynamic performance. An attempt is being made to utilize waste energy during the braking in hybrid electric vehicles. A controller is being employed to converts mechanical energy into electrical power [ 39 ]. The optimized charging along with drive management methodologies are proposed for an electric vehicle to decrease EV energy consumption, improve battery life, and to reduce electricity consumption [ 40 ].

Designing of an electrical propulsion system based on a synchronous machine for a hybrid electric vehicle is proposed [ 41 ]. An electric drive machine is used in conjugation with an IC engine to make hybrid electric powered vehicle [ 42 , 43 ]. Electrical components such as a compact size efficient motor, battery and electrical power system are used with conventional engine vehicle to make an advanced hybrid electric vehicle [ 44 ].

Lithium Iron Phosphate (LiFePO 4 ) battery system, arranged in a parallel configuration is proposed for an electric vehicle [ 45 ]. Another, parallel-series combination arrangement of the battery packs are employed in electric vehicles to improve efficiency [ 46 ]. Lithium-ion battery banks are proposed for electric vehicles [ 47 ]. A hybrid energy storage system consisting of polymer fuel cells and supercapacitors are suggested for an electric vehicle [ 48 ].

The electric and hybrid-electric vehicles have been introduced in Prague (Czech Republic) for urban areas with remarks that vehicles are technically as well as economically befitted for human health [ 49 ]. According to a study carried out in the U.S.A., BEVs are preferred by the customer due to environmental appeal while PHEVs are preferred due to less maintenance and range anxiety factors [ 50 ]. A case study related to the application of electric vehicle in comparison to petrol and diesel engine vehicles is conducted on the island of Barbados [ 51 ]. This study highlights the estimation of cost per km for electric, petrol and diesel vehicles as shown in Fig.  2 .

A comparison of cost per km for electric vehicles (Nissan Leaf), petrol and diesel vehicles in Barbados [ 51 ]

Several electrical propulsion systems are tested with a conventional vehicle to reduce carbon emissions. These modified vehicles are popularly known as electric vehicles (EVs), battery electric vehicles (BEVs), hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs), and plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs). Most of the automotive industries have initiated research and development towards these vehicles to decarbonize the transportation sector.

3 Integration of photovoltaic technology with EVs

Solar energy is available free of cost in the most continental areas of the world and can be converted into useful electrical energy through Photovoltaic (PV) technology. Photovoltaic technology is getting more attention towards the ‘Green’ and ‘Clean’ environment. Semi-conductor materials of PV cells absorb photons of light and generate electric current to perform the desired task.

PV technology with electrical and hybrid vehicles can be used through two different modes. The first mode is the installation of solar PV station to recharge electric and hybrid vehicles and the second one is directly integrating PV panels with these vehicles. Integration of solar PV technology and different solar charging infrastructure schemes for electric and hybrid vehicles are discussed below.

A hybrid electric vehicle that utilizes the human effort and solar PV technology to drive the vehicle is designed [ 52 ]. The solar powered electric vehicle is designed to overcome the future crisis of non-renewable energy resources [ 53 ]. The feasibility of low budget electric vehicle utilizing efficient PV array system is proposed [ 54 , 55 ]. A conversion scheme of the conventional vehicle into the solar vehicle is proposed as shown in Fig.  3 . Further, the effect of this conversion scheme is analysed in MATLAB simulation environment [ 56 ]. A prototype of the solar hybrid vehicle is developed from the conventional car by employing several electrical components such as in-wheel motor, photovoltaic panels and Li-Ion batteries [ 57 ]. The Control and Applications Research Centre (CARC), designed and implemented a running vehicle model using the PV panel to modernize the traditional tri-wheeler vehicles and efficient use of renewable energy in Bangladesh. A solar charging station is also proposed to make the system completely independent from the national grid [ 58 ].

The conversion scheme of the conventional car into the hybrid solar vehicle, adopted and modified [ 56 ]

Solar PV station based on inductive power transfer methodology to recharge the electric vehicle is proposed [ 59 ]. Another, solar PV station to recharge the electric tricycle vehicles is proposed in Bangladesh [ 60 ]. A PV charging station having a capacity of 6.62 kW power is designed to recharge four electric vehicles simultaneously in Ireland as shown in Fig.  4 [ 61 ]. The concept of the solar power station to charge plug-in electric vehicles is proposed in developing countries like India and further this stored energy in batteries enhances backup power for home loads [ 62 ]. A conversion scheme of ICE vehicles into EVs in conjunction with home PV system to achieve the goal of greenhouse gases reduction in the transportation sector is proposed [ 63 ].

PV-MPPT charging layouts system adopted and modified [ 61 ]

The PV-grid charging infrastructure scheme to recharge electric vehicles is presented [ 64 ]. Apart from this, several PV-grid charging schemes are proposed in the literature for electric vehicles [ 65 , 66 , 67 , 68 , 69 , 70 , 71 , 71 ]. Figure  5 shows the possible arrangement of the integration of PV-grid with electric and hybrid vehicles.

Architecture scheme of PV-grid and EV charging [ 64 ]

Several authors in the literature have proposed the concept of PV parking lots to recharge electric vehicles during parking hours [ 64 , 72 , 73 , 74 ]. Additional advantages of PV parking lots such as shading and simultaneously recharging of electric vehicles are presented [ 74 , 75 , 76 ]. Design of optimized PV parking model structures to charge the parking EVs is proposed [ 75 , 77 ].

A combined methodology consisting of solar and wind renewable energy to charge the electric vehicles is proposed [ 78 ]. Possible complementarities of renewable wind and solar energy to recharge the EVs for Portugal 2050 project is discussed [ 79 ]. The integration impact of renewable energy resources based charging infrastructure with plug-in electric vehicles (PEVs) is presented to meet the sustainable development goal in California [ 80 , 81 ]. A power station utilizing renewable solar PV energy is developed to recharge electric taxis in Daejeon city [ 82 ]. A premium and green method to recharge electric vehicles from renewable energy resources is shown in Fig.  6 [ 83 , 84 ]. Renewable solar and wind energy based recharging mechanism for electric vehicles are proposed to reduce carbon emissions [ 85 ].

A concept of the renewable energy based charging system [ 84 ]

An intelligent transportation system having a solar based ad-hoc networking technique for sensing, harvesting, estimating and communication characteristics is presented [ 86 ]. Renewable solar and battery bank based control strategy for a light solar electric vehicle is proposed [ 87 ]. Adoption of PV dispersion with electric vehicles on the basis of several geographical, economic and political factors towards clean energy in New York city is evaluated [ 88 ]. Mobile multi-pyranometer array-based methodology to estimate the solar energy generation accurately from car roof PV system is proposed [ 89 ].

4 Studies of solar powered assisted electrical and hybrid vehicles

Globally fossil fuel-based engine vehicles are the key mode of transportation, causing unexpected outcomes such as climate change, deficiency in natural visibility, air, land and water pollution. These factors are responsible for different pollution and global warming issues. Numerous works have been published in the literature on electric vehicles using a renewable resource such as solar energy. The review of three-wheeled and four-wheeled solar electric vehicles utilizing renewable solar energy is discussed in the following subsections.

4.1 Studies of solar powered assisted three-wheeled vehicles

Designing a hybrid tricycle rickshaw as a sustainable substitute to revamp energy consumption is proposed [ 90 ]. The power and dimensions of the hybrid tricycle are evaluated and analysed based on aerodynamic, rolling force, the desired load, moving speed and solar irradiation. Finally, the life cycle analysis approach is employed to find out the environmental and economic impacts of the solar vehicle with the help of SolidWorks sustainability software. Various mechanical, electrical and electronic components of tri-cycle are shown in Fig.  7 .

Different components of solar power assisted tricycle [ 90 ]

Mulhall et al. [ 91 ], developed a solar powered assisted three-wheeler electric auto rickshaw to overcome the pollution issues and scarcity of fossil fuel resources for developing country like India. The results show that the performance of the proposed electric auto rickshaw is far better than a conventional rickshaw. Solar assisted drive-train configuration of this three-wheeled is shown in Fig.  8 [ 91 ].

Conventional rickshaw with the solar assisted unit [ 91 ]

There is a scarcity of natural resources to produce adequate electricity as per demand in Bangladesh, even there is no electricity supply for the rural areas. Pollution and traffic jam are common problems due to the excessive quantity of conventional vehicles i.e. auto rickshaws. Therefore, BRAC University Dhaka, Bangladesh has implemented renewable solar energy based power station to charge the batteries of three-wheeler rickshaws to resolve these issues [ 92 , 93 ].

Solar powered three-wheeler autorickshaw along with a control drive scheme is proposed to resolve pollution problems arising from conventional rickshaws. Various components such as monocrystalline structure PV panels, battery charge controller and DC sequence motor have been employed for the solar rickshaw as shown in Fig.  9 [ 94 , 95 ].

Control scheme configuration for solar rickshaw model, adopted and modified [ 95 ]

A three-wheeler electric auto rickshaw utilizing renewable solar PV source is developed. The proposed model has a better driving range, speed, lifetime and travelling capability. The battery bank of the vehicle model can be charged in two distinct modes: through plug-in charging method and through solar PV panels during motion [ 96 ]. Another, environmentally friendly electric rickshaws are proposed in Bangladesh to find out the PV array impact on rickshaw system as shown in Fig.  10 [ 97 , 98 ].

The layout of the solar system concept [ 98 ]

A three-wheeler solar electric rickshaw is developed to minimize the driver pulled efforts. An electrical motor is used with the model that utilizes the electrical energy of the PV panels [ 99 , 100 ]. A three-wheeler solar ambulance van utilizing renewable PV panels technology is proposed for the patient’s transportation facility in the rural area of Bangladesh [ 101 ]. Two models of three-wheeler solar vehicle powered by split and conventional solar source architecture to increase the driving range performance are designed and compared [ 102 ].

4.2 Studies of solar powered assisted four-wheeler vehicles

Application and implementation of solar PV energy are not limited to three-wheeler vehicles. Four-wheeler vehicles such as commercial and private are also getting attention toward the use of solar energy. Various four-wheeler vehicles that utilize solar photovoltaic technology are presented below.

Preitl Z et al. [ 103 ], proposed a four-wheeled solar hybrid vehicle (SHV) model that utilizes renewable solar PV technology. Various components such as electric motor, management unit, PV panels, and power batteries are used for the proposed vehicle model as shown in Fig.  11 [ 103 ]. Another, four-wheeler solar electric vehicle that utilizes the solar insolation, directly and indirectly, is presented [ 104 ]. A four-wheeler solar electric vehicle having one person seating capacity is developed [ 105 ]. Design and development of an eco-friendly solar electric car are proposed [ 106 ].

Block diagram of a solar hybrid vehicle [ 103 ]

An axial flux permanent magnet brushless DC motor with a four-wheeler solar vehicle is tested to provide traction power [ 107 ]. An advanced approach to convert a conventional vehicle into a solar powered car by replacing the ICE with a 4-kW electric motor is proposed [ 108 ]. A four-wheeler solar electric vehicle with 850 W brushless DC-motor, 12 V 90AH lead-acid battery system and having the seating capacity of four passengers is developed [ 109 ]. Several important electrical components such as a lead acid battery, electronically commutated motors, solar panels and charge controller are employed in a solar powered four-wheeler electric vehicle [ 110 ]. Switched reluctance motors with a solar powered four-wheeled vehicle are employed [ 111 ]. Designing of a single phase as well as three phase induction motor drive for a four-wheeler solar electric vehicles is presented. The proposed induction motor has the advantage of soft phase conversion skill without changing the system hardware [ 112 ].

Optimal solar tracking and electrical power system are designed for a four-wheeler solar electric vehicle [ 113 , 114 ]. A bi-directional DC converter is employed for a solar powered four-wheeled vehicle that utilizes regenerative braking energy to recharge battery storage systems [ 115 , 116 ]. Designing and development of an electrical power system that utilizes the PV panels to extract solar energy and converts into useful electricity for a solar vehicle are presented [ 7 , 117 ]. The charging control strategy for a solar powered hybrid midibus is shown in Fig.  12 [ 118 ].

Charging circuit diagram for solar hybrid midibus [ 118 ]

A sustainable training centre to harness renewable resources such as solar, wind, and biomass for the transportation facility is proposed [ 119 , 120 ]. Availability of solar energy in the different cities of Bangladesh throughout the year to support the construction of four-wheeler solar vehicles are surveyed. Additionally, the effect of solar photovoltaic technology with the plug-in electric vehicle on corporate fuel economy standards in 2025 is analysed [ 121 ]. Global System for Mobile communication (GSM) network technique is employed for an electric vehicle with 5 watts photovoltaic panel [ 122 ]. Renewable solar PV technology is integrated with an electric vehicle to cool the cabin space [ 123 ].

5 Studies of solar powered autonomous vehicles/robots

Autonomous ground vehicles (AGVs) are mobile robots or innovative electric vehicles that produce zero emission at tail point [ 124 , 25 , 126 , 127 , 127 ]. The most promising technology to improve efficiency and safety in future is autonomy [ 128 , 129 ]. Various AGVs and robots that utilize renewable solar power to perform different tasks are discussed below.

The concept of satellite solar power station (SSPS) to meet the future energy demand in space based on photovoltaic technology is presented [ 130 ]. Designing and performance analysis of Mars exploration rovers with solar array technology to accumulate excessive dust is presented [ 131 ]. Design and construction of a power management system for robotic exploration vehicle (VANTER) are proposed as shown in Fig.  13 [ 132 ]. The construction of an optimized battery charging system for solar powered exploration robots is presented [ 133 , 134 ]. Apart from this, numerous exploration robots such as spirit, Tumbleweed, Hyperion, Cool are presented in the literature [ 135 , 136 , 137 , 138 , 139 , 139 ].

The design scheme of the power management system for VANTER [ 132 ]

A solar powered robot with an inductive sensor, video camera and ATmega32 microprocessor is designed to help the humanitarian effort in landmine detection [ 140 ]. Solar powered E- BOT robot is designed and developed for agriculture use [ 141 ]. A solar powered lawn mower directed by vision sensors to cut the grass is designed [ 142 ]. A four-wheeled solar robot that has 32 small 8-Watt power PV panels is designed [ 143 ]. The design and fabrication of automated mobile vehicle i.e. wheelchair with retractable solar panels to help handicap persons is proposed [ 144 , 145 ]. The energy storage system to store intermittent solar energy as an alternate source for mobile robots is designed as shown in Fig.  14 [ 146 ].

Hydrogen fuel cell block diagram adopted and modified [ 146 ]

The prototype of an autonomous surface vehicle which utilizes solar energy to check the ocean physical parameters such as temperature, wind speed and salinity of the water is designed [ 147 ]. Another, solar powered underwater vehicle which has an intelligent navigation system to measure the physical and chemical parameters of water is developed [ 148 ]. Another, the prototype of an unmanned surface vehicle that utilizes renewable solar and wind energy is designed [ 149 ].

A model of unmanned solar powered air vehicle is designed [ 150 ]. The concept of solar energy inclusion in place of conventional fuel without increasing mass as well as the size of the fuel system for an unmanned aerial vehicle is analysed and verified experimentally [ 151 ]. The path time of flight for a solar powered unmanned aerial vehicle is optimized using battery energy concepts [ 152 ]. A model of solar powered UAV is developed to design the capacity of the battery system as per flight time and availability of solar insolation [ 153 ]. Designing and analysis of an intelligent drone are presented to monitor PV power plants [ 154 ].

An optimal Gaussian regression algorithm for solar energy operated mobile robot is validated [ 155 ]. Solar powered mobile charging stations that utilize the visual-spectrum image of solar insolation to charge unmanned ground vehicles are experimentally tested and constructed [ 156 ]. Apart from this, several AGVs that use vision-assisted hybrid navigation system are proposed in the literature [ 157 , 158 , 159 , 160 , 161 , 162 , 163 , 163 ].

The solar insolation at different regions of Minneapolis USA for solar robots is tested with the help of satellite [ 164 ]. Two robotic systems are applied to design a two axis sun tracking mechanism, one for adjusting the automatic orientation of the PV module and second for providing reference trajectory [ 165 , 166 ].

6 Discussion and limitations

Conventional ICE vehicles consume too much fossil fuel that is ‘finite’ and ‘non-invertible’ in nature. People are considering electric vehicles as an alternate solution to replace ICE vehicles. The discussion begins with reviews of various electric and hybrid vehicles to convert ICE vehicles into eco-friendly vehicles. Further, the integration of solar PV technology with electric and hybrid vehicles is presented. Thereafter, studies of three-wheeler and four-wheeler vehicles that utilize renewable solar source are carried out. Finally, studies of solar powered autonomous vehicles, robots, unmanned aerial vehicles and unmanned surface vehicles are carried out.

The following limitations are outlined based on the studies of solar power assisted vehicles carried out in this article to achieve future sustainable development goals as follows.

Solar powered EVs and HEVs which mostly rely on sustainable solar energy are free of charging limitations, but the range anxiety problem is more severe due to the unavailability of sunlight.

Despite numerous research on PV-grid charging scheme, it is admitted that PV is an intermittent source of energy due to the volatility of solar irradiance.

Non-uniformity of solar irradiation and variation in atmospheric temperature is a serious concern to utilize of PV system with EVs and HEVs efficiently.

To store the output of sustainable energy in solar powered vehicles is a huge concern due to the much lower specific energy of batteries compared to fossil fuel.

According to the IESS 2047 plan, solar energy will be the largest contributor among the all renewable and clean energy sources in India. However, the overall penetration of solar energy with electric vehicles is negligible.

In the developing countries like India, the unavailability of charging station is also a considerable concern for the society to adopt solar electric vehicles.

From the studies of solar powered autonomous vehicles and robots, it is found that robots utilizing solar energy are designed and developed exploration purposes only.

7 Conclusions

Electric vehicles are the appropriate solution to mitigate pollution and environmental issues of conventional ICE vehicles. Solar energy is considered as the most promising renewable energy resource of the twenty-first century. In the present study, electric, hybrid, autonomous vehicles and robots utilizing the solar PV technology are reviewed. Overview of electric and hybrid vehicles suggests that in a developing country like India, there is a huge demand for green-powered electric vehicles for the transportation sector. Further, integration of renewable PV technology with electric, hybrid and autonomous vehicles would be a green and sustainable step to decarbonize the road transportation sector. Studies of solar powered electric vehicles suggest that a very little effort has been made to implement and design solar powered vehicles by the Indian government. Automation industries and research organization should focus on the innovative design and implementations of PV technology with AGVs for greener production towards sustainable development goals.

It is evident from the studies of solar powered electric, hybrid, and autonomous vehicles that there is a need to increase the number of innovative and sustainable solar charging stations to improve the range anxiety problem of EVs in India. The government of India should focus on public awareness policies and strategies to increase the penetration of EVs which will help to achieve the National Electric Mobility Mission Plan 2020. Next, an efficient and high specific energy storage system must be incorporated with the electric and hybrid vehicles to enhance the driving range. Further, government agencies should start various projects and schemes related to renewable solar energy to meet the sustainable development goals of developing countries like India.

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Waseem, M., Sherwani, A.F. & Suhaib, M. Integration of solar energy in electrical, hybrid, autonomous vehicles: a technological review. SN Appl. Sci. 1 , 1459 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s42452-019-1458-4

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Received : 18 July 2019

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DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s42452-019-1458-4

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2025 Toyota 4Runner Hybrid

Starting at .css-1ykuyyb{font-size:1.125rem;line-height:1.2;margin-left:0.25rem;}@media(min-width: 40.625rem){.css-1ykuyyb{color:#000000;}} $58,000 est.

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What's New for 2025?

The 4Runner Hybrid is an all-new model for Toyota for 2025. Its architecture is shared with the Tacoma pickup truck and the Land Cruiser SUV . The Trailhunter trim incorporates hardware from some well-known aftermarket companies including ARB and Old-Man Emu. The interior, including the infotainment, is fresh and again follows the precedent of the Tacoma, which was revised for 2024.

Pricing and Which One to Buy

The price of the 2025 Toyota 4Runner Hybrid is expected to start around $58,000 and go up to $74,000 depending on the trim and options.

The 4Runner Hybrid will be offered in six trims, starting with the Limited and culminating in the loaded Platinum. The most capable offering will be the Trailhunter, which comes decked out with just about every off-road item Toyota has in its arsenal. Pricing is TBD, but we’ll update this story as soon as Toyota makes it available.

Engine, Transmission, and Performance

The 4Runner Hybrid’s powertrain combines a turbocharged 278-hp 2.4-liter four-cylinder engine with a 48-horsepower electric motor for a total output of 326 horsepower and 465 pound-feet of torque. The electric motor is integrated into an eight-speed transmission and relies on a 1.87-kWh battery pack for juice. Toyota notes the hybrid powertrain represents the most power ever in a 4Runner. Though this same powertrain is slated for use in the current Tacoma hybrid , we haven’t yet had the opportunity to put one through its paces with our test gear along for the ride; we’ll update both models with pertinent data as soon as we do.

Towing and Payload Capacity

The maximum towing capacity of the 2025 Toyota 4Runner hybrid is 6000 pounds. That’s the same as the nonhybrid 4Runner, and a 1000-pound increase over the previous-generation 4Runner, 1500 more than the current Ford Bronco and 1000 more than the Jeep Wrangler's maximum in Rubicon four-door trim.

Interior, Comfort, and Cargo

The 4Runner's interior doesn’t stray far from the corporate playbook, sharing styling, materials, and switchgear with the Tacoma pickup. The dashboard and infotainment setup are crafted from the same stock, and, along with the seating and functional hardware like door pulls and seat adjusters, retain a purposeful, utilitarian layout. Though the nonhybrid 4Runner has an available third-row seat, we’re not sure if it will make it to the hybrid version as the battery pack resides under the cargo floor and it may complicate packaging. Of course, the 4Runner can’t match the true roof- and doorless experience of the Bronco and Wrangler, but the roll-down rear window and available sunroof let in enough of the outdoors to put a smile on your face.

Infotainment and Connectivity

The 4Runner’s tech and infotainment systems get a long-overdue upgrade in the 2025 model. The standard 8.0-inch infotainment display runs Toyota's latest software, which in our hands, has proven to be significantly speedier and more intuitive than the previous setup. A larger, 14.0-inch display is optional, as is a 12.3-inch digital gauge cluster. All models come with wireless Apple CarPlay and Android Auto connectivity, USB-C ports, and a digital key system that lets you lock, unlock, and start the 4Runner via a smartphone app. A wireless smartphone charging pad is optional.

Safety and Driver-Assistance Features

Toyota equips every 4Runner with a suite of driver-assistance features it calls TSS 3.0. This bundle of systems includes basics such as automated emergency braking and lane-departure warning, as well as more advanced offerings such as adaptive cruise control with a lane-centering feature and a system that can detect if the driver is non-responsive and bring the 4$unner to a stop if needed. For more information about the 4Runner's crash-test results, visit the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration ( NHTSA ) and Insurance Institute for Highway Safety ( IIHS ) websites. Key safety features include:

• Standard automated emergency braking with pedestrian detection
• Standard lane-departure warning with lane-keeping assist
• Standard adaptive cruise control with a lane-centering feature

Warranty and Maintenance Coverage

Toyota provides two years of complimentary scheduled maintenance, a rarity in this class. The coverage in other categories is less impressive but matches industry norms.

• Limited warranty covers three years or 36,000 miles
• Powertrain warranty covers five years or 60,000 miles
• Complimentary maintenance is covered for two years or 25,000 miles

As more information becomes available, we'll update this story with more details about:

• 0–60-MPH Times
• Fuel Economy and Real-World MPG

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2025 Lexus NX Review: Hybrid efficiency, Goldilocks size

Nx 350 and nx 450h+ hybrids are the pick of the litter.

Pros: Hybrid and PHEV are efficient and fun; sharp styling; lots of standard tech; top safety scores; good cargo space

Cons: some of that tech is frustrating to use (especially the nonsensical hud); less back seat space than some rivals.

Lexus clearly sees value in zigging where others zag when it comes to the size of its various SUVs. The 2025 Lexus NX is technically a compact SUV given its exterior dimensions, lining up with the Mercedes GLC , for instance, but inside it’s more like a GLA or various subcompact luxury SUVs. Its pricing more closely aligns with them too. That makes the 2025 NX an alternative to both segments, which honestly isn’t such a bad thing. It probably lands in the Goldilocks zone for a lot of buyers because of it.

Ultimately, though, the NX’s most appealing attribute is choice of hybrid powertrains. It offers conventional and plug-in variants, neither of which are in great supply in the luxury SUV realm. If you want to save on gas while still enjoying a small luxury SUV, you pretty much have to consider the Lexus NX 350h and 450h+.

Besides those hybrids, the NX offers a well-made cabin and lots of features, though the touchscreen interface can frustrate and back seat space is on the cramped side. The cargo area is surprisingly useful, though. All told, the NX family certainly isn’t among our top choices in the segment, but its distinctive attributes make it worth a serious look.   

Interior & Technology    |   Passenger & Cargo Space    |   Performance & Fuel Economy

What it's like to drive    |   pricing & trim levels    |   crash ratings & safety features, what's new for 2025.

There are only minor updates for 2025. Two USB-C ports are now included in the front center console, while wireless phone charging is available on all versions. Automatic wipers, power liftgate and automated parking assist with automatic braking are now standard equipment.

What are the NX interior and in-car technology like?

The NX has a handsome, extremely well-made cabin that gets even better when spruced up with two-tone color choices. While three of its powertrains may just be copy-pasted over from the Toyota RAV4 , the interior most certainly is not. It’s in keeping with the rest of the Toyota lineup.

That unfortunately does include issues with the tech, however. The infotainment system features either a standard 9.8-inch screen with dedicated physical climate control toggles or  an optional 14-inch unit  that incorporates a dedicated blend of touch-sensitive and physical comfort controls blended into the screen’s lower bezel. No matter which you choose, you get a physical volume knob. This represents a vast improvement over that found in the previous NX, but lacks split-screen functionality and some other basic items, like a dedicated home screen. Going between the native Lexus functions like radio or navigation, and the standard wireless Apple CarPlay/Android Auto connectivity screens is a constant source of tap-tap-tapping frustration. We’ve also found the satellite radio interface to be poorly designed.

The infotainment screen is fitted to a panel that blends into the instrument display, which itself features a 7-inch screen. Sixty-four-color ambient lighting is available, along with wireless charging and the bizarre 10-inch head-up display (pictured below left) that's controlled by unmarked buttons on the steering wheel (pictured below right). It's weird and difficult to use .

How big is the NX?

The Lexus NX fits into the compact luxury SUV segment. Populated by the likes of the  BMW X3 ,  Audi Q5 ,  Acura RDX  and  Genesis GV70 , this class seems to grow larger every year — both in terms of the size of its constituents and the sheer quantity available. The NX itself gained an additional 5 cubic feet of cargo volume with its redesign two years ago but that did virtually nothing to improve its stature in a field where it remains one of the smallest entries, comparable to the likes of the  Alfa Romeo Stelvio . In fact, although the NX’s exterior dimensions significantly exceed those of subcompacts like the  BMW X1 and  Mercedes  GLA, its interior dimensions are quite similar.

That said, we found that the cargo area is more useful than its modest 22-cubic-foot measurement would suggest.  In our luggage test , we managed to fit our usual six pieces of baggage with room to spare. That includes the sizable under-floor storage bin found on every NX model (in fact, cargo space is equal regardless of powertrain), which not only provides enough space for a duffel bag or groceries, but is designed to thoughtfully store the cargo cover inside the car.

What are the NX fuel economy and performance specs?

The NX comes with four available engines and is offered in both front- and all-wheel-drive configurations.

The  NX 250  has a 2.5-liter naturally aspirated four-cylinder. Paired with an eight-speed automatic, it produces 203 horsepower and 184 pound-feet – just as that engine does in its platform relative, the  Toyota RAV4 . Its 0-60-mph time of 8.2 seconds is one of the slowest of any luxury-brand vehicle. With front-wheel drive, this is rated at 26 mpg city, 33 mpg highway and 28 mpg combined. Opting for all-wheel drive only costs 1 mpg (both city and highway), but the combined figure is oddly the same.

The  NX 350  and its 2.4-liter turbocharged inline-four are good for 275 hp and 317 lb-ft of torque. That output exceeds the BMX  X3  xDrive30i,  Mercedes GLC 300  and Acura RDX , especially in terms of torque. Oddly, though, its estimated 0-60 time of 6.6 seconds is also about a half-second slower than the  X3  and GLC despite its power advantage. It’s rated at 21 mpg city, 28 mpg highway and 24 mpg combined with its standard all-wheel drive.

The  NX 350h  hybrid produces 240 total system horsepower. This system incorporates an electronically controlled continuously variable transmission and because of its standard rear motor, includes all-wheel drive. Fuel economy checks in at 41 mpg city, 37 mpg highway and 39 mpg combined.

Ultimately, the most appealing and distinctive powertrain option is found in the NX 450h+ plug-in hybrid . Its electric motor provides the smooth, effortless punch expected of a PHEV thanks to its 304 total system horsepower.  EPA estimates have the electric-only range at 37 miles. The miles-per-gallon-equivalent rating used to estimate a PHEV's  fuel economy  comes in at 84 MPG-e. 

What's the NX like to drive?

The NX has two of the most potent powertrains available in the segment (and two of the weakest, but we digress), but that doesn’t make it a performance-focused model. The NX 450h+ plug-in hybrid  and NX 350 turbo are heavy and softly suspended (even in F Sport guise) resulting in an SUV that errs on the side of comfort. The steering is also devoid of feedback and putting the car in Sport mode adds too much effort, as if that's all it takes to make a car's steering engaging. Old trick, not an effective one. The ride is comfortable as expected, and although the F Sport's bigger wheels do add some impact harshness, its adaptive suspension helps smooth out the rougher edges.

As for the powertrain choices, we'd stick with the hybrids. The base engine is lifted right out of the  Toyota RAV4  and it feels and sounds just like it. Power is unremarkable for a  luxury vehicle , and even if that's totally OK with you, the rather course engine note we begrudgingly tolerate in the  RAV4  is just uncouth in a Lexus. The NX 350h ’s hybrid powertrain is a better choice, especially since it comes with a big-time fuel economy benefit (even if it too is shared with the  RAV4 ). The NX 350's turbo engine comes with a big-time power benefit that you'll definitely want if that "power is unremarkable for a luxury vehicle " concern above struck a chord, but as previously stated, it hardly establishes the NX as a performance choice. The 450h+ plug-in hybrid adds a bunch of smooth, instantaneous low-end power to the mix, and is therefore the best choice for achieving an ideal balance of performance and fuel consumption. 

What other Lexus NX reviews can I read?

2022 lexus nx first drive review | believe us, it really is all new.

This quietly competent crossover is at its best in NX 450h + plug-in hybrid form

2022 Lexus NX touchscreen infotainment review

New touchscreen signals the end of Remote Touch and the future of Lexus tech

Lexus NX 450h+ Road Test: A notch better than good enough

We dive deep on the 450h+ PHEV version of the Lexus NX, our favorite version of Lexus' compact SUV.

What is the 2025 Lexus NX price?

The Lexus NX isn’t really offered with the typical selection of trim levels or “grades” as Toyota/Lexus likes to say. Each version, indicated with a number, is tied to a different powertrain. There are a variety of packages and options available for each, although not as many for the base NX 250 .

One key difference is the F Sport Handling variant for the NX 350 and NX 450h+. Besides unique styling and 20-inch black-painted wheels, it gets sport seats and a sport-tuned suspension with adaptive dampers.

All prices below include the destination charge. We’re not entirely sure what that is since Lexus uniquely bakes it into the published price. Good for them, all companies should do that.

NX 250 FWD: $41,765 NX 250 AWD: $43,365

NX 350 AWD: $45,525 NX 350 F Sport Handling AWD: $50,135

NX 350h AWD: $46,075

NX 450h+ AWD: $62,290

NX 250 AWD left and NX 350 AWD right. Admittedly, we only know that because Lexus labeled the photos as such. We have no idea how you'd be able to tell the difference without looking at the badge. Wheels, maybe? 

What are the NX safety ratings and driver assistance features?

Standard safety equipment on the 2025 NX includes adaptive cruise control with stop/start functionality; forward and rear collision detection, avoidance and automatic emergency braking; lane keeping assist and lane departure warning with steering intervention; automatic high beams; blind-spot warning; and an automated parking system that includes automated low-speed emergency braking. The car will also prevent you from opening the doors if it detects incoming cars and cyclists from the rear. 

Available safety features include a surround-view camera system, an enhanced blind-spot warning system, front cross-traffic alerts, corner-adaptive headlights and a digital rearview mirror.

The latest-generation Lexus NX still hasn’t been  crash tested  by  NHTSA , but the IIHS awarded the 2024 model with its Top Safety Pick award. It scored the best-possible results in all crash tests and even got top marks in the difficult-to-pass headlight test.

Featured Gallery 2023 Lexus NX

Lexus NX Information

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• More NX Information
• Buying Guide
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Autoblog accepts vehicle loans from auto manufacturers with a tank of gas and sometimes insurance for the purpose of evaluation and editorial content. Like most of the auto news industry, we also sometimes accept travel, lodging and event access for vehicle drive and news coverage opportunities. Our opinions and criticism remain our own — we do not accept sponsored editorial.

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