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What is the Difference Between a Dissertation and a Thesis?

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And to make it even more confusing, some institutions or departments will even use the terms differently!

But what are we all really talking about when we refer to a dissertation or a thesis? And does the term you use actually impact on what you actually end up writing?

This article covers the main differences between a dissertation and thesis, and how the terms may differ depending on the course, university and location.

What is a dissertation?

A dissertation is a piece of academic writing centred around original research. In their dissertations, students review existing research but also build on this with unique hypotheses and approaches.

A dissertation can be used to disprove a previous theory or take existing theories and research in a new direction. It is a large research project that is usually completed at the end of the academic year.

Usually, a dissertation starts with a dissertation proposal , which is approved by a study supervisor. The student then completes the research and writes up the methodology , findings, evaluations and conclusions from the research.

Dissertations can be undertaken by both undergraduate and postgraduate students. At undergraduate level the word count is around 5,000 to 8,000 and at postgraduate level it is usually 10,000 to 15,000.

What is a thesis?

A thesis is an academic paper covering an in-depth review of existing research in a particular discipline. It will involve an academic argument, although it doesn’t usually require original research from the student. The existing research is used to support and evaluate the proposed argument.

A thesis is not usually required at undergraduate level and is more common at postgraduate level.

This large piece of written-up research is usually completed at the end of a masters degree. Some masters courses require a thesis to graduate.

Differences between a dissertation vs thesis

The main purpose of a writing a dissertation is to add new findings to the existing literature in that field with original research. Whereas theses tend to evaluate existing findings, as their purpose is to demonstrate knowledge and skills within the course’s subject matter.

In terms of how long it takes to complete a thesis or dissertation project, a thesis is typically shorter than a dissertation since there are fewer original research aspects involved. This means that it will probably take less time. However, this can differ depending on the university and the course.

Dissertations sometimes require an oral presentation, known as a viva , where findings are showcased to academics who ask questions about the research. Theses usually do not require this.

The root of the words 

The word ‘dissertation’ originates from the Latin word ‘dissertare’, meaning to continue to discuss and the Latin word ‘disserere’ which means to examine and discuss .

The word ‘thesis’ originally comes from the Greek word ‘tithenai’, which means to place or position. This later evolved into the Latin ‘thesis’, which had two meanings: an abstract question and to put something forward .

Similarities between a dissertation vs thesis

Although there are some key differences between a dissertation and a thesis, there are also similarities.

• Both are generally long pieces of academic writing, much longer than a typical essay.
• Both explore a topic in depth, whether you are conducting totally unique research or structuring an argument based on existing research.
• Both are considered a final project and usually required to graduate from a degree, masters or PhD. Students can graduate without a thesis or dissertation if they choose to complete a postgraduate diploma or postgraduate certificate instead.
• Excellent academic writing skills are highly important for both types of research project.

Is a dissertation harder than a thesis?

Though, the difficulty of a thesis or dissertation depends on your personal skill set. For instance, students that learn better by developing their own research ideas may find a dissertation easier than a thesis.

Difficulty can also depend on the level of the course. For instance, a thesis completed at doctorate level is likely to require more advanced knowledge than a thesis at undergraduate level.

The difficulty of either type of research project can also vary depending on the subject matter and the resources available to you.

Both dissertations and theses can be challenging, but don’t be put off by the thought of having to produce a larger body of work. Your supervisor will be there to support you.

Definitions depend on where you are

The terms ‘dissertation’ and ‘thesis’ are sometimes used interchangeably, and the meanings can differ depending on the country and university.

There are plenty of differences between the variant forms of English, such as British English and American English. Around the world, different English-speaking countries use the words ‘dissertation’ and ‘thesis’ differently. 

Generally, nations with British-based academic systems of university education use dissertation to refer to the body of work at the end of an undergraduate or masters level degree . British-based institutions generally use thesis to refer to the body of work produced at the end of a PhD . 

In countries and institutions that are based on the American system of education, the words tend to be used in reverse. However, institutions and even different departments in the same university can use the words differently. 

If you're in doubt, then stick with the way the university and department you're currently attending use the terms. 

Definitions can depend on the subject

In the UK, the terms ‘dissertation’ and ‘thesis’ are generally applied equally across institutions and subjects. 

However, in the US the meanings can differ between different subject areas. The term ‘thesis’ can be used to describe a piece of original research in US academia, whereas original research is usually referred to as a dissertation in the UK. 

If you’re studying in the US , you may complete a thesis at masters level in another subject area that involves wide-ranging reading and understanding rather than original research and still call it a thesis.

With so much interchangeability between the two terms, it’s understandable that there is often confusion in the debate between a dissertation vs thesis, as there is no clear answer. 

Always read specific course details to understand exactly what’s involved in the research project that you are required to produce.

Examples from US and UK universities

Georgetown University in the US refers to a dissertation and a thesis as both adding to your 'field of knowledge' . The University of Edinburgh recommends that you refer to your individual course handbook for guides to dissertations, so each department will have their own guidelines to using the word dissertation and thesis. At University College London they refer to a thesis as the piece of work at the end of an EngD, MPhil, MD(Res) or PhD, which are all research degrees. 

In conclusion

Ultimately, it doesn't really matter which word you use as both refer to a serious and lengthy piece of work where you can show what you have researched and understood as part of your postgraduate studies.

As long as you are referring to the piece of work that you are compiling in the same way as those in your department then you will avoid confusion.

It is important to check whether the research piece involves original research or expects you to build upon existing research.

Writing a dissertation or a thesis requires a substantial amount of planning and work and you don't want to let yourself down at the last hurdle with poor presentation of your work, so always keep an eye on your course or department guidelines.

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Home > Blog > Tips for Online Students > Dissertation vs Thesis: The Differences that Matter

Tips for Online Students , Tips for Students

Dissertation vs Thesis: The Differences that Matter

Updated: June 19, 2024

Published: April 26, 2020

As a graduate student, you will have many different types of challenging coursework and assignments. However, the biggest project that you’ll work on when earning your master’s or doctoral degree will be your thesis or dissertation . The differences between a dissertation vs thesis are plenty. That’s because each of these pieces of writing happen at different times in one’s educational journey.

Let’s break down what a dissertation and thesis are so that you have a strong handle on what’s expected. For both a thesis and a dissertation, there is an obvious fluency and understanding of the subject one studies.

Let’s take a look at their similarities and differences.

Photo by  Glenn Carstens-Peters  on  Unsplash

What is a dissertation.

When you enter a doctoral program to earn a PhD, you will learn a lot about how to conduct your own research. At the culmination of your degree program, you’ll produce a dissertation.

A dissertation is a lengthy piece of written work that includes original research or expanded research on a new or existing topic. As the doctoral student, you get to choose what you want to explore and write about within your field of study.

What is a Thesis?

A thesis is also a scholarly piece of writing, but it is for those who are graduating from a master’s program. A thesis allows students to showcase their knowledge and expertise within the subject matter they have been studying.

Main Differences Between a Thesis vs. Dissertation

The biggest difference between a thesis and a dissertation is that a thesis is based on existing research.

On the other hand, a dissertation will more than likely require the doctoral student to conduct their own research and then perform analysis. The other big difference is that a thesis is for master’s students and the dissertation is for PhD students.

Structural Differences Between a Thesis and a Dissertation

Structurally, the two pieces of written analysis have many differences.

• A thesis is at least 100 pages in length
• A dissertation is 2-3x that in length
• A thesis expands upon and analyzes existing research
• A dissertation’s content is mostly attributed to the student as the author

Research Content and Oral Presentation

Once completed, some programs require students to orally present their thesis and dissertation to a panel of faculty members.

Typically, a dissertation oral presentation can take several hours. On the other hand, a thesis only takes about an hour to present and answer questions.

Let’s look at how the two scholarly works are similar and different:

Similarities:

• Each is considered a final project and required to graduate
• Both require immense understanding of the material
• Written skills are key to complete both
• Neither can be plagiarized
• Both are used to defend an argument
• Both require analytical skills
• You will have to draft, rewrite, and edit both pieces of writing
• For both, it is useful to have another person look over before submission
• Both papers are given deadlines

Differences:

• A dissertation is longer than a thesis
• A dissertation requires new research
• A dissertation requires a hypothesis that is then proven
• A thesis chooses a stance on an existing idea and defends it with analysis
• A dissertation has a longer oral presentation component

The Differences in Context: Location Matters

The united states.

In the US, everything that was previously listed is how schools differentiate between a thesis and a dissertation. A thesis is performed by master’s students, and a dissertation is written by PhD candidates.

In Europe, the distinction between a thesis and dissertation becomes a little more cloudy. That’s because PhD programs may require a doctoral thesis to graduate. Then, as a part of a broader post-graduate research project, students may complete a dissertation.

Photo by  Russ Ward  on  Unsplash

The purpose behind written research.

Each piece of writing is an opportunity for a student to demonstrate his or her ability to think critically, express their opinions in writing, and present their findings in front of their department.

Graduate degrees take a lot of time, energy, and hard work to complete. When it comes to writing such lengthy and informative pieces, there is a lot of time management that is involved. The purpose of both a thesis and a dissertation are written proof that you understand and have mastered the subject matter of your degree.

Degree Types

A doctoral degree, or PhD, is the highest degree that one can earn. In most cases, students follow the following path to achieve this level of education: Earn a bachelor’s degree, then a master’s, and then a PhD. While not every job title requires this deep educational knowledge, the salaries that come along with each level of higher education increase accordingly.

Earning Your Degree

Whether you are currently a prospective student considering earning your higher education degree or a student enrolled in a master’s or doctoral program, you know the benefits of education.

However, for some, earning a traditional degree on-campus doesn’t make sense. This could be because of the financial challenges, familial obligations, accessibility, or any other number of reasons.

For students who are seeking their higher education degrees but need a flexible, affordable, and quality alternative to traditional college, take a look at the programs that the University of the People has to offer.

University of the People is an entirely online, US accredited and tuition-free institution dedicated to higher education. You can earn your Master’s in Business Administration or your Master’s in Education . Not to mention, there are a handful of associate’s and bachelor’s degree programs to choose from as well.

If you want to learn more, get in touch with us !

The Bottom Line

Regardless of where and when you earn your master’s or doctoral degree, you will likely have to complete a thesis or dissertation. The main difference between a thesis and dissertation is the level at which you complete them. A thesis is for a master’s degree, and a dissertation is for a doctoral degree.

Don’t be overwhelmed by the prospect of having to research and write so much. Your educational journey has prepared you with the right time management skills and writing skills to make this feat achievable!

At UoPeople, our blog writers are thinkers, researchers, and experts dedicated to curating articles relevant to our mission: making higher education accessible to everyone. Read More

In this article

Frequently asked questions

What is the difference between a dissertation and a thesis.

The words ‘ dissertation ’ and ‘thesis’ both refer to a large written research project undertaken to complete a degree, but they are used differently depending on the country:

• In the UK, you write a dissertation at the end of a bachelor’s or master’s degree, and you write a thesis to complete a PhD.
• In the US, it’s the other way around: you may write a thesis at the end of a bachelor’s or master’s degree, and you write a dissertation to complete a PhD.

Frequently asked questions: Knowledge Base

Methodology refers to the overarching strategy and rationale of your research. Developing your methodology involves studying the research methods used in your field and the theories or principles that underpin them, in order to choose the approach that best matches your objectives.

Methods are the specific tools and procedures you use to collect and analyse data (e.g. interviews, experiments , surveys , statistical tests ).

In a dissertation or scientific paper, the methodology chapter or methods section comes after the introduction and before the results , discussion and conclusion .

Depending on the length and type of document, you might also include a literature review or theoretical framework before the methodology.

Quantitative research deals with numbers and statistics, while qualitative research deals with words and meanings.

Quantitative methods allow you to test a hypothesis by systematically collecting and analysing data, while qualitative methods allow you to explore ideas and experiences in depth.

Reliability and validity are both about how well a method measures something:

• Reliability refers to the  consistency of a measure (whether the results can be reproduced under the same conditions).
• Validity   refers to the  accuracy of a measure (whether the results really do represent what they are supposed to measure).

If you are doing experimental research , you also have to consider the internal and external validity of your experiment.

A sample is a subset of individuals from a larger population. Sampling means selecting the group that you will actually collect data from in your research.

For example, if you are researching the opinions of students in your university, you could survey a sample of 100 students.

Statistical sampling allows you to test a hypothesis about the characteristics of a population. There are various sampling methods you can use to ensure that your sample is representative of the population as a whole.

There are several reasons to conduct a literature review at the beginning of a research project:

• To familiarise yourself with the current state of knowledge on your topic
• To ensure that you’re not just repeating what others have already done
• To identify gaps in knowledge and unresolved problems that your research can address
• To develop your theoretical framework and methodology
• To provide an overview of the key findings and debates on the topic

Writing the literature review shows your reader how your work relates to existing research and what new insights it will contribute.

A literature review is a survey of scholarly sources (such as books, journal articles, and theses) related to a specific topic or research question .

It is often written as part of a dissertation , thesis, research paper , or proposal .

The literature review usually comes near the beginning of your  dissertation . After the introduction , it grounds your research in a scholarly field and leads directly to your theoretical framework or methodology .

Harvard referencing uses an author–date system. Sources are cited by the author’s last name and the publication year in brackets. Each Harvard in-text citation corresponds to an entry in the alphabetised reference list at the end of the paper.

Vancouver referencing uses a numerical system. Sources are cited by a number in parentheses or superscript. Each number corresponds to a full reference at the end of the paper.

A Harvard in-text citation should appear in brackets every time you quote, paraphrase, or refer to information from a source.

The citation can appear immediately after the quotation or paraphrase, or at the end of the sentence. If you’re quoting, place the citation outside of the quotation marks but before any other punctuation like a comma or full stop.

In Harvard referencing, up to three author names are included in an in-text citation or reference list entry. When there are four or more authors, include only the first, followed by ‘ et al. ’

A bibliography should always contain every source you cited in your text. Sometimes a bibliography also contains other sources that you used in your research, but did not cite in the text.

MHRA doesn’t specify a rule about this, so check with your supervisor to find out exactly what should be included in your bibliography.

Footnote numbers should appear in superscript (e.g. 11 ). You can use the ‘Insert footnote’ button in Word to do this automatically; it’s in the ‘References’ tab at the top.

Footnotes always appear after the quote or paraphrase they relate to. MHRA generally recommends placing footnote numbers at the end of the sentence, immediately after any closing punctuation, like this. 12

In situations where this might be awkward or misleading, such as a long sentence containing multiple quotations, footnotes can also be placed at the end of a clause mid-sentence, like this; 13 note that they still come after any punctuation.

When a source has two or three authors, name all of them in your MHRA references . When there are four or more, use only the first name, followed by ‘and others’:

Note that in the bibliography, only the author listed first has their name inverted. The names of additional authors and those of translators or editors are written normally.

A citation should appear wherever you use information or ideas from a source, whether by quoting or paraphrasing its content.

In Vancouver style , you have some flexibility about where the citation number appears in the sentence – usually directly after mentioning the author’s name is best, but simply placing it at the end of the sentence is an acceptable alternative, as long as it’s clear what it relates to.

In Vancouver style , when you refer to a source with multiple authors in your text, you should only name the first author followed by ‘et al.’. This applies even when there are only two authors.

In your reference list, include up to six authors. For sources with seven or more authors, list the first six followed by ‘et al.’.

The main difference is in terms of scale – a dissertation is usually much longer than the other essays you complete during your degree.

Another key difference is that you are given much more independence when working on a dissertation. You choose your own dissertation topic , and you have to conduct the research and write the dissertation yourself (with some assistance from your supervisor).

Dissertation word counts vary widely across different fields, institutions, and levels of education:

• An undergraduate dissertation is typically 8,000–15,000 words
• A master’s dissertation is typically 12,000–50,000 words
• A PhD thesis is typically book-length: 70,000–100,000 words

However, none of these are strict guidelines – your word count may be lower or higher than the numbers stated here. Always check the guidelines provided by your university to determine how long your own dissertation should be.

At the bachelor’s and master’s levels, the dissertation is usually the main focus of your final year. You might work on it (alongside other classes) for the entirety of the final year, or for the last six months. This includes formulating an idea, doing the research, and writing up.

A PhD thesis takes a longer time, as the thesis is the main focus of the degree. A PhD thesis might be being formulated and worked on for the whole four years of the degree program. The writing process alone can take around 18 months.

References should be included in your text whenever you use words, ideas, or information from a source. A source can be anything from a book or journal article to a website or YouTube video.

If you don’t acknowledge your sources, you can get in trouble for plagiarism .

Your university should tell you which referencing style to follow. If you’re unsure, check with a supervisor. Commonly used styles include:

• Harvard referencing , the most commonly used style in UK universities.
• MHRA , used in humanities subjects.
• APA , used in the social sciences.
• Vancouver , used in biomedicine.
• OSCOLA , used in law.

Your university may have its own referencing style guide.

If you are allowed to choose which style to follow, we recommend Harvard referencing, as it is a straightforward and widely used style.

To avoid plagiarism , always include a reference when you use words, ideas or information from a source. This shows that you are not trying to pass the work of others off as your own.

You must also properly quote or paraphrase the source. If you’re not sure whether you’ve done this correctly, you can use the Scribbr Plagiarism Checker to find and correct any mistakes.

In Harvard style , when you quote directly from a source that includes page numbers, your in-text citation must include a page number. For example: (Smith, 2014, p. 33).

You can also include page numbers to point the reader towards a passage that you paraphrased . If you refer to the general ideas or findings of the source as a whole, you don’t need to include a page number.

When you want to use a quote but can’t access the original source, you can cite it indirectly. In the in-text citation , first mention the source you want to refer to, and then the source in which you found it. For example:

It’s advisable to avoid indirect citations wherever possible, because they suggest you don’t have full knowledge of the sources you’re citing. Only use an indirect citation if you can’t reasonably gain access to the original source.

In Harvard style referencing , to distinguish between two sources by the same author that were published in the same year, you add a different letter after the year for each source:

• (Smith, 2019a)
• (Smith, 2019b)

Add ‘a’ to the first one you cite, ‘b’ to the second, and so on. Do the same in your bibliography or reference list .

To create a hanging indent for your bibliography or reference list :

• Highlight all the entries
• Click on the arrow in the bottom-right corner of the ‘Paragraph’ tab in the top menu.
• In the pop-up window, under ‘Special’ in the ‘Indentation’ section, use the drop-down menu to select ‘Hanging’.
• Then close the window with ‘OK’.

Though the terms are sometimes used interchangeably, there is a difference in meaning:

• A reference list only includes sources cited in the text – every entry corresponds to an in-text citation .
• A bibliography also includes other sources which were consulted during the research but not cited.

It’s important to assess the reliability of information found online. Look for sources from established publications and institutions with expertise (e.g. peer-reviewed journals and government agencies).

The CRAAP test (currency, relevance, authority, accuracy, purpose) can aid you in assessing sources, as can our list of credible sources . You should generally avoid citing websites like Wikipedia that can be edited by anyone – instead, look for the original source of the information in the “References” section.

You can generally omit page numbers in your in-text citations of online sources which don’t have them. But when you quote or paraphrase a specific passage from a particularly long online source, it’s useful to find an alternate location marker.

For text-based sources, you can use paragraph numbers (e.g. ‘para. 4’) or headings (e.g. ‘under “Methodology”’). With video or audio sources, use a timestamp (e.g. ‘10:15’).

In the acknowledgements of your thesis or dissertation, you should first thank those who helped you academically or professionally, such as your supervisor, funders, and other academics.

Then you can include personal thanks to friends, family members, or anyone else who supported you during the process.

Yes, it’s important to thank your supervisor(s) in the acknowledgements section of your thesis or dissertation .

Even if you feel your supervisor did not contribute greatly to the final product, you still should acknowledge them, if only for a very brief thank you. If you do not include your supervisor, it may be seen as a snub.

The acknowledgements are generally included at the very beginning of your thesis or dissertation, directly after the title page and before the abstract .

In a thesis or dissertation, the acknowledgements should usually be no longer than one page. There is no minimum length.

You may acknowledge God in your thesis or dissertation acknowledgements , but be sure to follow academic convention by also thanking the relevant members of academia, as well as family, colleagues, and friends who helped you.

All level 1 and 2 headings should be included in your table of contents . That means the titles of your chapters and the main sections within them.

The contents should also include all appendices and the lists of tables and figures, if applicable, as well as your reference list .

Do not include the acknowledgements or abstract   in the table of contents.

To automatically insert a table of contents in Microsoft Word, follow these steps:

• Apply heading styles throughout the document.
• In the references section in the ribbon, locate the Table of Contents group.
• Click the arrow next to the Table of Contents icon and select Custom Table of Contents.
• Select which levels of headings you would like to include in the table of contents.

Make sure to update your table of contents if you move text or change headings. To update, simply right click and select Update Field.

The table of contents in a thesis or dissertation always goes between your abstract and your introduction.

An abbreviation is a shortened version of an existing word, such as Dr for Doctor. In contrast, an acronym uses the first letter of each word to create a wholly new word, such as UNESCO (an acronym for the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization).

Your dissertation sometimes contains a list of abbreviations .

As a rule of thumb, write the explanation in full the first time you use an acronym or abbreviation. You can then proceed with the shortened version. However, if the abbreviation is very common (like UK or PC), then you can just use the abbreviated version straight away.

Be sure to add each abbreviation in your list of abbreviations !

If you only used a few abbreviations in your thesis or dissertation, you don’t necessarily need to include a list of abbreviations .

If your abbreviations are numerous, or if you think they won’t be known to your audience, it’s never a bad idea to add one. They can also improve readability, minimising confusion about abbreviations unfamiliar to your reader.

A list of abbreviations is a list of all the abbreviations you used in your thesis or dissertation. It should appear at the beginning of your document, immediately after your table of contents . It should always be in alphabetical order.

Fishbone diagrams have a few different names that are used interchangeably, including herringbone diagram, cause-and-effect diagram, and Ishikawa diagram.

These are all ways to refer to the same thing– a problem-solving approach that uses a fish-shaped diagram to model possible root causes of problems and troubleshoot solutions.

Fishbone diagrams (also called herringbone diagrams, cause-and-effect diagrams, and Ishikawa diagrams) are most popular in fields of quality management. They are also commonly used in nursing and healthcare, or as a brainstorming technique for students.

Some synonyms and near synonyms of among include:

• In the company of
• In the middle of
• Surrounded by

Some synonyms and near synonyms of between  include:

• In the space separating
• In the time separating

In spite of   is a preposition used to mean ‘ regardless of ‘, ‘notwithstanding’, or ‘even though’.

It’s always used in a subordinate clause to contrast with the information given in the main clause of a sentence (e.g., ‘Amy continued to watch TV, in spite of the time’).

Despite   is a preposition used to mean ‘ regardless of ‘, ‘notwithstanding’, or ‘even though’.

It’s used in a subordinate clause to contrast with information given in the main clause of a sentence (e.g., ‘Despite the stress, Joe loves his job’).

‘Log in’ is a phrasal verb meaning ‘connect to an electronic device, system, or app’. The preposition ‘to’ is often used directly after the verb; ‘in’ and ‘to’ should be written as two separate words (e.g., ‘ log in to the app to update privacy settings’).

‘Log into’ is sometimes used instead of ‘log in to’, but this is generally considered incorrect (as is ‘login to’).

Some synonyms and near synonyms of ensure include:

• Make certain

Some synonyms and near synonyms of assure  include:

Rest assured is an expression meaning ‘you can be certain’ (e.g., ‘Rest assured, I will find your cat’). ‘Assured’ is the adjectival form of the verb assure , meaning ‘convince’ or ‘persuade’.

Some synonyms and near synonyms for council include:

There are numerous synonyms and near synonyms for the two meanings of counsel :

AI writing tools can be used to perform a variety of tasks.

Generative AI writing tools (like ChatGPT ) generate text based on human inputs and can be used for interactive learning, to provide feedback, or to generate research questions or outlines.

These tools can also be used to paraphrase or summarise text or to identify grammar and punctuation mistakes. Y ou can also use Scribbr’s free paraphrasing tool , summarising tool , and grammar checker , which are designed specifically for these purposes.

Using AI writing tools (like ChatGPT ) to write your essay is usually considered plagiarism and may result in penalisation, unless it is allowed by your university. Text generated by AI tools is based on existing texts and therefore cannot provide unique insights. Furthermore, these outputs sometimes contain factual inaccuracies or grammar mistakes.

However, AI writing tools can be used effectively as a source of feedback and inspiration for your writing (e.g., to generate research questions ). Other AI tools, like grammar checkers, can help identify and eliminate grammar and punctuation mistakes to enhance your writing.

The Scribbr Knowledge Base is a collection of free resources to help you succeed in academic research, writing, and citation. Every week, we publish helpful step-by-step guides, clear examples, simple templates, engaging videos, and more.

The Knowledge Base is for students at all levels. Whether you’re writing your first essay, working on your bachelor’s or master’s dissertation, or getting to grips with your PhD research, we’ve got you covered.

As well as the Knowledge Base, Scribbr provides many other tools and services to support you in academic writing and citation:

• Create your citations and manage your reference list with our free Reference Generators in APA and MLA style.
• Scan your paper for in-text citation errors and inconsistencies with our innovative APA Citation Checker .
• Avoid accidental plagiarism with our reliable Plagiarism Checker .
• Polish your writing and get feedback on structure and clarity with our Proofreading & Editing services .

Yes! We’re happy for educators to use our content, and we’ve even adapted some of our articles into ready-made lecture slides .

You are free to display, distribute, and adapt Scribbr materials in your classes or upload them in private learning environments like Blackboard. We only ask that you credit Scribbr for any content you use.

We’re always striving to improve the Knowledge Base. If you have an idea for a topic we should cover, or you notice a mistake in any of our articles, let us know by emailing [email protected] .

The consequences of plagiarism vary depending on the type of plagiarism and the context in which it occurs. For example, submitting a whole paper by someone else will have the most severe consequences, while accidental citation errors are considered less serious.

If you’re a student, then you might fail the course, be suspended or expelled, or be obligated to attend a workshop on plagiarism. It depends on whether it’s your first offence or you’ve done it before.

As an academic or professional, plagiarising seriously damages your reputation. You might also lose your research funding or your job, and you could even face legal consequences for copyright infringement.

Paraphrasing without crediting the original author is a form of plagiarism , because you’re presenting someone else’s ideas as if they were your own.

However, paraphrasing is not plagiarism if you correctly reference the source . This means including an in-text referencing and a full reference , formatted according to your required citation style (e.g., Harvard , Vancouver ).

As well as referencing your source, make sure that any paraphrased text is completely rewritten in your own words.

Accidental plagiarism is one of the most common examples of plagiarism . Perhaps you forgot to cite a source, or paraphrased something a bit too closely. Maybe you can’t remember where you got an idea from, and aren’t totally sure if it’s original or not.

These all count as plagiarism, even though you didn’t do it on purpose. When in doubt, make sure you’re citing your sources . Also consider running your work through a plagiarism checker tool prior to submission, which work by using advanced database software to scan for matches between your text and existing texts.

Scribbr’s Plagiarism Checker takes less than 10 minutes and can help you turn in your paper with confidence.

The accuracy depends on the plagiarism checker you use. Per our in-depth research , Scribbr is the most accurate plagiarism checker. Many free plagiarism checkers fail to detect all plagiarism or falsely flag text as plagiarism.

Plagiarism checkers work by using advanced database software to scan for matches between your text and existing texts. Their accuracy is determined by two factors: the algorithm (which recognises the plagiarism) and the size of the database (with which your document is compared).

To avoid plagiarism when summarising an article or other source, follow these two rules:

• Write the summary entirely in your own words by   paraphrasing the author’s ideas.
• Reference the source with an in-text citation and a full reference so your reader can easily find the original text.

Plagiarism can be detected by your professor or readers if the tone, formatting, or style of your text is different in different parts of your paper, or if they’re familiar with the plagiarised source.

Many universities also use   plagiarism detection software like Turnitin’s, which compares your text to a large database of other sources, flagging any similarities that come up.

It can be easier than you think to commit plagiarism by accident. Consider using a   plagiarism checker prior to submitting your essay to ensure you haven’t missed any citations.

Some examples of plagiarism include:

• Copying and pasting a Wikipedia article into the body of an assignment
• Quoting a source without including a citation
• Not paraphrasing a source properly (e.g. maintaining wording too close to the original)
• Forgetting to cite the source of an idea

The most surefire way to   avoid plagiarism is to always cite your sources . When in doubt, cite!

Global plagiarism means taking an entire work written by someone else and passing it off as your own. This can include getting someone else to write an essay or assignment for you, or submitting a text you found online as your own work.

Global plagiarism is one of the most serious types of plagiarism because it involves deliberately and directly lying about the authorship of a work. It can have severe consequences for students and professionals alike.

Verbatim plagiarism means copying text from a source and pasting it directly into your own document without giving proper credit.

If the structure and the majority of the words are the same as in the original source, then you are committing verbatim plagiarism. This is the case even if you delete a few words or replace them with synonyms.

If you want to use an author’s exact words, you need to quote the original source by putting the copied text in quotation marks and including an   in-text citation .

Patchwork plagiarism , also called mosaic plagiarism, means copying phrases, passages, or ideas from various existing sources and combining them to create a new text. This includes slightly rephrasing some of the content, while keeping many of the same words and the same structure as the original.

While this type of plagiarism is more insidious than simply copying and pasting directly from a source, plagiarism checkers like Turnitin’s can still easily detect it.

To avoid plagiarism in any form, remember to reference your sources .

Yes, reusing your own work without citation is considered self-plagiarism . This can range from resubmitting an entire assignment to reusing passages or data from something you’ve handed in previously.

Self-plagiarism often has the same consequences as other types of plagiarism . If you want to reuse content you wrote in the past, make sure to check your university’s policy or consult your professor.

If you are reusing content or data you used in a previous assignment, make sure to cite yourself. You can cite yourself the same way you would cite any other source: simply follow the directions for the citation style you are using.

Keep in mind that reusing prior content can be considered self-plagiarism , so make sure you ask your instructor or consult your university’s handbook prior to doing so.

Most institutions have an internal database of previously submitted student assignments. Turnitin can check for self-plagiarism by comparing your paper against this database. If you’ve reused parts of an assignment you already submitted, it will flag any similarities as potential plagiarism.

Online plagiarism checkers don’t have access to your institution’s database, so they can’t detect self-plagiarism of unpublished work. If you’re worried about accidentally self-plagiarising, you can use Scribbr’s Self-Plagiarism Checker to upload your unpublished documents and check them for similarities.

Plagiarism has serious consequences and can be illegal in certain scenarios.

While most of the time plagiarism in an undergraduate setting is not illegal, plagiarism or self-plagiarism in a professional academic setting can lead to legal action, including copyright infringement and fraud. Many scholarly journals do not allow you to submit the same work to more than one journal, and if you do not credit a coauthor, you could be legally defrauding them.

Even if you aren’t breaking the law, plagiarism can seriously impact your academic career. While the exact consequences of plagiarism vary by institution and severity, common consequences include a lower grade, automatically failing a course, academic suspension or probation, and even expulsion.

Self-plagiarism means recycling work that you’ve previously published or submitted as an assignment. It’s considered academic dishonesty to present something as brand new when you’ve already gotten credit and perhaps feedback for it in the past.

If you want to refer to ideas or data from previous work, be sure to cite yourself.

Academic integrity means being honest, ethical, and thorough in your academic work. To maintain academic integrity, you should avoid misleading your readers about any part of your research and refrain from offences like plagiarism and contract cheating, which are examples of academic misconduct.

Academic dishonesty refers to deceitful or misleading behavior in an academic setting. Academic dishonesty can occur intentionally or unintentionally, and it varies in severity.

It can encompass paying for a pre-written essay, cheating on an exam, or committing plagiarism . It can also include helping others cheat, copying a friend’s homework answers, or even pretending to be sick to miss an exam.

Academic dishonesty doesn’t just occur in a classroom setting, but also in research and other academic-adjacent fields.

Consequences of academic dishonesty depend on the severity of the offence and your institution’s policy. They can range from a warning for a first offence to a failing grade in a course to expulsion from your university.

For those in certain fields, such as nursing, engineering, or lab sciences, not learning fundamentals properly can directly impact the health and safety of others. For those working in academia or research, academic dishonesty impacts your professional reputation, leading others to doubt your future work.

Academic dishonesty can be intentional or unintentional, ranging from something as simple as claiming to have read something you didn’t to copying your neighbour’s answers on an exam.

You can commit academic dishonesty with the best of intentions, such as helping a friend cheat on a paper. Severe academic dishonesty can include buying a pre-written essay or the answers to a multiple-choice test, or falsifying a medical emergency to avoid taking a final exam.

Plagiarism means presenting someone else’s work as your own without giving proper credit to the original author. In academic writing, plagiarism involves using words, ideas, or information from a source without including a citation .

Plagiarism can have serious consequences , even when it’s done accidentally. To avoid plagiarism, it’s important to keep track of your sources and cite them correctly.

Common knowledge does not need to be cited. However, you should be extra careful when deciding what counts as common knowledge.

Common knowledge encompasses information that the average educated reader would accept as true without needing the extra validation of a source or citation.

Common knowledge should be widely known, undisputed, and easily verified. When in doubt, always cite your sources.

Most online plagiarism checkers only have access to public databases, whose software doesn’t allow you to compare two documents for plagiarism.

However, in addition to our Plagiarism Checker , Scribbr also offers an Self-Plagiarism Checker . This is an add-on tool that lets you compare your paper with unpublished or private documents. This way you can rest assured that you haven’t unintentionally plagiarised or self-plagiarised .

Compare two sources for plagiarism

The research methods you use depend on the type of data you need to answer your research question .

• If you want to measure something or test a hypothesis , use quantitative methods . If you want to explore ideas, thoughts, and meanings, use qualitative methods .
• If you want to analyse a large amount of readily available data, use secondary data. If you want data specific to your purposes with control over how they are generated, collect primary data.
• If you want to establish cause-and-effect relationships between variables , use experimental methods. If you want to understand the characteristics of a research subject, use descriptive methods.

Methodology refers to the overarching strategy and rationale of your research project . It involves studying the methods used in your field and the theories or principles behind them, in order to develop an approach that matches your objectives.

Methods are the specific tools and procedures you use to collect and analyse data (e.g. experiments, surveys , and statistical tests ).

In shorter scientific papers, where the aim is to report the findings of a specific study, you might simply describe what you did in a methods section .

In a longer or more complex research project, such as a thesis or dissertation , you will probably include a methodology section , where you explain your approach to answering the research questions and cite relevant sources to support your choice of methods.

In mixed methods research , you use both qualitative and quantitative data collection and analysis methods to answer your research question .

Data collection is the systematic process by which observations or measurements are gathered in research. It is used in many different contexts by academics, governments, businesses, and other organisations.

There are various approaches to qualitative data analysis , but they all share five steps in common:

• Prepare and organise your data.
• Review and explore your data.
• Develop a data coding system.
• Assign codes to the data.
• Identify recurring themes.

The specifics of each step depend on the focus of the analysis. Some common approaches include textual analysis , thematic analysis , and discourse analysis .

There are five common approaches to qualitative research :

• Grounded theory involves collecting data in order to develop new theories.
• Ethnography involves immersing yourself in a group or organisation to understand its culture.
• Narrative research involves interpreting stories to understand how people make sense of their experiences and perceptions.
• Phenomenological research involves investigating phenomena through people’s lived experiences.
• Action research links theory and practice in several cycles to drive innovative changes.

Hypothesis testing is a formal procedure for investigating our ideas about the world using statistics. It is used by scientists to test specific predictions, called hypotheses , by calculating how likely it is that a pattern or relationship between variables could have arisen by chance.

Operationalisation means turning abstract conceptual ideas into measurable observations.

For example, the concept of social anxiety isn’t directly observable, but it can be operationally defined in terms of self-rating scores, behavioural avoidance of crowded places, or physical anxiety symptoms in social situations.

Before collecting data , it’s important to consider how you will operationalise the variables that you want to measure.

Triangulation in research means using multiple datasets, methods, theories and/or investigators to address a research question. It’s a research strategy that can help you enhance the validity and credibility of your findings.

Triangulation is mainly used in qualitative research , but it’s also commonly applied in quantitative research . Mixed methods research always uses triangulation.

These are four of the most common mixed methods designs :

• Convergent parallel: Quantitative and qualitative data are collected at the same time and analysed separately. After both analyses are complete, compare your results to draw overall conclusions. 
• Embedded: Quantitative and qualitative data are collected at the same time, but within a larger quantitative or qualitative design. One type of data is secondary to the other.
• Explanatory sequential: Quantitative data is collected and analysed first, followed by qualitative data. You can use this design if you think your qualitative data will explain and contextualise your quantitative findings.
• Exploratory sequential: Qualitative data is collected and analysed first, followed by quantitative data. You can use this design if you think the quantitative data will confirm or validate your qualitative findings.

An observational study could be a good fit for your research if your research question is based on things you observe. If you have ethical, logistical, or practical concerns that make an experimental design challenging, consider an observational study. Remember that in an observational study, it is critical that there be no interference or manipulation of the research subjects. Since it’s not an experiment, there are no control or treatment groups either.

The key difference between observational studies and experiments is that, done correctly, an observational study will never influence the responses or behaviours of participants. Experimental designs will have a treatment condition applied to at least a portion of participants.

Exploratory research explores the main aspects of a new or barely researched question.

Explanatory research explains the causes and effects of an already widely researched question.

Experimental designs are a set of procedures that you plan in order to examine the relationship between variables that interest you.

To design a successful experiment, first identify:

• A testable hypothesis
• One or more independent variables that you will manipulate
• One or more dependent variables that you will measure

When designing the experiment, first decide:

• How your variable(s) will be manipulated
• How you will control for any potential confounding or lurking variables
• How many subjects you will include
• How you will assign treatments to your subjects

There are four main types of triangulation :

• Data triangulation : Using data from different times, spaces, and people
• Investigator triangulation : Involving multiple researchers in collecting or analysing data
• Theory triangulation : Using varying theoretical perspectives in your research
• Methodological triangulation : Using different methodologies to approach the same topic

Triangulation can help:

• Reduce bias that comes from using a single method, theory, or investigator
• Enhance validity by approaching the same topic with different tools
• Establish credibility by giving you a complete picture of the research problem

But triangulation can also pose problems:

• It’s time-consuming and labour-intensive, often involving an interdisciplinary team.
• Your results may be inconsistent or even contradictory.

A confounding variable , also called a confounder or confounding factor, is a third variable in a study examining a potential cause-and-effect relationship.

A confounding variable is related to both the supposed cause and the supposed effect of the study. It can be difficult to separate the true effect of the independent variable from the effect of the confounding variable.

In your research design , it’s important to identify potential confounding variables and plan how you will reduce their impact.

In a between-subjects design , every participant experiences only one condition, and researchers assess group differences between participants in various conditions.

In a within-subjects design , each participant experiences all conditions, and researchers test the same participants repeatedly for differences between conditions.

The word ‘between’ means that you’re comparing different conditions between groups, while the word ‘within’ means you’re comparing different conditions within the same group.

A quasi-experiment is a type of research design that attempts to establish a cause-and-effect relationship. The main difference between this and a true experiment is that the groups are not randomly assigned.

In experimental research, random assignment is a way of placing participants from your sample into different groups using randomisation. With this method, every member of the sample has a known or equal chance of being placed in a control group or an experimental group.

Quasi-experimental design is most useful in situations where it would be unethical or impractical to run a true experiment .

Quasi-experiments have lower internal validity than true experiments, but they often have higher external validity  as they can use real-world interventions instead of artificial laboratory settings.

Within-subjects designs have many potential threats to internal validity , but they are also very statistically powerful .

Advantages:

• Only requires small samples
• Statistically powerful
• Removes the effects of individual differences on the outcomes

Disadvantages:

• Internal validity threats reduce the likelihood of establishing a direct relationship between variables
• Time-related effects, such as growth, can influence the outcomes
• Carryover effects mean that the specific order of different treatments affect the outcomes

Yes. Between-subjects and within-subjects designs can be combined in a single study when you have two or more independent variables (a factorial design). In a mixed factorial design, one variable is altered between subjects and another is altered within subjects.

In a factorial design, multiple independent variables are tested.

If you test two variables, each level of one independent variable is combined with each level of the other independent variable to create different conditions.

While a between-subjects design has fewer threats to internal validity , it also requires more participants for high statistical power than a within-subjects design .

• Prevents carryover effects of learning and fatigue.
• Shorter study duration.
• Needs larger samples for high power.
• Uses more resources to recruit participants, administer sessions, cover costs, etc.
• Individual differences may be an alternative explanation for results.

Samples are used to make inferences about populations . Samples are easier to collect data from because they are practical, cost-effective, convenient, and manageable.

Probability sampling means that every member of the target population has a known chance of being included in the sample.

Probability sampling methods include simple random sampling , systematic sampling , stratified sampling , and cluster sampling .

In non-probability sampling , the sample is selected based on non-random criteria, and not every member of the population has a chance of being included.

Common non-probability sampling methods include convenience sampling , voluntary response sampling, purposive sampling , snowball sampling , and quota sampling .

In multistage sampling , or multistage cluster sampling, you draw a sample from a population using smaller and smaller groups at each stage.

This method is often used to collect data from a large, geographically spread group of people in national surveys, for example. You take advantage of hierarchical groupings (e.g., from county to city to neighbourhood) to create a sample that’s less expensive and time-consuming to collect data from.

Sampling bias occurs when some members of a population are systematically more likely to be selected in a sample than others.

Simple random sampling is a type of probability sampling in which the researcher randomly selects a subset of participants from a population . Each member of the population has an equal chance of being selected. Data are then collected from as large a percentage as possible of this random subset.

The American Community Survey  is an example of simple random sampling . In order to collect detailed data on the population of the US, the Census Bureau officials randomly select 3.5 million households per year and use a variety of methods to convince them to fill out the survey.

If properly implemented, simple random sampling is usually the best sampling method for ensuring both internal and external validity . However, it can sometimes be impractical and expensive to implement, depending on the size of the population to be studied,

If you have a list of every member of the population and the ability to reach whichever members are selected, you can use simple random sampling.

Cluster sampling is more time- and cost-efficient than other probability sampling methods , particularly when it comes to large samples spread across a wide geographical area.

However, it provides less statistical certainty than other methods, such as simple random sampling , because it is difficult to ensure that your clusters properly represent the population as a whole.

There are three types of cluster sampling : single-stage, double-stage and multi-stage clustering. In all three types, you first divide the population into clusters, then randomly select clusters for use in your sample.

• In single-stage sampling , you collect data from every unit within the selected clusters.
• In double-stage sampling , you select a random sample of units from within the clusters.
• In multi-stage sampling , you repeat the procedure of randomly sampling elements from within the clusters until you have reached a manageable sample.

Cluster sampling is a probability sampling method in which you divide a population into clusters, such as districts or schools, and then randomly select some of these clusters as your sample.

The clusters should ideally each be mini-representations of the population as a whole.

In multistage sampling , you can use probability or non-probability sampling methods.

For a probability sample, you have to probability sampling at every stage. You can mix it up by using simple random sampling , systematic sampling , or stratified sampling to select units at different stages, depending on what is applicable and relevant to your study.

Multistage sampling can simplify data collection when you have large, geographically spread samples, and you can obtain a probability sample without a complete sampling frame.

But multistage sampling may not lead to a representative sample, and larger samples are needed for multistage samples to achieve the statistical properties of simple random samples .

In stratified sampling , researchers divide subjects into subgroups called strata based on characteristics that they share (e.g., race, gender, educational attainment).

Once divided, each subgroup is randomly sampled using another probability sampling method .

You should use stratified sampling when your sample can be divided into mutually exclusive and exhaustive subgroups that you believe will take on different mean values for the variable that you’re studying.

Using stratified sampling will allow you to obtain more precise (with lower variance ) statistical estimates of whatever you are trying to measure.

For example, say you want to investigate how income differs based on educational attainment, but you know that this relationship can vary based on race. Using stratified sampling, you can ensure you obtain a large enough sample from each racial group, allowing you to draw more precise conclusions.

Yes, you can create a stratified sample using multiple characteristics, but you must ensure that every participant in your study belongs to one and only one subgroup. In this case, you multiply the numbers of subgroups for each characteristic to get the total number of groups.

For example, if you were stratifying by location with three subgroups (urban, rural, or suburban) and marital status with five subgroups (single, divorced, widowed, married, or partnered), you would have 3 × 5 = 15 subgroups.

There are three key steps in systematic sampling :

• Define and list your population , ensuring that it is not ordered in a cyclical or periodic order.
• Decide on your sample size and calculate your interval, k , by dividing your population by your target sample size.
• Choose every k th member of the population as your sample.

Systematic sampling is a probability sampling method where researchers select members of the population at a regular interval – for example, by selecting every 15th person on a list of the population. If the population is in a random order, this can imitate the benefits of simple random sampling .

Populations are used when a research question requires data from every member of the population. This is usually only feasible when the population is small and easily accessible.

A statistic refers to measures about the sample , while a parameter refers to measures about the population .

A sampling error is the difference between a population parameter and a sample statistic .

There are eight threats to internal validity : history, maturation, instrumentation, testing, selection bias , regression to the mean, social interaction, and attrition .

Internal validity is the extent to which you can be confident that a cause-and-effect relationship established in a study cannot be explained by other factors.

Attrition bias is a threat to internal validity . In experiments, differential rates of attrition between treatment and control groups can skew results.

This bias can affect the relationship between your independent and dependent variables . It can make variables appear to be correlated when they are not, or vice versa.

The external validity of a study is the extent to which you can generalise your findings to different groups of people, situations, and measures.

The two types of external validity are population validity (whether you can generalise to other groups of people) and ecological validity (whether you can generalise to other situations and settings).

There are seven threats to external validity : selection bias , history, experimenter effect, Hawthorne effect , testing effect, aptitude-treatment, and situation effect.

Attrition bias can skew your sample so that your final sample differs significantly from your original sample. Your sample is biased because some groups from your population are underrepresented.

With a biased final sample, you may not be able to generalise your findings to the original population that you sampled from, so your external validity is compromised.

Construct validity is about how well a test measures the concept it was designed to evaluate. It’s one of four types of measurement validity , which includes construct validity, face validity , and criterion validity.

There are two subtypes of construct validity.

• Convergent validity : The extent to which your measure corresponds to measures of related constructs
• Discriminant validity: The extent to which your measure is unrelated or negatively related to measures of distinct constructs

When designing or evaluating a measure, construct validity helps you ensure you’re actually measuring the construct you’re interested in. If you don’t have construct validity, you may inadvertently measure unrelated or distinct constructs and lose precision in your research.

Construct validity is often considered the overarching type of measurement validity ,  because it covers all of the other types. You need to have face validity , content validity, and criterion validity to achieve construct validity.

Statistical analyses are often applied to test validity with data from your measures. You test convergent validity and discriminant validity with correlations to see if results from your test are positively or negatively related to those of other established tests.

You can also use regression analyses to assess whether your measure is actually predictive of outcomes that you expect it to predict theoretically. A regression analysis that supports your expectations strengthens your claim of construct validity .

Face validity is about whether a test appears to measure what it’s supposed to measure. This type of validity is concerned with whether a measure seems relevant and appropriate for what it’s assessing only on the surface.

Face validity is important because it’s a simple first step to measuring the overall validity of a test or technique. It’s a relatively intuitive, quick, and easy way to start checking whether a new measure seems useful at first glance.

Good face validity means that anyone who reviews your measure says that it seems to be measuring what it’s supposed to. With poor face validity, someone reviewing your measure may be left confused about what you’re measuring and why you’re using this method.

It’s often best to ask a variety of people to review your measurements. You can ask experts, such as other researchers, or laypeople, such as potential participants, to judge the face validity of tests.

While experts have a deep understanding of research methods , the people you’re studying can provide you with valuable insights you may have missed otherwise.

There are many different types of inductive reasoning that people use formally or informally.

Here are a few common types:

• Inductive generalisation : You use observations about a sample to come to a conclusion about the population it came from.
• Statistical generalisation: You use specific numbers about samples to make statements about populations.
• Causal reasoning: You make cause-and-effect links between different things.
• Sign reasoning: You make a conclusion about a correlational relationship between different things.
• Analogical reasoning: You make a conclusion about something based on its similarities to something else.

Inductive reasoning is a bottom-up approach, while deductive reasoning is top-down.

Inductive reasoning takes you from the specific to the general, while in deductive reasoning, you make inferences by going from general premises to specific conclusions.

In inductive research , you start by making observations or gathering data. Then, you take a broad scan of your data and search for patterns. Finally, you make general conclusions that you might incorporate into theories.

Inductive reasoning is a method of drawing conclusions by going from the specific to the general. It’s usually contrasted with deductive reasoning, where you proceed from general information to specific conclusions.

Inductive reasoning is also called inductive logic or bottom-up reasoning.

Deductive reasoning is a logical approach where you progress from general ideas to specific conclusions. It’s often contrasted with inductive reasoning , where you start with specific observations and form general conclusions.

Deductive reasoning is also called deductive logic.

Deductive reasoning is commonly used in scientific research, and it’s especially associated with quantitative research .

In research, you might have come across something called the hypothetico-deductive method . It’s the scientific method of testing hypotheses to check whether your predictions are substantiated by real-world data.

A dependent variable is what changes as a result of the independent variable manipulation in experiments . It’s what you’re interested in measuring, and it ‘depends’ on your independent variable.

In statistics, dependent variables are also called:

• Response variables (they respond to a change in another variable)
• Outcome variables (they represent the outcome you want to measure)
• Left-hand-side variables (they appear on the left-hand side of a regression equation)

An independent variable is the variable you manipulate, control, or vary in an experimental study to explore its effects. It’s called ‘independent’ because it’s not influenced by any other variables in the study.

Independent variables are also called:

• Explanatory variables (they explain an event or outcome)
• Predictor variables (they can be used to predict the value of a dependent variable)
• Right-hand-side variables (they appear on the right-hand side of a regression equation)

A correlation is usually tested for two variables at a time, but you can test correlations between three or more variables.

On graphs, the explanatory variable is conventionally placed on the x -axis, while the response variable is placed on the y -axis.

• If you have quantitative variables , use a scatterplot or a line graph.
• If your response variable is categorical, use a scatterplot or a line graph.
• If your explanatory variable is categorical, use a bar graph.

The term ‘ explanatory variable ‘ is sometimes preferred over ‘ independent variable ‘ because, in real-world contexts, independent variables are often influenced by other variables. This means they aren’t totally independent.

Multiple independent variables may also be correlated with each other, so ‘explanatory variables’ is a more appropriate term.

The difference between explanatory and response variables is simple:

• An explanatory variable is the expected cause, and it explains the results.
• A response variable is the expected effect, and it responds to other variables.

There are 4 main types of extraneous variables :

• Demand characteristics : Environmental cues that encourage participants to conform to researchers’ expectations
• Experimenter effects : Unintentional actions by researchers that influence study outcomes
• Situational variables : Eenvironmental variables that alter participants’ behaviours
• Participant variables : Any characteristic or aspect of a participant’s background that could affect study results

An extraneous variable is any variable that you’re not investigating that can potentially affect the dependent variable of your research study.

A confounding variable is a type of extraneous variable that not only affects the dependent variable, but is also related to the independent variable.

‘Controlling for a variable’ means measuring extraneous variables and accounting for them statistically to remove their effects on other variables.

Researchers often model control variable data along with independent and dependent variable data in regression analyses and ANCOVAs . That way, you can isolate the control variable’s effects from the relationship between the variables of interest.

Control variables help you establish a correlational or causal relationship between variables by enhancing internal validity .

If you don’t control relevant extraneous variables , they may influence the outcomes of your study, and you may not be able to demonstrate that your results are really an effect of your independent variable .

A control variable is any variable that’s held constant in a research study. It’s not a variable of interest in the study, but it’s controlled because it could influence the outcomes.

In statistics, ordinal and nominal variables are both considered categorical variables .

Even though ordinal data can sometimes be numerical, not all mathematical operations can be performed on them.

In scientific research, concepts are the abstract ideas or phenomena that are being studied (e.g., educational achievement). Variables are properties or characteristics of the concept (e.g., performance at school), while indicators are ways of measuring or quantifying variables (e.g., yearly grade reports).

The process of turning abstract concepts into measurable variables and indicators is called operationalisation .

There are several methods you can use to decrease the impact of confounding variables on your research: restriction, matching, statistical control, and randomisation.

In restriction , you restrict your sample by only including certain subjects that have the same values of potential confounding variables.

In matching , you match each of the subjects in your treatment group with a counterpart in the comparison group. The matched subjects have the same values on any potential confounding variables, and only differ in the independent variable .

In statistical control , you include potential confounders as variables in your regression .

In randomisation , you randomly assign the treatment (or independent variable) in your study to a sufficiently large number of subjects, which allows you to control for all potential confounding variables.

A confounding variable is closely related to both the independent and dependent variables in a study. An independent variable represents the supposed cause , while the dependent variable is the supposed effect . A confounding variable is a third variable that influences both the independent and dependent variables.

Failing to account for confounding variables can cause you to wrongly estimate the relationship between your independent and dependent variables.

To ensure the internal validity of your research, you must consider the impact of confounding variables. If you fail to account for them, you might over- or underestimate the causal relationship between your independent and dependent variables , or even find a causal relationship where none exists.

Yes, but including more than one of either type requires multiple research questions .

For example, if you are interested in the effect of a diet on health, you can use multiple measures of health: blood sugar, blood pressure, weight, pulse, and many more. Each of these is its own dependent variable with its own research question.

You could also choose to look at the effect of exercise levels as well as diet, or even the additional effect of the two combined. Each of these is a separate independent variable .

To ensure the internal validity of an experiment , you should only change one independent variable at a time.

No. The value of a dependent variable depends on an independent variable, so a variable cannot be both independent and dependent at the same time. It must be either the cause or the effect, not both.

You want to find out how blood sugar levels are affected by drinking diet cola and regular cola, so you conduct an experiment .

• The type of cola – diet or regular – is the independent variable .
• The level of blood sugar that you measure is the dependent variable – it changes depending on the type of cola.

Determining cause and effect is one of the most important parts of scientific research. It’s essential to know which is the cause – the independent variable – and which is the effect – the dependent variable.

Quantitative variables are any variables where the data represent amounts (e.g. height, weight, or age).

Categorical variables are any variables where the data represent groups. This includes rankings (e.g. finishing places in a race), classifications (e.g. brands of cereal), and binary outcomes (e.g. coin flips).

You need to know what type of variables you are working with to choose the right statistical test for your data and interpret your results .

Discrete and continuous variables are two types of quantitative variables :

• Discrete variables represent counts (e.g., the number of objects in a collection).
• Continuous variables represent measurable amounts (e.g., water volume or weight).

You can think of independent and dependent variables in terms of cause and effect: an independent variable is the variable you think is the cause , while a dependent variable is the effect .

In an experiment, you manipulate the independent variable and measure the outcome in the dependent variable. For example, in an experiment about the effect of nutrients on crop growth:

• The  independent variable  is the amount of nutrients added to the crop field.
• The  dependent variable is the biomass of the crops at harvest time.

Defining your variables, and deciding how you will manipulate and measure them, is an important part of experimental design .

Including mediators and moderators in your research helps you go beyond studying a simple relationship between two variables for a fuller picture of the real world. They are important to consider when studying complex correlational or causal relationships.

Mediators are part of the causal pathway of an effect, and they tell you how or why an effect takes place. Moderators usually help you judge the external validity of your study by identifying the limitations of when the relationship between variables holds.

If something is a mediating variable :

• It’s caused by the independent variable
• It influences the dependent variable
• When it’s taken into account, the statistical correlation between the independent and dependent variables is higher than when it isn’t considered

A confounder is a third variable that affects variables of interest and makes them seem related when they are not. In contrast, a mediator is the mechanism of a relationship between two variables: it explains the process by which they are related.

A mediator variable explains the process through which two variables are related, while a moderator variable affects the strength and direction of that relationship.

When conducting research, collecting original data has significant advantages:

• You can tailor data collection to your specific research aims (e.g., understanding the needs of your consumers or user testing your website).
• You can control and standardise the process for high reliability and validity (e.g., choosing appropriate measurements and sampling methods ).

However, there are also some drawbacks: data collection can be time-consuming, labour-intensive, and expensive. In some cases, it’s more efficient to use secondary data that has already been collected by someone else, but the data might be less reliable.

A structured interview is a data collection method that relies on asking questions in a set order to collect data on a topic. They are often quantitative in nature. Structured interviews are best used when:

• You already have a very clear understanding of your topic. Perhaps significant research has already been conducted, or you have done some prior research yourself, but you already possess a baseline for designing strong structured questions.
• You are constrained in terms of time or resources and need to analyse your data quickly and efficiently
• Your research question depends on strong parity between participants, with environmental conditions held constant

More flexible interview options include semi-structured interviews , unstructured interviews , and focus groups .

The interviewer effect is a type of bias that emerges when a characteristic of an interviewer (race, age, gender identity, etc.) influences the responses given by the interviewee.

There is a risk of an interviewer effect in all types of interviews , but it can be mitigated by writing really high-quality interview questions.

A semi-structured interview is a blend of structured and unstructured types of interviews. Semi-structured interviews are best used when:

• You have prior interview experience. Spontaneous questions are deceptively challenging, and it’s easy to accidentally ask a leading question or make a participant uncomfortable.
• Your research question is exploratory in nature. Participant answers can guide future research questions and help you develop a more robust knowledge base for future research.

An unstructured interview is the most flexible type of interview, but it is not always the best fit for your research topic.

Unstructured interviews are best used when:

• You are an experienced interviewer and have a very strong background in your research topic, since it is challenging to ask spontaneous, colloquial questions
• Your research question is exploratory in nature. While you may have developed hypotheses, you are open to discovering new or shifting viewpoints through the interview process.
• You are seeking descriptive data, and are ready to ask questions that will deepen and contextualise your initial thoughts and hypotheses
• Your research depends on forming connections with your participants and making them feel comfortable revealing deeper emotions, lived experiences, or thoughts

The four most common types of interviews are:

• Structured interviews : The questions are predetermined in both topic and order.
• Semi-structured interviews : A few questions are predetermined, but other questions aren’t planned.
• Unstructured interviews : None of the questions are predetermined.
• Focus group interviews : The questions are presented to a group instead of one individual.

A focus group is a research method that brings together a small group of people to answer questions in a moderated setting. The group is chosen due to predefined demographic traits, and the questions are designed to shed light on a topic of interest. It is one of four types of interviews .

Social desirability bias is the tendency for interview participants to give responses that will be viewed favourably by the interviewer or other participants. It occurs in all types of interviews and surveys , but is most common in semi-structured interviews , unstructured interviews , and focus groups .

Social desirability bias can be mitigated by ensuring participants feel at ease and comfortable sharing their views. Make sure to pay attention to your own body language and any physical or verbal cues, such as nodding or widening your eyes.

This type of bias in research can also occur in observations if the participants know they’re being observed. They might alter their behaviour accordingly.

As a rule of thumb, questions related to thoughts, beliefs, and feelings work well in focus groups . Take your time formulating strong questions, paying special attention to phrasing. Be careful to avoid leading questions , which can bias your responses.

Overall, your focus group questions should be:

• Open-ended and flexible
• Impossible to answer with ‘yes’ or ‘no’ (questions that start with ‘why’ or ‘how’ are often best)
• Unambiguous, getting straight to the point while still stimulating discussion
• Unbiased and neutral

The third variable and directionality problems are two main reasons why correlation isn’t causation .

The third variable problem means that a confounding variable affects both variables to make them seem causally related when they are not.

The directionality problem is when two variables correlate and might actually have a causal relationship, but it’s impossible to conclude which variable causes changes in the other.

Controlled experiments establish causality, whereas correlational studies only show associations between variables.

• In an experimental design , you manipulate an independent variable and measure its effect on a dependent variable. Other variables are controlled so they can’t impact the results.
• In a correlational design , you measure variables without manipulating any of them. You can test whether your variables change together, but you can’t be sure that one variable caused a change in another.

In general, correlational research is high in external validity while experimental research is high in internal validity .

A correlation coefficient is a single number that describes the strength and direction of the relationship between your variables.

Different types of correlation coefficients might be appropriate for your data based on their levels of measurement and distributions . The Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient (Pearson’s r ) is commonly used to assess a linear relationship between two quantitative variables.

A correlational research design investigates relationships between two variables (or more) without the researcher controlling or manipulating any of them. It’s a non-experimental type of quantitative research .

A correlation reflects the strength and/or direction of the association between two or more variables.

• A positive correlation means that both variables change in the same direction.
• A negative correlation means that the variables change in opposite directions.
• A zero correlation means there’s no relationship between the variables.

Longitudinal studies can last anywhere from weeks to decades, although they tend to be at least a year long.

The 1970 British Cohort Study , which has collected data on the lives of 17,000 Brits since their births in 1970, is one well-known example of a longitudinal study .

Longitudinal studies are better to establish the correct sequence of events, identify changes over time, and provide insight into cause-and-effect relationships, but they also tend to be more expensive and time-consuming than other types of studies.

Longitudinal studies and cross-sectional studies are two different types of research design . In a cross-sectional study you collect data from a population at a specific point in time; in a longitudinal study you repeatedly collect data from the same sample over an extended period of time.

Cross-sectional studies cannot establish a cause-and-effect relationship or analyse behaviour over a period of time. To investigate cause and effect, you need to do a longitudinal study or an experimental study .

Cross-sectional studies are less expensive and time-consuming than many other types of study. They can provide useful insights into a population’s characteristics and identify correlations for further research.

Sometimes only cross-sectional data are available for analysis; other times your research question may only require a cross-sectional study to answer it.

A hypothesis states your predictions about what your research will find. It is a tentative answer to your research question that has not yet been tested. For some research projects, you might have to write several hypotheses that address different aspects of your research question.

A hypothesis is not just a guess. It should be based on existing theories and knowledge. It also has to be testable, which means you can support or refute it through scientific research methods (such as experiments, observations, and statistical analysis of data).

A research hypothesis is your proposed answer to your research question. The research hypothesis usually includes an explanation (‘ x affects y because …’).

A statistical hypothesis, on the other hand, is a mathematical statement about a population parameter. Statistical hypotheses always come in pairs: the null and alternative hypotheses. In a well-designed study , the statistical hypotheses correspond logically to the research hypothesis.

Individual Likert-type questions are generally considered ordinal data , because the items have clear rank order, but don’t have an even distribution.

Overall Likert scale scores are sometimes treated as interval data. These scores are considered to have directionality and even spacing between them.

The type of data determines what statistical tests you should use to analyse your data.

A Likert scale is a rating scale that quantitatively assesses opinions, attitudes, or behaviours. It is made up of four or more questions that measure a single attitude or trait when response scores are combined.

To use a Likert scale in a survey , you present participants with Likert-type questions or statements, and a continuum of items, usually with five or seven possible responses, to capture their degree of agreement.

A questionnaire is a data collection tool or instrument, while a survey is an overarching research method that involves collecting and analysing data from people using questionnaires.

A true experiment (aka a controlled experiment) always includes at least one control group that doesn’t receive the experimental treatment.

However, some experiments use a within-subjects design to test treatments without a control group. In these designs, you usually compare one group’s outcomes before and after a treatment (instead of comparing outcomes between different groups).

For strong internal validity , it’s usually best to include a control group if possible. Without a control group, it’s harder to be certain that the outcome was caused by the experimental treatment and not by other variables.

An experimental group, also known as a treatment group, receives the treatment whose effect researchers wish to study, whereas a control group does not. They should be identical in all other ways.

In a controlled experiment , all extraneous variables are held constant so that they can’t influence the results. Controlled experiments require:

• A control group that receives a standard treatment, a fake treatment, or no treatment
• Random assignment of participants to ensure the groups are equivalent

Depending on your study topic, there are various other methods of controlling variables .

Questionnaires can be self-administered or researcher-administered.

Self-administered questionnaires can be delivered online or in paper-and-pen formats, in person or by post. All questions are standardised so that all respondents receive the same questions with identical wording.

Researcher-administered questionnaires are interviews that take place by phone, in person, or online between researchers and respondents. You can gain deeper insights by clarifying questions for respondents or asking follow-up questions.

You can organise the questions logically, with a clear progression from simple to complex, or randomly between respondents. A logical flow helps respondents process the questionnaire easier and quicker, but it may lead to bias. Randomisation can minimise the bias from order effects.

Closed-ended, or restricted-choice, questions offer respondents a fixed set of choices to select from. These questions are easier to answer quickly.

Open-ended or long-form questions allow respondents to answer in their own words. Because there are no restrictions on their choices, respondents can answer in ways that researchers may not have otherwise considered.

Naturalistic observation is a qualitative research method where you record the behaviours of your research subjects in real-world settings. You avoid interfering or influencing anything in a naturalistic observation.

You can think of naturalistic observation as ‘people watching’ with a purpose.

Naturalistic observation is a valuable tool because of its flexibility, external validity , and suitability for topics that can’t be studied in a lab setting.

The downsides of naturalistic observation include its lack of scientific control , ethical considerations , and potential for bias from observers and subjects.

You can use several tactics to minimise observer bias .

• Use masking (blinding) to hide the purpose of your study from all observers.
• Triangulate your data with different data collection methods or sources.
• Use multiple observers and ensure inter-rater reliability.
• Train your observers to make sure data is consistently recorded between them.
• Standardise your observation procedures to make sure they are structured and clear.

The observer-expectancy effect occurs when researchers influence the results of their own study through interactions with participants.

Researchers’ own beliefs and expectations about the study results may unintentionally influence participants through demand characteristics .

Observer bias occurs when a researcher’s expectations, opinions, or prejudices influence what they perceive or record in a study. It usually affects studies when observers are aware of the research aims or hypotheses. This type of research bias is also called detection bias or ascertainment bias .

Data cleaning is necessary for valid and appropriate analyses. Dirty data contain inconsistencies or errors , but cleaning your data helps you minimise or resolve these.

Without data cleaning, you could end up with a Type I or II error in your conclusion. These types of erroneous conclusions can be practically significant with important consequences, because they lead to misplaced investments or missed opportunities.

Data cleaning involves spotting and resolving potential data inconsistencies or errors to improve your data quality. An error is any value (e.g., recorded weight) that doesn’t reflect the true value (e.g., actual weight) of something that’s being measured.

In this process, you review, analyse, detect, modify, or remove ‘dirty’ data to make your dataset ‘clean’. Data cleaning is also called data cleansing or data scrubbing.

Data cleaning takes place between data collection and data analyses. But you can use some methods even before collecting data.

For clean data, you should start by designing measures that collect valid data. Data validation at the time of data entry or collection helps you minimize the amount of data cleaning you’ll need to do.

After data collection, you can use data standardisation and data transformation to clean your data. You’ll also deal with any missing values, outliers, and duplicate values.

Clean data are valid, accurate, complete, consistent, unique, and uniform. Dirty data include inconsistencies and errors.

Dirty data can come from any part of the research process, including poor research design , inappropriate measurement materials, or flawed data entry.

Random assignment is used in experiments with a between-groups or independent measures design. In this research design, there’s usually a control group and one or more experimental groups. Random assignment helps ensure that the groups are comparable.

In general, you should always use random assignment in this type of experimental design when it is ethically possible and makes sense for your study topic.

Random selection, or random sampling , is a way of selecting members of a population for your study’s sample.

In contrast, random assignment is a way of sorting the sample into control and experimental groups.

Random sampling enhances the external validity or generalisability of your results, while random assignment improves the internal validity of your study.

To implement random assignment , assign a unique number to every member of your study’s sample .

Then, you can use a random number generator or a lottery method to randomly assign each number to a control or experimental group. You can also do so manually, by flipping a coin or rolling a die to randomly assign participants to groups.

Exploratory research is often used when the issue you’re studying is new or when the data collection process is challenging for some reason.

You can use exploratory research if you have a general idea or a specific question that you want to study but there is no preexisting knowledge or paradigm with which to study it.

Exploratory research is a methodology approach that explores research questions that have not previously been studied in depth. It is often used when the issue you’re studying is new, or the data collection process is challenging in some way.

Explanatory research is used to investigate how or why a phenomenon occurs. Therefore, this type of research is often one of the first stages in the research process , serving as a jumping-off point for future research.

Explanatory research is a research method used to investigate how or why something occurs when only a small amount of information is available pertaining to that topic. It can help you increase your understanding of a given topic.

Blinding means hiding who is assigned to the treatment group and who is assigned to the control group in an experiment .

Blinding is important to reduce bias (e.g., observer bias , demand characteristics ) and ensure a study’s internal validity .

If participants know whether they are in a control or treatment group , they may adjust their behaviour in ways that affect the outcome that researchers are trying to measure. If the people administering the treatment are aware of group assignment, they may treat participants differently and thus directly or indirectly influence the final results.

• In a single-blind study , only the participants are blinded.
• In a double-blind study , both participants and experimenters are blinded.
• In a triple-blind study , the assignment is hidden not only from participants and experimenters, but also from the researchers analysing the data.

Many academic fields use peer review , largely to determine whether a manuscript is suitable for publication. Peer review enhances the credibility of the published manuscript.

However, peer review is also common in non-academic settings. The United Nations, the European Union, and many individual nations use peer review to evaluate grant applications. It is also widely used in medical and health-related fields as a teaching or quality-of-care measure.

Peer assessment is often used in the classroom as a pedagogical tool. Both receiving feedback and providing it are thought to enhance the learning process, helping students think critically and collaboratively.

Peer review can stop obviously problematic, falsified, or otherwise untrustworthy research from being published. It also represents an excellent opportunity to get feedback from renowned experts in your field.

It acts as a first defence, helping you ensure your argument is clear and that there are no gaps, vague terms, or unanswered questions for readers who weren’t involved in the research process.

Peer-reviewed articles are considered a highly credible source due to this stringent process they go through before publication.

In general, the peer review process follows the following steps:

• First, the author submits the manuscript to the editor.
• Reject the manuscript and send it back to author, or
• Send it onward to the selected peer reviewer(s)
• Next, the peer review process occurs. The reviewer provides feedback, addressing any major or minor issues with the manuscript, and gives their advice regarding what edits should be made.
• Lastly, the edited manuscript is sent back to the author. They input the edits, and resubmit it to the editor for publication.

Peer review is a process of evaluating submissions to an academic journal. Utilising rigorous criteria, a panel of reviewers in the same subject area decide whether to accept each submission for publication.

For this reason, academic journals are often considered among the most credible sources you can use in a research project – provided that the journal itself is trustworthy and well regarded.

Anonymity means you don’t know who the participants are, while confidentiality means you know who they are but remove identifying information from your research report. Both are important ethical considerations .

You can only guarantee anonymity by not collecting any personally identifying information – for example, names, phone numbers, email addresses, IP addresses, physical characteristics, photos, or videos.

You can keep data confidential by using aggregate information in your research report, so that you only refer to groups of participants rather than individuals.

Research misconduct means making up or falsifying data, manipulating data analyses, or misrepresenting results in research reports. It’s a form of academic fraud.

These actions are committed intentionally and can have serious consequences; research misconduct is not a simple mistake or a point of disagreement but a serious ethical failure.

Research ethics matter for scientific integrity, human rights and dignity, and collaboration between science and society. These principles make sure that participation in studies is voluntary, informed, and safe.

Ethical considerations in research are a set of principles that guide your research designs and practices. These principles include voluntary participation, informed consent, anonymity, confidentiality, potential for harm, and results communication.

Scientists and researchers must always adhere to a certain code of conduct when collecting data from others .

These considerations protect the rights of research participants, enhance research validity , and maintain scientific integrity.

A systematic review is secondary research because it uses existing research. You don’t collect new data yourself.

The two main types of social desirability bias are:

• Self-deceptive enhancement (self-deception): The tendency to see oneself in a favorable light without realizing it.
• Impression managemen t (other-deception): The tendency to inflate one’s abilities or achievement in order to make a good impression on other people.

Demand characteristics are aspects of experiments that may give away the research objective to participants. Social desirability bias occurs when participants automatically try to respond in ways that make them seem likeable in a study, even if it means misrepresenting how they truly feel.

Participants may use demand characteristics to infer social norms or experimenter expectancies and act in socially desirable ways, so you should try to control for demand characteristics wherever possible.

Response bias refers to conditions or factors that take place during the process of responding to surveys, affecting the responses. One type of response bias is social desirability bias .

When your population is large in size, geographically dispersed, or difficult to contact, it’s necessary to use a sampling method .

This allows you to gather information from a smaller part of the population, i.e. the sample, and make accurate statements by using statistical analysis. A few sampling methods include simple random sampling , convenience sampling , and snowball sampling .

Stratified and cluster sampling may look similar, but bear in mind that groups created in cluster sampling are heterogeneous , so the individual characteristics in the cluster vary. In contrast, groups created in stratified sampling are homogeneous , as units share characteristics.

Relatedly, in cluster sampling you randomly select entire groups and include all units of each group in your sample. However, in stratified sampling, you select some units of all groups and include them in your sample. In this way, both methods can ensure that your sample is representative of the target population .

A sampling frame is a list of every member in the entire population . It is important that the sampling frame is as complete as possible, so that your sample accurately reflects your population.

Convenience sampling and quota sampling are both non-probability sampling methods. They both use non-random criteria like availability, geographical proximity, or expert knowledge to recruit study participants.

However, in convenience sampling, you continue to sample units or cases until you reach the required sample size.

In quota sampling, you first need to divide your population of interest into subgroups (strata) and estimate their proportions (quota) in the population. Then you can start your data collection , using convenience sampling to recruit participants, until the proportions in each subgroup coincide with the estimated proportions in the population.

Random sampling or probability sampling is based on random selection. This means that each unit has an equal chance (i.e., equal probability) of being included in the sample.

On the other hand, convenience sampling involves stopping people at random, which means that not everyone has an equal chance of being selected depending on the place, time, or day you are collecting your data.

Stratified sampling and quota sampling both involve dividing the population into subgroups and selecting units from each subgroup. The purpose in both cases is to select a representative sample and/or to allow comparisons between subgroups.

The main difference is that in stratified sampling, you draw a random sample from each subgroup ( probability sampling ). In quota sampling you select a predetermined number or proportion of units, in a non-random manner ( non-probability sampling ).

Snowball sampling is best used in the following cases:

• If there is no sampling frame available (e.g., people with a rare disease)
• If the population of interest is hard to access or locate (e.g., people experiencing homelessness)
• If the research focuses on a sensitive topic (e.g., extra-marital affairs)

Snowball sampling relies on the use of referrals. Here, the researcher recruits one or more initial participants, who then recruit the next ones. 

Participants share similar characteristics and/or know each other. Because of this, not every member of the population has an equal chance of being included in the sample, giving rise to sampling bias .

Snowball sampling is a non-probability sampling method , where there is not an equal chance for every member of the population to be included in the sample .

This means that you cannot use inferential statistics and make generalisations – often the goal of quantitative research . As such, a snowball sample is not representative of the target population, and is usually a better fit for qualitative research .

Snowball sampling is a non-probability sampling method . Unlike probability sampling (which involves some form of random selection ), the initial individuals selected to be studied are the ones who recruit new participants.

Because not every member of the target population has an equal chance of being recruited into the sample, selection in snowball sampling is non-random.

Reproducibility and replicability are related terms.

• Reproducing research entails reanalysing the existing data in the same manner.
• Replicating (or repeating ) the research entails reconducting the entire analysis, including the collection of new data . 
• A successful reproduction shows that the data analyses were conducted in a fair and honest manner.
• A successful replication shows that the reliability of the results is high.

The reproducibility and replicability of a study can be ensured by writing a transparent, detailed method section and using clear, unambiguous language.

Convergent validity and discriminant validity are both subtypes of construct validity . Together, they help you evaluate whether a test measures the concept it was designed to measure.

• Convergent validity indicates whether a test that is designed to measure a particular construct correlates with other tests that assess the same or similar construct.
• Discriminant validity indicates whether two tests that should not be highly related to each other are indeed not related

You need to assess both in order to demonstrate construct validity. Neither one alone is sufficient for establishing construct validity.

Construct validity has convergent and discriminant subtypes. They assist determine if a test measures the intended notion.

Content validity shows you how accurately a test or other measurement method taps  into the various aspects of the specific construct you are researching.

In other words, it helps you answer the question: “does the test measure all aspects of the construct I want to measure?” If it does, then the test has high content validity.

The higher the content validity, the more accurate the measurement of the construct.

If the test fails to include parts of the construct, or irrelevant parts are included, the validity of the instrument is threatened, which brings your results into question.

Construct validity refers to how well a test measures the concept (or construct) it was designed to measure. Assessing construct validity is especially important when you’re researching concepts that can’t be quantified and/or are intangible, like introversion. To ensure construct validity your test should be based on known indicators of introversion ( operationalisation ).

On the other hand, content validity assesses how well the test represents all aspects of the construct. If some aspects are missing or irrelevant parts are included, the test has low content validity.

Face validity and content validity are similar in that they both evaluate how suitable the content of a test is. The difference is that face validity is subjective, and assesses content at surface level.

When a test has strong face validity, anyone would agree that the test’s questions appear to measure what they are intended to measure.

For example, looking at a 4th grade math test consisting of problems in which students have to add and multiply, most people would agree that it has strong face validity (i.e., it looks like a math test).

On the other hand, content validity evaluates how well a test represents all the aspects of a topic. Assessing content validity is more systematic and relies on expert evaluation. of each question, analysing whether each one covers the aspects that the test was designed to cover.

A 4th grade math test would have high content validity if it covered all the skills taught in that grade. Experts(in this case, math teachers), would have to evaluate the content validity by comparing the test to the learning objectives.

• Discriminant validity indicates whether two tests that should not be highly related to each other are indeed not related. This type of validity is also called divergent validity .

Criterion validity and construct validity are both types of measurement validity . In other words, they both show you how accurately a method measures something.

While construct validity is the degree to which a test or other measurement method measures what it claims to measure, criterion validity is the degree to which a test can predictively (in the future) or concurrently (in the present) measure something.

Construct validity is often considered the overarching type of measurement validity . You need to have face validity , content validity , and criterion validity in order to achieve construct validity.

Attrition refers to participants leaving a study. It always happens to some extent – for example, in randomised control trials for medical research.

Differential attrition occurs when attrition or dropout rates differ systematically between the intervention and the control group . As a result, the characteristics of the participants who drop out differ from the characteristics of those who stay in the study. Because of this, study results may be biased .

Criterion validity evaluates how well a test measures the outcome it was designed to measure. An outcome can be, for example, the onset of a disease.

Criterion validity consists of two subtypes depending on the time at which the two measures (the criterion and your test) are obtained:

• Concurrent validity is a validation strategy where the the scores of a test and the criterion are obtained at the same time
• Predictive validity is a validation strategy where the criterion variables are measured after the scores of the test

Validity tells you how accurately a method measures what it was designed to measure. There are 4 main types of validity :

• Construct validity : Does the test measure the construct it was designed to measure?
• Face validity : Does the test appear to be suitable for its objectives ?
• Content validity : Does the test cover all relevant parts of the construct it aims to measure.
• Criterion validity : Do the results accurately measure the concrete outcome they are designed to measure?

Convergent validity shows how much a measure of one construct aligns with other measures of the same or related constructs .

On the other hand, concurrent validity is about how a measure matches up to some known criterion or gold standard, which can be another measure.

Although both types of validity are established by calculating the association or correlation between a test score and another variable , they represent distinct validation methods.

The purpose of theory-testing mode is to find evidence in order to disprove, refine, or support a theory. As such, generalisability is not the aim of theory-testing mode.

Due to this, the priority of researchers in theory-testing mode is to eliminate alternative causes for relationships between variables . In other words, they prioritise internal validity over external validity , including ecological validity .

Inclusion and exclusion criteria are typically presented and discussed in the methodology section of your thesis or dissertation .

Inclusion and exclusion criteria are predominantly used in non-probability sampling . In purposive sampling and snowball sampling , restrictions apply as to who can be included in the sample .

Scope of research is determined at the beginning of your research process , prior to the data collection stage. Sometimes called “scope of study,” your scope delineates what will and will not be covered in your project. It helps you focus your work and your time, ensuring that you’ll be able to achieve your goals and outcomes.

Defining a scope can be very useful in any research project, from a research proposal to a thesis or dissertation . A scope is needed for all types of research: quantitative , qualitative , and mixed methods .

To define your scope of research, consider the following:

• Budget constraints or any specifics of grant funding
• Your proposed timeline and duration
• Specifics about your population of study, your proposed sample size , and the research methodology you’ll pursue
• Any inclusion and exclusion criteria
• Any anticipated control , extraneous , or confounding variables that could bias your research if not accounted for properly.

To make quantitative observations , you need to use instruments that are capable of measuring the quantity you want to observe. For example, you might use a ruler to measure the length of an object or a thermometer to measure its temperature.

Quantitative observations involve measuring or counting something and expressing the result in numerical form, while qualitative observations involve describing something in non-numerical terms, such as its appearance, texture, or color.

The Scribbr Reference Generator is developed using the open-source Citation Style Language (CSL) project and Frank Bennett’s citeproc-js . It’s the same technology used by dozens of other popular citation tools, including Mendeley and Zotero.

You can find all the citation styles and locales used in the Scribbr Reference Generator in our publicly accessible repository on Github .

To paraphrase effectively, don’t just take the original sentence and swap out some of the words for synonyms. Instead, try:

• Reformulating the sentence (e.g., change active to passive , or start from a different point)
• Combining information from multiple sentences into one
• Leaving out information from the original that isn’t relevant to your point
• Using synonyms where they don’t distort the meaning

The main point is to ensure you don’t just copy the structure of the original text, but instead reformulate the idea in your own words.

Plagiarism means using someone else’s words or ideas and passing them off as your own. Paraphrasing means putting someone else’s ideas into your own words.

So when does paraphrasing count as plagiarism?

• Paraphrasing is plagiarism if you don’t properly credit the original author.
• Paraphrasing is plagiarism if your text is too close to the original wording (even if you cite the source). If you directly copy a sentence or phrase, you should quote it instead.
• Paraphrasing  is not plagiarism if you put the author’s ideas completely into your own words and properly reference the source .

To present information from other sources in academic writing , it’s best to paraphrase in most cases. This shows that you’ve understood the ideas you’re discussing and incorporates them into your text smoothly.

It’s appropriate to quote when:

• Changing the phrasing would distort the meaning of the original text
• You want to discuss the author’s language choices (e.g., in literary analysis )
• You’re presenting a precise definition
• You’re looking in depth at a specific claim

A quote is an exact copy of someone else’s words, usually enclosed in quotation marks and credited to the original author or speaker.

Every time you quote a source , you must include a correctly formatted in-text citation . This looks slightly different depending on the citation style .

For example, a direct quote in APA is cited like this: ‘This is a quote’ (Streefkerk, 2020, p. 5).

Every in-text citation should also correspond to a full reference at the end of your paper.

In scientific subjects, the information itself is more important than how it was expressed, so quoting should generally be kept to a minimum. In the arts and humanities, however, well-chosen quotes are often essential to a good paper.

In social sciences, it varies. If your research is mainly quantitative , you won’t include many quotes, but if it’s more qualitative , you may need to quote from the data you collected .

As a general guideline, quotes should take up no more than 5–10% of your paper. If in doubt, check with your instructor or supervisor how much quoting is appropriate in your field.

If you’re quoting from a text that paraphrases or summarises other sources and cites them in parentheses , APA recommends retaining the citations as part of the quote:

• Smith states that ‘the literature on this topic (Jones, 2015; Sill, 2019; Paulson, 2020) shows no clear consensus’ (Smith, 2019, p. 4).

Footnote or endnote numbers that appear within quoted text should be omitted.

If you want to cite an indirect source (one you’ve only seen quoted in another source), either locate the original source or use the phrase ‘as cited in’ in your citation.

A block quote is a long quote formatted as a separate ‘block’ of text. Instead of using quotation marks , you place the quote on a new line, and indent the entire quote to mark it apart from your own words.

APA uses block quotes for quotes that are 40 words or longer.

A credible source should pass the CRAAP test  and follow these guidelines:

• The information should be up to date and current.
• The author and publication should be a trusted authority on the subject you are researching.
• The sources the author cited should be easy to find, clear, and unbiased.
• For a web source, the URL and layout should signify that it is trustworthy.

Common examples of primary sources include interview transcripts , photographs, novels, paintings, films, historical documents, and official statistics.

Anything you directly analyze or use as first-hand evidence can be a primary source, including qualitative or quantitative data that you collected yourself.

Common examples of secondary sources include academic books, journal articles , reviews, essays , and textbooks.

Anything that summarizes, evaluates or interprets primary sources can be a secondary source. If a source gives you an overview of background information or presents another researcher’s ideas on your topic, it is probably a secondary source.

To determine if a source is primary or secondary, ask yourself:

• Was the source created by someone directly involved in the events you’re studying (primary), or by another researcher (secondary)?
• Does the source provide original information (primary), or does it summarize information from other sources (secondary)?
• Are you directly analyzing the source itself (primary), or only using it for background information (secondary)?

Some types of sources are nearly always primary: works of art and literature, raw statistical data, official documents and records, and personal communications (e.g. letters, interviews ). If you use one of these in your research, it is probably a primary source.

Primary sources are often considered the most credible in terms of providing evidence for your argument, as they give you direct evidence of what you are researching. However, it’s up to you to ensure the information they provide is reliable and accurate.

Always make sure to properly cite your sources to avoid plagiarism .

A fictional movie is usually a primary source. A documentary can be either primary or secondary depending on the context.

If you are directly analysing some aspect of the movie itself – for example, the cinematography, narrative techniques, or social context – the movie is a primary source.

If you use the movie for background information or analysis about your topic – for example, to learn about a historical event or a scientific discovery – the movie is a secondary source.

Whether it’s primary or secondary, always properly cite the movie in the citation style you are using. Learn how to create an MLA movie citation or an APA movie citation .

Articles in newspapers and magazines can be primary or secondary depending on the focus of your research.

In historical studies, old articles are used as primary sources that give direct evidence about the time period. In social and communication studies, articles are used as primary sources to analyse language and social relations (for example, by conducting content analysis or discourse analysis ).

If you are not analysing the article itself, but only using it for background information or facts about your topic, then the article is a secondary source.

In academic writing , there are three main situations where quoting is the best choice:

• To analyse the author’s language (e.g., in a literary analysis essay )
• To give evidence from primary sources
• To accurately present a precise definition or argument

Don’t overuse quotes; your own voice should be dominant. If you just want to provide information from a source, it’s usually better to paraphrase or summarise .

Your list of tables and figures should go directly after your table of contents in your thesis or dissertation.

Lists of figures and tables are often not required, and they aren’t particularly common. They specifically aren’t required for APA Style, though you should be careful to follow their other guidelines for figures and tables .

If you have many figures and tables in your thesis or dissertation, include one may help you stay organised. Your educational institution may require them, so be sure to check their guidelines.

Copyright information can usually be found wherever the table or figure was published. For example, for a diagram in a journal article , look on the journal’s website or the database where you found the article. Images found on sites like Flickr are listed with clear copyright information.

If you find that permission is required to reproduce the material, be sure to contact the author or publisher and ask for it.

A list of figures and tables compiles all of the figures and tables that you used in your thesis or dissertation and displays them with the page number where they can be found.

APA doesn’t require you to include a list of tables or a list of figures . However, it is advisable to do so if your text is long enough to feature a table of contents and it includes a lot of tables and/or figures .

A list of tables and list of figures appear (in that order) after your table of contents, and are presented in a similar way.

A glossary is a collection of words pertaining to a specific topic. In your thesis or dissertation, it’s a list of all terms you used that may not immediately be obvious to your reader. Your glossary only needs to include terms that your reader may not be familiar with, and is intended to enhance their understanding of your work.

Definitional terms often fall into the category of common knowledge , meaning that they don’t necessarily have to be cited. This guidance can apply to your thesis or dissertation glossary as well.

However, if you’d prefer to cite your sources , you can follow guidance for citing dictionary entries in MLA or APA style for your glossary.

A glossary is a collection of words pertaining to a specific topic. In your thesis or dissertation, it’s a list of all terms you used that may not immediately be obvious to your reader. In contrast, an index is a list of the contents of your work organised by page number.

Glossaries are not mandatory, but if you use a lot of technical or field-specific terms, it may improve readability to add one to your thesis or dissertation. Your educational institution may also require them, so be sure to check their specific guidelines.

A glossary is a collection of words pertaining to a specific topic. In your thesis or dissertation, it’s a list of all terms you used that may not immediately be obvious to your reader. In contrast, dictionaries are more general collections of words.

The title page of your thesis or dissertation should include your name, department, institution, degree program, and submission date.

The title page of your thesis or dissertation goes first, before all other content or lists that you may choose to include.

Usually, no title page is needed in an MLA paper . A header is generally included at the top of the first page instead. The exceptions are when:

• Your instructor requires one, or
• Your paper is a group project

In those cases, you should use a title page instead of a header, listing the same information but on a separate page.

When you mention different chapters within your text, it’s considered best to use Roman numerals for most citation styles. However, the most important thing here is to remain consistent whenever using numbers in your dissertation .

A thesis or dissertation outline is one of the most critical first steps in your writing process. It helps you to lay out and organise your ideas and can provide you with a roadmap for deciding what kind of research you’d like to undertake.

Generally, an outline contains information on the different sections included in your thesis or dissertation, such as:

• Your anticipated title
• Your abstract
• Your chapters (sometimes subdivided into further topics like literature review, research methods, avenues for future research, etc.)

While a theoretical framework describes the theoretical underpinnings of your work based on existing research, a conceptual framework allows you to draw your own conclusions, mapping out the variables you may use in your study and the interplay between them.

A literature review and a theoretical framework are not the same thing and cannot be used interchangeably. While a theoretical framework describes the theoretical underpinnings of your work, a literature review critically evaluates existing research relating to your topic. You’ll likely need both in your dissertation .

A theoretical framework can sometimes be integrated into a  literature review chapter , but it can also be included as its own chapter or section in your dissertation . As a rule of thumb, if your research involves dealing with a lot of complex theories, it’s a good idea to include a separate theoretical framework chapter.

An abstract is a concise summary of an academic text (such as a journal article or dissertation ). It serves two main purposes:

• To help potential readers determine the relevance of your paper for their own research.
• To communicate your key findings to those who don’t have time to read the whole paper.

Abstracts are often indexed along with keywords on academic databases, so they make your work more easily findable. Since the abstract is the first thing any reader sees, it’s important that it clearly and accurately summarises the contents of your paper.

The abstract is the very last thing you write. You should only write it after your research is complete, so that you can accurately summarize the entirety of your thesis or paper.

Avoid citing sources in your abstract . There are two reasons for this:

• The abstract should focus on your original research, not on the work of others.
• The abstract should be self-contained and fully understandable without reference to other sources.

There are some circumstances where you might need to mention other sources in an abstract: for example, if your research responds directly to another study or focuses on the work of a single theorist. In general, though, don’t include citations unless absolutely necessary.

The abstract appears on its own page, after the title page and acknowledgements but before the table of contents .

Results are usually written in the past tense , because they are describing the outcome of completed actions.

The results chapter or section simply and objectively reports what you found, without speculating on why you found these results. The discussion interprets the meaning of the results, puts them in context, and explains why they matter.

In qualitative research , results and discussion are sometimes combined. But in quantitative research , it’s considered important to separate the objective results from your interpretation of them.

Formulating a main research question can be a difficult task. Overall, your question should contribute to solving the problem that you have defined in your problem statement .

However, it should also fulfill criteria in three main areas:

• Researchability
• Feasibility and specificity
• Relevance and originality

The best way to remember the difference between a research plan and a research proposal is that they have fundamentally different audiences. A research plan helps you, the researcher, organize your thoughts. On the other hand, a dissertation proposal or research proposal aims to convince others (e.g., a supervisor, a funding body, or a dissertation committee) that your research topic is relevant and worthy of being conducted.

A noun is a word that represents a person, thing, concept, or place (e.g., ‘John’, ‘house’, ‘affinity’, ‘river’). Most sentences contain at least one noun or pronoun .

Nouns are often, but not always, preceded by an article (‘the’, ‘a’, or ‘an’) and/or another determiner such as an adjective.

There are many ways to categorize nouns into various types, and the same noun can fall into multiple categories or even change types depending on context.

Some of the main types of nouns are:

• Common nouns and proper nouns
• Countable and uncountable nouns
• Concrete and abstract nouns
• Collective nouns
• Possessive nouns
• Attributive nouns
• Appositive nouns
• Generic nouns

Pronouns are words like ‘I’, ‘she’, and ‘they’ that are used in a similar way to nouns . They stand in for a noun that has already been mentioned or refer to yourself and other people.

Pronouns can function just like nouns as the head of a noun phrase and as the subject or object of a verb. However, pronouns change their forms (e.g., from ‘I’ to ‘me’) depending on the grammatical context they’re used in, whereas nouns usually don’t.

Common nouns are words for types of things, people, and places, such as ‘dog’, ‘professor’, and ‘city’. They are not capitalised and are typically used in combination with articles and other determiners.

Proper nouns are words for specific things, people, and places, such as ‘Max’, ‘Dr Prakash’, and ‘London’. They are always capitalised and usually aren’t combined with articles and other determiners.

A proper adjective is an adjective that was derived from a proper noun and is therefore capitalised .

Proper adjectives include words for nationalities, languages, and ethnicities (e.g., ‘Japanese’, ‘Inuit’, ‘French’) and words derived from people’s names (e.g., ‘Bayesian’, ‘Orwellian’).

The names of seasons (e.g., ‘spring’) are treated as common nouns in English and therefore not capitalised . People often assume they are proper nouns, but this is an error.

The names of days and months, however, are capitalised since they’re treated as proper nouns in English (e.g., ‘Wednesday’, ‘January’).

No, as a general rule, academic concepts, disciplines, theories, models, etc. are treated as common nouns , not proper nouns , and therefore not capitalised . For example, ‘five-factor model of personality’ or ‘analytic philosophy’.

However, proper nouns that appear within the name of an academic concept (such as the name of the inventor) are capitalised as usual. For example, ‘Darwin’s theory of evolution’ or ‘ Student’s t table ‘.

Collective nouns are most commonly treated as singular (e.g., ‘the herd is grazing’), but usage differs between US and UK English :

• In US English, it’s standard to treat all collective nouns as singular, even when they are plural in appearance (e.g., ‘The Rolling Stones is …’). Using the plural form is usually seen as incorrect.
• In UK English, collective nouns can be treated as singular or plural depending on context. It’s quite common to use the plural form, especially when the noun looks plural (e.g., ‘The Rolling Stones are …’).

The plural of “crisis” is “crises”. It’s a loanword from Latin and retains its original Latin plural noun form (similar to “analyses” and “bases”). It’s wrong to write “crisises”.

For example, you might write “Several crises destabilized the regime.”

Normally, the plural of “fish” is the same as the singular: “fish”. It’s one of a group of irregular plural nouns in English that are identical to the corresponding singular nouns (e.g., “moose”, “sheep”). For example, you might write “The fish scatter as the shark approaches.”

If you’re referring to several species of fish, though, the regular plural “fishes” is often used instead. For example, “The aquarium contains many different fishes , including trout and carp.”

The correct plural of “octopus” is “octopuses”.

People often write “octopi” instead because they assume that the plural noun is formed in the same way as Latin loanwords such as “fungus/fungi”. But “octopus” actually comes from Greek, where its original plural is “octopodes”. In English, it instead has the regular plural form “octopuses”.

For example, you might write “There are four octopuses in the aquarium.”

The plural of “moose” is the same as the singular: “moose”. It’s one of a group of plural nouns in English that are identical to the corresponding singular nouns. So it’s wrong to write “mooses”.

For example, you might write “There are several moose in the forest.”

Bias in research affects the validity and reliability of your findings, leading to false conclusions and a misinterpretation of the truth. This can have serious implications in areas like medical research where, for example, a new form of treatment may be evaluated.

Observer bias occurs when the researcher’s assumptions, views, or preconceptions influence what they see and record in a study, while actor–observer bias refers to situations where respondents attribute internal factors (e.g., bad character) to justify other’s behaviour and external factors (difficult circumstances) to justify the same behaviour in themselves.

Response bias is a general term used to describe a number of different conditions or factors that cue respondents to provide inaccurate or false answers during surveys or interviews . These factors range from the interviewer’s perceived social position or appearance to the the phrasing of questions in surveys.

Nonresponse bias occurs when the people who complete a survey are different from those who did not, in ways that are relevant to the research topic. Nonresponse can happen either because people are not willing or not able to participate.

In research, demand characteristics are cues that might indicate the aim of a study to participants. These cues can lead to participants changing their behaviors or responses based on what they think the research is about.

Demand characteristics are common problems in psychology experiments and other social science studies because they can bias your research findings.

Demand characteristics are a type of extraneous variable that can affect the outcomes of the study. They can invalidate studies by providing an alternative explanation for the results.

These cues may nudge participants to consciously or unconsciously change their responses, and they pose a threat to both internal and external validity . You can’t be sure that your independent variable manipulation worked, or that your findings can be applied to other people or settings.

You can control demand characteristics by taking a few precautions in your research design and materials.

Use these measures:

• Deception: Hide the purpose of the study from participants
• Between-groups design : Give each participant only one independent variable treatment
• Double-blind design : Conceal the assignment of groups from participants and yourself
• Implicit measures: Use indirect or hidden measurements for your variables

Some attrition is normal and to be expected in research. However, the type of attrition is important because systematic research bias can distort your findings. Attrition bias can lead to inaccurate results because it affects internal and/or external validity .

To avoid attrition bias , applying some of these measures can help you reduce participant dropout (attrition) by making it easy and appealing for participants to stay.

• Provide compensation (e.g., cash or gift cards) for attending every session
• Minimise the number of follow-ups as much as possible
• Make all follow-ups brief, flexible, and convenient for participants
• Send participants routine reminders to schedule follow-ups
• Recruit more participants than you need for your sample (oversample)
• Maintain detailed contact information so you can get in touch with participants even if they move

If you have a small amount of attrition bias , you can use a few statistical methods to try to make up for this research bias .

Multiple imputation involves using simulations to replace the missing data with likely values. Alternatively, you can use sample weighting to make up for the uneven balance of participants in your sample.

Placebos are used in medical research for new medication or therapies, called clinical trials. In these trials some people are given a placebo, while others are given the new medication being tested.

The purpose is to determine how effective the new medication is: if it benefits people beyond a predefined threshold as compared to the placebo, it’s considered effective.

Although there is no definite answer to what causes the placebo effect , researchers propose a number of explanations such as the power of suggestion, doctor-patient interaction, classical conditioning, etc.

Belief bias and confirmation bias are both types of cognitive bias that impact our judgment and decision-making.

Confirmation bias relates to how we perceive and judge evidence. We tend to seek out and prefer information that supports our preexisting beliefs, ignoring any information that contradicts those beliefs.

Belief bias describes the tendency to judge an argument based on how plausible the conclusion seems to us, rather than how much evidence is provided to support it during the course of the argument.

Positivity bias is phenomenon that occurs when a person judges individual members of a group positively, even when they have negative impressions or judgments of the group as a whole. Positivity bias is closely related to optimism bias , or the e xpectation that things will work out well, even if rationality suggests that problems are inevitable in life.

Perception bias is a problem because it prevents us from seeing situations or people objectively. Rather, our expectations, beliefs, or emotions interfere with how we interpret reality. This, in turn, can cause us to misjudge ourselves or others. For example, our prejudices can interfere with whether we perceive people’s faces as friendly or unfriendly.

There are many ways to categorize adjectives into various types. An adjective can fall into one or more of these categories depending on how it is used.

Some of the main types of adjectives are:

• Attributive adjectives
• Predicative adjectives
• Comparative adjectives
• Superlative adjectives
• Coordinate adjectives
• Appositive adjectives
• Compound adjectives
• Participial adjectives
• Proper adjectives
• Denominal adjectives
• Nominal adjectives

Cardinal numbers (e.g., one, two, three) can be placed before a noun to indicate quantity (e.g., one apple). While these are sometimes referred to as ‘numeral adjectives ‘, they are more accurately categorised as determiners or quantifiers.

Proper adjectives are adjectives formed from a proper noun (i.e., the name of a specific person, place, or thing) that are used to indicate origin. Like proper nouns, proper adjectives are always capitalised (e.g., Newtonian, Marxian, African).

The cost of proofreading depends on the type and length of text, the turnaround time, and the level of services required. Most proofreading companies charge per word or page, while freelancers sometimes charge an hourly rate.

For proofreading alone, which involves only basic corrections of typos and formatting mistakes, you might pay as little as £0.01 per word, but in many cases, your text will also require some level of editing , which costs slightly more.

It’s often possible to purchase combined proofreading and editing services and calculate the price in advance based on your requirements.

Then and than are two commonly confused words . In the context of ‘better than’, you use ‘than’ with an ‘a’.

• Julie is better than Jesse.
• I’d rather spend my time with you than with him.
• I understand Eoghan’s point of view better than Claudia’s.

Use to and used to are commonly confused words . In the case of ‘used to do’, the latter (with ‘d’) is correct, since you’re describing an action or state in the past.

• I used to do laundry once a week.
• They used to do each other’s hair.
• We used to do the dishes every day .

There are numerous synonyms and near synonyms for the various meanings of “ favour ”:

There are numerous synonyms and near synonyms for the two meanings of “ favoured ”:

No one (two words) is an indefinite pronoun meaning ‘nobody’. People sometimes mistakenly write ‘noone’, but this is incorrect and should be avoided. ‘No-one’, with a hyphen, is also acceptable in UK English .

Nobody and no one are both indefinite pronouns meaning ‘no person’. They can be used interchangeably (e.g., ‘nobody is home’ means the same as ‘no one is home’).

Some synonyms and near synonyms of  every time include:

• Without exception

‘Everytime’ is sometimes used to mean ‘each time’ or ‘whenever’. However, this is incorrect and should be avoided. The correct phrase is every time   (two words).

Yes, the conjunction because is a compound word , but one with a long history. It originates in Middle English from the preposition “bi” (“by”) and the noun “cause”. Over time, the open compound “bi cause” became the closed compound “because”, which we use today.

Though it’s spelled this way now, the verb “be” is not one of the words that makes up “because”.

Yes, today is a compound word , but a very old one. It wasn’t originally formed from the preposition “to” and the noun “day”; rather, it originates from their Old English equivalents, “tō” and “dæġe”.

In the past, it was sometimes written as a hyphenated compound: “to-day”. But the hyphen is no longer included; it’s always “today” now (“to day” is also wrong).

IEEE citation format is defined by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers and used in their publications.

It’s also a widely used citation style for students in technical fields like electrical and electronic engineering, computer science, telecommunications, and computer engineering.

An IEEE in-text citation consists of a number in brackets at the relevant point in the text, which points the reader to the right entry in the numbered reference list at the end of the paper. For example, ‘Smith [1] states that …’

A location marker such as a page number is also included within the brackets when needed: ‘Smith [1, p. 13] argues …’

The IEEE reference page consists of a list of references numbered in the order they were cited in the text. The title ‘References’ appears in bold at the top, either left-aligned or centered.

The numbers appear in square brackets on the left-hand side of the page. The reference entries are indented consistently to separate them from the numbers. Entries are single-spaced, with a normal paragraph break between them.

If you cite the same source more than once in your writing, use the same number for all of the IEEE in-text citations for that source, and only include it on the IEEE reference page once. The source is numbered based on the first time you cite it.

For example, the fourth source you cite in your paper is numbered [4]. If you cite it again later, you still cite it as [4]. You can cite different parts of the source each time by adding page numbers [4, p. 15].

A verb is a word that indicates a physical action (e.g., ‘drive’), a mental action (e.g., ‘think’) or a state of being (e.g., ‘exist’). Every sentence contains a verb.

Verbs are almost always used along with a noun or pronoun to describe what the noun or pronoun is doing.

There are many ways to categorize verbs into various types. A verb can fall into one or more of these categories depending on how it is used.

Some of the main types of verbs are:

• Regular verbs
• Irregular verbs
• Transitive verbs
• Intransitive verbs
• Dynamic verbs
• Stative verbs
• Linking verbs
• Auxiliary verbs
• Modal verbs
• Phrasal verbs

Regular verbs are verbs whose simple past and past participle are formed by adding the suffix ‘-ed’ (e.g., ‘walked’).

Irregular verbs are verbs that form their simple past and past participles in some way other than by adding the suffix ‘-ed’ (e.g., ‘sat’).

The indefinite articles a and an are used to refer to a general or unspecified version of a noun (e.g., a house). Which indefinite article you use depends on the pronunciation of the word that follows it.

• A is used for words that begin with a consonant sound (e.g., a bear).
• An is used for words that begin with a vowel sound (e.g., an eagle).

Indefinite articles can only be used with singular countable nouns . Like definite articles, they are a type of determiner .

Editing and proofreading are different steps in the process of revising a text.

Editing comes first, and can involve major changes to content, structure and language. The first stages of editing are often done by authors themselves, while a professional editor makes the final improvements to grammar and style (for example, by improving sentence structure and word choice ).

Proofreading is the final stage of checking a text before it is published or shared. It focuses on correcting minor errors and inconsistencies (for example, in punctuation and capitalization ). Proofreaders often also check for formatting issues, especially in print publishing.

Whether you’re publishing a blog, submitting a research paper , or even just writing an important email, there are a few techniques you can use to make sure it’s error-free:

• Take a break : Set your work aside for at least a few hours so that you can look at it with fresh eyes.
• Proofread a printout : Staring at a screen for too long can cause fatigue – sit down with a pen and paper to check the final version.
• Use digital shortcuts : Take note of any recurring mistakes (for example, misspelling a particular word, switching between US and UK English , or inconsistently capitalizing a term), and use Find and Replace to fix it throughout the document.

If you want to be confident that an important text is error-free, it might be worth choosing a professional proofreading service instead.

There are many different routes to becoming a professional proofreader or editor. The necessary qualifications depend on the field – to be an academic or scientific proofreader, for example, you will need at least a university degree in a relevant subject.

For most proofreading jobs, experience and demonstrated skills are more important than specific qualifications. Often your skills will be tested as part of the application process.

To learn practical proofreading skills, you can choose to take a course with a professional organisation such as the Society for Editors and Proofreaders . Alternatively, you can apply to companies that offer specialised on-the-job training programmes, such as the Scribbr Academy .

Though they’re pronounced the same, there’s a big difference in meaning between its and it’s .

• ‘The cat ate its food’.
• ‘It’s almost Christmas’.

Its and it’s are often confused, but its (without apostrophe) is the possessive form of ‘it’ (e.g., its tail, its argument, its wing). You use ‘its’ instead of ‘his’ and ‘her’ for neuter, inanimate nouns.

Then and than are two commonly confused words with different meanings and grammatical roles.

• Then (pronounced with a short ‘e’ sound) refers to time. It’s often an adverb , but it can also be used as a noun meaning ‘that time’ and as an adjective referring to a previous status.
• Than (pronounced with a short ‘a’ sound) is used for comparisons. Grammatically, it usually functions as a conjunction , but sometimes it’s a preposition .

Use to and used to are commonly confused words . In the case of ‘used to be’, the latter (with ‘d’) is correct, since you’re describing an action or state in the past.

• I used to be the new coworker.
• There used to be 4 cookies left.
• We used to walk to school every day .

A grammar checker is a tool designed to automatically check your text for spelling errors, grammatical issues, punctuation mistakes , and problems with sentence structure . You can check out our analysis of the best free grammar checkers to learn more.

A paraphrasing tool edits your text more actively, changing things whether they were grammatically incorrect or not. It can paraphrase your sentences to make them more concise and readable or for other purposes. You can check out our analysis of the best free paraphrasing tools to learn more.

Some tools available online combine both functions. Others, such as QuillBot , have separate grammar checker and paraphrasing tools. Be aware of what exactly the tool you’re using does to avoid introducing unwanted changes.

Good grammar is the key to expressing yourself clearly and fluently, especially in professional communication and academic writing . Word processors, browsers, and email programs typically have built-in grammar checkers, but they’re quite limited in the kinds of problems they can fix.

If you want to go beyond detecting basic spelling errors, there are many online grammar checkers with more advanced functionality. They can often detect issues with punctuation , word choice, and sentence structure that more basic tools would miss.

Not all of these tools are reliable, though. You can check out our research into the best free grammar checkers to explore the options.

Our research indicates that the best free grammar checker available online is the QuillBot grammar checker .

We tested 10 of the most popular checkers with the same sample text (containing 20 grammatical errors) and found that QuillBot easily outperformed the competition, scoring 18 out of 20, a drastic improvement over the second-place score of 13 out of 20.

It even appeared to outperform the premium versions of other grammar checkers, despite being entirely free.

A teacher’s aide is a person who assists in teaching classes but is not a qualified teacher. Aide is a noun meaning ‘assistant’, so it will always refer to a person.

‘Teacher’s aid’ is incorrect.

A visual aid is an instructional device (e.g., a photo, a chart) that appeals to vision to help you understand written or spoken information. Aid is often placed after an attributive noun or adjective (like ‘visual’) that describes the type of help provided.

‘Visual aide’ is incorrect.

A job aid is an instructional tool (e.g., a checklist, a cheat sheet) that helps you work efficiently. Aid is a noun meaning ‘assistance’. It’s often placed after an adjective or attributive noun (like ‘job’) that describes the specific type of help provided.

‘Job aide’ is incorrect.

There are numerous synonyms for the various meanings of truly :

Yours truly is a phrase used at the end of a formal letter or email. It can also be used (typically in a humorous way) as a pronoun to refer to oneself (e.g., ‘The dinner was cooked by yours truly ‘). The latter usage should be avoided in formal writing.

It’s formed by combining the second-person possessive pronoun ‘yours’ with the adverb ‘ truly ‘.

A pathetic fallacy can be a short phrase or a whole sentence and is often used in novels and poetry. Pathetic fallacies serve multiple purposes, such as:

• Conveying the emotional state of the characters or the narrator
• Creating an atmosphere or set the mood of a scene
• Foreshadowing events to come
• Giving texture and vividness to a piece of writing
• Communicating emotion to the reader in a subtle way, by describing the external world.
• Bringing inanimate objects to life so that they seem more relatable.

AMA citation format is a citation style designed by the American Medical Association. It’s frequently used in the field of medicine.

You may be told to use AMA style for your student papers. You will also have to follow this style if you’re submitting a paper to a journal published by the AMA.

An AMA in-text citation consists of the number of the relevant reference on your AMA reference page , written in superscript 1 at the point in the text where the source is used.

It may also include the page number or range of the relevant material in the source (e.g., the part you quoted 2(p46) ). Multiple sources can be cited at one point, presented as a range or list (with no spaces 3,5–9 ).

An AMA reference usually includes the author’s last name and initials, the title of the source, information about the publisher or the publication it’s contained in, and the publication date. The specific details included, and the formatting, depend on the source type.

References in AMA style are presented in numerical order (numbered by the order in which they were first cited in the text) on your reference page. A source that’s cited repeatedly in the text still only appears once on the reference page.

An AMA in-text citation just consists of the number of the relevant entry on your AMA reference page , written in superscript at the point in the text where the source is referred to.

You don’t need to mention the author of the source in your sentence, but you can do so if you want. It’s not an official part of the citation, but it can be useful as part of a signal phrase introducing the source.

On your AMA reference page , author names are written with the last name first, followed by the initial(s) of their first name and middle name if mentioned.

There’s a space between the last name and the initials, but no space or punctuation between the initials themselves. The names of multiple authors are separated by commas , and the whole list ends in a period, e.g., ‘Andreessen F, Smith PW, Gonzalez E’.

The names of up to six authors should be listed for each source on your AMA reference page , separated by commas . For a source with seven or more authors, you should list the first three followed by ‘ et al’ : ‘Isidore, Gilbert, Gunvor, et al’.

In the text, mentioning author names is optional (as they aren’t an official part of AMA in-text citations ). If you do mention them, though, you should use the first author’s name followed by ‘et al’ when there are three or more : ‘Isidore et al argue that …’

Note that according to AMA’s rather minimalistic punctuation guidelines, there’s no period after ‘et al’ unless it appears at the end of a sentence. This is different from most other styles, where there is normally a period.

Yes, you should normally include an access date in an AMA website citation (or when citing any source with a URL). This is because webpages can change their content over time, so it’s useful for the reader to know when you accessed the page.

When a publication or update date is provided on the page, you should include it in addition to the access date. The access date appears second in this case, e.g., ‘Published June 19, 2021. Accessed August 29, 2022.’

Don’t include an access date when citing a source with a DOI (such as in an AMA journal article citation ).

Some variables have fixed levels. For example, gender and ethnicity are always nominal level data because they cannot be ranked.

However, for other variables, you can choose the level of measurement . For example, income is a variable that can be recorded on an ordinal or a ratio scale:

• At an ordinal level , you could create 5 income groupings and code the incomes that fall within them from 1–5.
• At a ratio level , you would record exact numbers for income.

If you have a choice, the ratio level is always preferable because you can analyse data in more ways. The higher the level of measurement, the more precise your data is.

The level at which you measure a variable determines how you can analyse your data.

Depending on the level of measurement , you can perform different descriptive statistics to get an overall summary of your data and inferential statistics to see if your results support or refute your hypothesis .

Levels of measurement tell you how precisely variables are recorded. There are 4 levels of measurement, which can be ranked from low to high:

• Nominal : the data can only be categorised.
• Ordinal : the data can be categorised and ranked.
• Interval : the data can be categorised and ranked, and evenly spaced.
• Ratio : the data can be categorised, ranked, evenly spaced and has a natural zero.

Statistical analysis is the main method for analyzing quantitative research data . It uses probabilities and models to test predictions about a population from sample data.

The null hypothesis is often abbreviated as H 0 . When the null hypothesis is written using mathematical symbols, it always includes an equality symbol (usually =, but sometimes ≥ or ≤).

The alternative hypothesis is often abbreviated as H a or H 1 . When the alternative hypothesis is written using mathematical symbols, it always includes an inequality symbol (usually ≠, but sometimes < or >).

As the degrees of freedom increase, Student’s t distribution becomes less leptokurtic , meaning that the probability of extreme values decreases. The distribution becomes more and more similar to a standard normal distribution .

When there are only one or two degrees of freedom , the chi-square distribution is shaped like a backwards ‘J’. When there are three or more degrees of freedom, the distribution is shaped like a right-skewed hump. As the degrees of freedom increase, the hump becomes less right-skewed and the peak of the hump moves to the right. The distribution becomes more and more similar to a normal distribution .

‘Looking forward in hearing from you’ is an incorrect version of the phrase looking forward to hearing from you . The phrasal verb ‘looking forward to’ always needs the preposition ‘to’, not ‘in’.

• I am looking forward in hearing from you.
• I am looking forward to hearing from you.

Some synonyms and near synonyms for the expression looking forward to hearing from you include:

• Eagerly awaiting your response
• Hoping to hear from you soon
• It would be great to hear back from you
• Thanks in advance for your reply

People sometimes mistakenly write ‘looking forward to hear from you’, but this is incorrect. The correct phrase is looking forward to hearing from you .

The phrasal verb ‘look forward to’ is always followed by a direct object, the thing you’re looking forward to. As the direct object has to be a noun phrase , it should be the gerund ‘hearing’, not the verb ‘hear’.

• I’m looking forward to hear from you soon.
• I’m looking forward to hearing from you soon.

Traditionally, the sign-off Yours sincerely is used in an email message or letter when you are writing to someone you have interacted with before, not a complete stranger.

Yours faithfully is used instead when you are writing to someone you have had no previous correspondence with, especially if you greeted them as ‘ Dear Sir or Madam ’.

Just checking in   is a standard phrase used to start an email (or other message) that’s intended to ask someone for a response or follow-up action in a friendly, informal way. However, it’s a cliché opening that can come across as passive-aggressive, so we recommend avoiding it in favor of a more direct opening like “We previously discussed …”

In a more personal context, you might encounter “just checking in” as part of a longer phrase such as “I’m just checking in to see how you’re doing”. In this case, it’s not asking the other person to do anything but rather asking about their well-being (emotional or physical) in a friendly way.

“Earliest convenience” is part of the phrase at your earliest convenience , meaning “as soon as you can”. 

It’s typically used to end an email in a formal context by asking the recipient to do something when it’s convenient for them to do so.

ASAP is an abbreviation of the phrase “as soon as possible”. 

It’s typically used to indicate a sense of urgency in highly informal contexts (e.g., “Let me know ASAP if you need me to drive you to the airport”).

“ASAP” should be avoided in more formal correspondence. Instead, use an alternative like at your earliest convenience .

Some synonyms and near synonyms of the verb   compose   (meaning “to make up”) are:

People increasingly use “comprise” as a synonym of “compose.” However, this is normally still seen as a mistake, and we recommend avoiding it in your academic writing . “Comprise” traditionally means “to be made up of,” not “to make up.”

Some synonyms and near synonyms of the verb comprise are:

• Be composed of
• Be made up of

People increasingly use “comprise” interchangeably with “compose,” meaning that they consider words like “compose,” “constitute,” and “form” to be synonymous with “comprise.” However, this is still normally regarded as an error, and we advise against using these words interchangeably in academic writing .

A fallacy is a mistaken belief, particularly one based on unsound arguments or one that lacks the evidence to support it. Common types of fallacy that may compromise the quality of your research are:

• Correlation/causation fallacy: Claiming that two events that occur together have a cause-and-effect relationship even though this can’t be proven
• Ecological fallacy : Making inferences about the nature of individuals based on aggregate data for the group
• The sunk cost fallacy : Following through on a project or decision because we have already invested time, effort, or money into it, even if the current costs outweigh the benefits
• The base-rate fallacy : Ignoring base-rate or statistically significant information, such as sample size or the relative frequency of an event, in favor of  less relevant information e.g., pertaining to a single case, or a small number of cases
• The planning fallacy : Underestimating the time needed to complete a future task, even when we know that similar tasks in the past have taken longer than planned

The planning fallacy refers to people’s tendency to underestimate the resources needed to complete a future task, despite knowing that previous tasks have also taken longer than planned.

For example, people generally tend to underestimate the cost and time needed for construction projects. The planning fallacy occurs due to people’s tendency to overestimate the chances that positive events, such as a shortened timeline, will happen to them. This phenomenon is called optimism bias or positivity bias.

Although both red herring fallacy and straw man fallacy are logical fallacies or reasoning errors, they denote different attempts to “win” an argument. More specifically:

• A red herring fallacy refers to an attempt to change the subject and divert attention from the original issue. In other words, a seemingly solid but ultimately irrelevant argument is introduced into the discussion, either on purpose or by mistake.
• A straw man argument involves the deliberate distortion of another person’s argument. By oversimplifying or exaggerating it, the other party creates an easy-to-refute argument and then attacks it.

The red herring fallacy is a problem because it is flawed reasoning. It is a distraction device that causes people to become sidetracked from the main issue and draw wrong conclusions.

Although a red herring may have some kernel of truth, it is used as a distraction to keep our eyes on a different matter. As a result, it can cause us to accept and spread misleading information.

The sunk cost fallacy and escalation of commitment (or commitment bias ) are two closely related terms. However, there is a slight difference between them:

• Escalation of commitment (aka commitment bias ) is the tendency to be consistent with what we have already done or said we will do in the past, especially if we did so in public. In other words, it is an attempt to save face and appear consistent.
• Sunk cost fallacy is the tendency to stick with a decision or a plan even when it’s failing. Because we have already invested valuable time, money, or energy, quitting feels like these resources were wasted.

In other words, escalating commitment is a manifestation of the sunk cost fallacy: an irrational escalation of commitment frequently occurs when people refuse to accept that the resources they’ve already invested cannot be recovered. Instead, they insist on more spending to justify the initial investment (and the incurred losses).

When you are faced with a straw man argument , the best way to respond is to draw attention to the fallacy and ask your discussion partner to show how your original statement and their distorted version are the same. Since these are different, your partner will either have to admit that their argument is invalid or try to justify it by using more flawed reasoning, which you can then attack.

The straw man argument is a problem because it occurs when we fail to take an opposing point of view seriously. Instead, we intentionally misrepresent our opponent’s ideas and avoid genuinely engaging with them. Due to this, resorting to straw man fallacy lowers the standard of constructive debate.

A straw man argument is a distorted (and weaker) version of another person’s argument that can easily be refuted (e.g., when a teacher proposes that the class spend more time on math exercises, a parent complains that the teacher doesn’t care about reading and writing).

This is a straw man argument because it misrepresents the teacher’s position, which didn’t mention anything about cutting down on reading and writing. The straw man argument is also known as the straw man fallacy .

A slippery slope argument is not always a fallacy.

• When someone claims adopting a certain policy or taking a certain action will automatically lead to a series of other policies or actions also being taken, this is a slippery slope argument.
• If they don’t show a causal connection between the advocated policy and the consequent policies, then they commit a slippery slope fallacy .

There are a number of ways you can deal with slippery slope arguments especially when you suspect these are fallacious:

• Slippery slope arguments take advantage of the gray area between an initial action or decision and the possible next steps that might lead to the undesirable outcome. You can point out these missing steps and ask your partner to indicate what evidence exists to support the claimed relationship between two or more events.
• Ask yourself if each link in the chain of events or action is valid. Every proposition has to be true for the overall argument to work, so even if one link is irrational or not supported by evidence, then the argument collapses.
• Sometimes people commit a slippery slope fallacy unintentionally. In these instances, use an example that demonstrates the problem with slippery slope arguments in general (e.g., by using statements to reach a conclusion that is not necessarily relevant to the initial statement). By attacking the concept of slippery slope arguments you can show that they are often fallacious.

People sometimes confuse cognitive bias and logical fallacies because they both relate to flawed thinking. However, they are not the same:

• Cognitive bias is the tendency to make decisions or take action in an illogical way because of our values, memory, socialization, and other personal attributes. In other words, it refers to a fixed pattern of thinking rooted in the way our brain works.
• Logical fallacies relate to how we make claims and construct our arguments in the moment. They are statements that sound convincing at first but can be disproven through logical reasoning.

In other words, cognitive bias refers to an ongoing predisposition, while logical fallacy refers to mistakes of reasoning that occur in the moment.

An appeal to ignorance (ignorance here meaning lack of evidence) is a type of informal logical fallacy .

It asserts that something must be true because it hasn’t been proven false—or that something must be false because it has not yet been proven true.

For example, “unicorns exist because there is no evidence that they don’t.” The appeal to ignorance is also called the burden of proof fallacy .

An ad hominem (Latin for “to the person”) is a type of informal logical fallacy . Instead of arguing against a person’s position, an ad hominem argument attacks the person’s character or actions in an effort to discredit them.

This rhetorical strategy is fallacious because a person’s character, motive, education, or other personal trait is logically irrelevant to whether their argument is true or false.

Name-calling is common in ad hominem fallacy (e.g., “environmental activists are ineffective because they’re all lazy tree-huggers”).

Ad hominem is a persuasive technique where someone tries to undermine the opponent’s argument by personally attacking them.

In this way, one can redirect the discussion away from the main topic and to the opponent’s personality without engaging with their viewpoint. When the opponent’s personality is irrelevant to the discussion, we call it an ad hominem fallacy .

Ad hominem tu quoque (‘you too”) is an attempt to rebut a claim by attacking its proponent on the grounds that they uphold a double standard or that they don’t practice what they preach. For example, someone is telling you that you should drive slowly otherwise you’ll get a speeding ticket one of these days, and you reply “but you used to get them all the time!”

Argumentum ad hominem means “argument to the person” in Latin and it is commonly referred to as ad hominem argument or personal attack. Ad hominem arguments are used in debates to refute an argument by attacking the character of the person making it, instead of the logic or premise of the argument itself.

The opposite of the hasty generalization fallacy is called slothful induction fallacy or appeal to coincidence .

It is the tendency to deny a conclusion even though there is sufficient evidence that supports it. Slothful induction occurs due to our natural tendency to dismiss events or facts that do not align with our personal biases and expectations. For example, a researcher may try to explain away unexpected results by claiming it is just a coincidence.

To avoid a hasty generalization fallacy we need to ensure that the conclusions drawn are well-supported by the appropriate evidence. More specifically:

• In statistics , if we want to draw inferences about an entire population, we need to make sure that the sample is random and representative of the population . We can achieve that by using a probability sampling method , like simple random sampling or stratified sampling .
• In academic writing , use precise language and measured phases. Try to avoid making absolute claims, cite specific instances and examples without applying the findings to a larger group.
• As readers, we need to ask ourselves “does the writer demonstrate sufficient knowledge of the situation or phenomenon that would allow them to make a generalization?”

The hasty generalization fallacy and the anecdotal evidence fallacy are similar in that they both result in conclusions drawn from insufficient evidence. However, there is a difference between the two:

• The hasty generalization fallacy involves genuinely considering an example or case (i.e., the evidence comes first and then an incorrect conclusion is drawn from this).
• The anecdotal evidence fallacy (also known as “cherry-picking” ) is knowing in advance what conclusion we want to support, and then selecting the story (or a few stories) that support it. By overemphasizing anecdotal evidence that fits well with the point we are trying to make, we overlook evidence that would undermine our argument.

Although many sources use circular reasoning fallacy and begging the question interchangeably, others point out that there is a subtle difference between the two:

• Begging the question fallacy occurs when you assume that an argument is true in order to justify a conclusion. If something begs the question, what you are actually asking is, “Is the premise of that argument actually true?” For example, the statement “Snakes make great pets. That’s why we should get a snake” begs the question “are snakes really great pets?”
• Circular reasoning fallacy on the other hand, occurs when the evidence used to support a claim is just a repetition of the claim itself.  For example, “People have free will because they can choose what to do.”

In other words, we could say begging the question is a form of circular reasoning.

Circular reasoning fallacy uses circular reasoning to support an argument. More specifically, the evidence used to support a claim is just a repetition of the claim itself. For example: “The President of the United States is a good leader (claim), because they are the leader of this country (supporting evidence)”.

An example of a non sequitur is the following statement:

“Giving up nuclear weapons weakened the United States’ military. Giving up nuclear weapons also weakened China. For this reason, it is wrong to try to outlaw firearms in the United States today.”

Clearly there is a step missing in this line of reasoning and the conclusion does not follow from the premise, resulting in a non sequitur fallacy .

The difference between the post hoc fallacy and the non sequitur fallacy is that post hoc fallacy infers a causal connection between two events where none exists, whereas the non sequitur fallacy infers a conclusion that lacks a logical connection to the premise.

In other words, a post hoc fallacy occurs when there is a lack of a cause-and-effect relationship, while a non sequitur fallacy occurs when there is a lack of logical connection.

An example of post hoc fallacy is the following line of reasoning:

“Yesterday I had ice cream, and today I have a terrible stomachache. I’m sure the ice cream caused this.”

Although it is possible that the ice cream had something to do with the stomachache, there is no proof to justify the conclusion other than the order of events. Therefore, this line of reasoning is fallacious.

Post hoc fallacy and hasty generalisation fallacy are similar in that they both involve jumping to conclusions. However, there is a difference between the two:

• Post hoc fallacy is assuming a cause and effect relationship between two events, simply because one happened after the other.
• Hasty generalisation fallacy is drawing a general conclusion from a small sample or little evidence.

In other words, post hoc fallacy involves a leap to a causal claim; hasty generalisation fallacy involves a leap to a general proposition.

The fallacy of composition is similar to and can be confused with the hasty generalization fallacy . However, there is a difference between the two:

• The fallacy of composition involves drawing an inference about the characteristics of a whole or group based on the characteristics of its individual members.
• The hasty generalization fallacy involves drawing an inference about a population or class of things on the basis of few atypical instances or a small sample of that population or thing.

In other words, the fallacy of composition is using an unwarranted assumption that we can infer something about a whole based on the characteristics of its parts, while the hasty generalization fallacy is using insufficient evidence to draw a conclusion.

The opposite of the fallacy of composition is the fallacy of division . In the fallacy of division, the assumption is that a characteristic which applies to a whole or a group must necessarily apply to the parts or individual members. For example, “Australians travel a lot. Gary is Australian, so he must travel a lot.”

Base rate fallacy can be avoided by following these steps:

• Avoid making an important decision in haste. When we are under pressure, we are more likely to resort to cognitive shortcuts like the availability heuristic and the representativeness heuristic . Due to this, we are more likely to factor in only current and vivid information, and ignore the actual probability of something happening (i.e., base rate).
• Take a long-term view on the decision or question at hand. Look for relevant statistical data, which can reveal long-term trends and give you the full picture.
• Talk to experts like professionals. They are more aware of probabilities related to specific decisions.

Suppose there is a population consisting of 90% psychologists and 10% engineers. Given that you know someone enjoyed physics at school, you may conclude that they are an engineer rather than a psychologist, even though you know that this person comes from a population consisting of far more psychologists than engineers.

When we ignore the rate of occurrence of some trait in a population (the base-rate information) we commit base rate fallacy .

Cost-benefit fallacy is a common error that occurs when allocating sources in project management. It is the fallacy of assuming that cost-benefit estimates are more or less accurate, when in fact they are highly inaccurate and biased. This means that cost-benefit analyses can be useful, but only after the cost-benefit fallacy has been acknowledged and corrected for. Cost-benefit fallacy is a type of base rate fallacy .

In advertising, the fallacy of equivocation is often used to create a pun. For example, a billboard company might advertise their billboards using a line like: “Looking for a sign? This is it!” The word sign has a literal meaning as billboard and a figurative one as a sign from God, the universe, etc.

Equivocation is a fallacy because it is a form of argumentation that is both misleading and logically unsound. When the meaning of a word or phrase shifts in the course of an argument, it causes confusion and also implies that the conclusion (which may be true) does not follow from the premise.

The fallacy of equivocation is an informal logical fallacy, meaning that the error lies in the content of the argument instead of the structure.

Fallacies of relevance are a group of fallacies that occur in arguments when the premises are logically irrelevant to the conclusion. Although at first there seems to be a connection between the premise and the conclusion, in reality fallacies of relevance use unrelated forms of appeal.

For example, the genetic fallacy makes an appeal to the source or origin of the claim in an attempt to assert or refute something.

The ad hominem fallacy and the genetic fallacy are closely related in that they are both fallacies of relevance. In other words, they both involve arguments that use evidence or examples that are not logically related to the argument at hand. However, there is a difference between the two:

• In the ad hominem fallacy , the goal is to discredit the argument by discrediting the person currently making the argument.
• In the genetic fallacy , the goal is to discredit the argument by discrediting the history or origin (i.e., genesis) of an argument.

False dilemma fallacy is also known as false dichotomy, false binary, and “either-or” fallacy. It is the fallacy of presenting only two choices, outcomes, or sides to an argument as the only possibilities, when more are available.

The false dilemma fallacy works in two ways:

• By presenting only two options as if these were the only ones available
• By presenting two options as mutually exclusive (i.e., only one option can be selected or can be true at a time)

In both cases, by using the false dilemma fallacy, one conceals alternative choices and doesn’t allow others to consider the full range of options. This is usually achieved through an“either-or” construction and polarised, divisive language (“you are either a friend or an enemy”).

The best way to avoid a false dilemma fallacy is to pause and reflect on two points:

• Are the options presented truly the only ones available ? It could be that another option has been deliberately omitted.
• Are the options mentioned mutually exclusive ? Perhaps all of the available options can be selected (or be true) at the same time, which shows that they aren’t mutually exclusive. Proving this is called “escaping between the horns of the dilemma.”

Begging the question fallacy is an argument in which you assume what you are trying to prove. In other words, your position and the justification of that position are the same, only slightly rephrased.

For example: “All freshmen should attend college orientation, because all college students should go to such an orientation.”

The complex question fallacy and begging the question fallacy are similar in that they are both based on assumptions. However, there is a difference between them:

• A complex question fallacy occurs when someone asks a question that presupposes the answer to another question that has not been established or accepted by the other person. For example, asking someone “Have you stopped cheating on tests?”, unless it has previously been established that the person is indeed cheating on tests, is a fallacy.
• Begging the question fallacy occurs when we assume the very thing as a premise that we’re trying to prove in our conclusion. In other words, the conclusion is used to support the premises, and the premises prove the validity of the conclusion. For example: “God exists because the Bible says so, and the Bible is true because it is the word of God.”

In other words, begging the question is about drawing a conclusion based on an assumption, while a complex question involves asking a question that presupposes the answer to a prior question.

“ No true Scotsman ” arguments aren’t always fallacious. When there is a generally accepted definition of who or what constitutes a group, it’s reasonable to use statements in the form of “no true Scotsman”.

For example, the statement that “no true pacifist would volunteer for military service” is not fallacious, since a pacifist is, by definition, someone who opposes war or violence as a means of settling disputes.

No true Scotsman arguments are fallacious because instead of logically refuting the counterexample, they simply assert that it doesn’t count. In other words, the counterexample is rejected for psychological, but not logical, reasons.

The appeal to purity or no true Scotsman fallacy is an attempt to defend a generalisation about a group from a counterexample by shifting the definition of the group in the middle of the argument. In this way, one can exclude the counterexample as not being “true”, “genuine”, or “pure” enough to be considered as part of the group in question.

To identify an appeal to authority fallacy , you can ask yourself the following questions:

• Is the authority cited really a qualified expert in this particular area under discussion? For example, someone who has formal education or years of experience can be an expert.
• Do experts disagree on this particular subject? If that is the case, then for almost any claim supported by one expert there will be a counterclaim that is supported by another expert. If there is no consensus, an appeal to authority is fallacious.
• Is the authority in question biased? If you suspect that an expert’s prejudice and bias could have influenced their views, then the expert is not reliable and an argument citing this expert will be fallacious.To identify an appeal to authority fallacy, you ask yourself whether the authority cited is a qualified expert in the particular area under discussion.

Appeal to authority is a fallacy when those who use it do not provide any justification to support their argument. Instead they cite someone famous who agrees with their viewpoint, but is not qualified to make reliable claims on the subject.

Appeal to authority fallacy is often convincing because of the effect authority figures have on us. When someone cites a famous person, a well-known scientist, a politician, etc. people tend to be distracted and often fail to critically examine whether the authority figure is indeed an expert in the area under discussion.

The ad populum fallacy is common in politics. One example is the following viewpoint: “The majority of our countrymen think we should have military operations overseas; therefore, it’s the right thing to do.”

This line of reasoning is fallacious, because popular acceptance of a belief or position does not amount to a justification of that belief. In other words, following the prevailing opinion without examining the underlying reasons is irrational.

The ad populum fallacy plays on our innate desire to fit in (known as “bandwagon effect”). If many people believe something, our common sense tells us that it must be true and we tend to accept it. However, in logic, the popularity of a proposition cannot serve as evidence of its truthfulness.

Ad populum (or appeal to popularity) fallacy and appeal to authority fallacy are similar in that they both conflate the validity of a belief with its popular acceptance among a specific group. However there is a key difference between the two:

• An ad populum fallacy tries to persuade others by claiming that something is true or right because a lot of people think so.
• An appeal to authority fallacy tries to persuade by claiming a group of experts believe something is true or right, therefore it must be so.

To identify a false cause fallacy , you need to carefully analyse the argument:

• When someone claims that one event directly causes another, ask if there is sufficient evidence to establish a cause-and-effect relationship. 
• Ask if the claim is based merely on the chronological order or co-occurrence of the two events. 
• Consider alternative possible explanations (are there other factors at play that could influence the outcome?).

By carefully analysing the reasoning, considering alternative explanations, and examining the evidence provided, you can identify a false cause fallacy and discern whether a causal claim is valid or flawed.

False cause fallacy examples include: 

• Believing that wearing your lucky jersey will help your team win 
• Thinking that everytime you wash your car, it rains
• Claiming that playing video games causes violent behavior 

In each of these examples, we falsely assume that one event causes another without any proof.

The planning fallacy and procrastination are not the same thing. Although they both relate to time and task management, they describe different challenges:

• The planning fallacy describes our inability to correctly estimate how long a future task will take, mainly due to optimism bias and a strong focus on the best-case scenario.
• Procrastination refers to postponing a task, usually by focusing on less urgent or more enjoyable activities. This is due to psychological reasons, like fear of failure.

In other words, the planning fallacy refers to inaccurate predictions about the time we need to finish a task, while procrastination is a deliberate delay due to psychological factors.

A real-life example of the planning fallacy is the construction of the Sydney Opera House in Australia. When construction began in the late 1950s, it was initially estimated that it would be completed in four years at a cost of around $7 million.

Because the government wanted the construction to start before political opposition would stop it and while public opinion was still favorable, a number of design issues had not been carefully studied in advance. Due to this, several problems appeared immediately after the project commenced.

The construction process eventually stretched over 14 years, with the Opera House being completed in 1973 at a cost of over $100 million, significantly exceeding the initial estimates.

An example of appeal to pity fallacy is the following appeal by a student to their professor:

“Professor, please consider raising my grade. I had a terrible semester: my car broke down, my laptop got stolen, and my cat got sick.”

While these circumstances may be unfortunate, they are not directly related to the student’s academic performance.

While both the appeal to pity fallacy and   red herring fallacy can serve as a distraction from the original discussion topic, they are distinct fallacies. More specifically:

• Appeal to pity fallacy attempts to evoke feelings of sympathy, pity, or guilt in an audience, so that they accept the speaker’s conclusion as truthful.
• Red herring fallacy attempts to introduce an irrelevant piece of information that diverts the audience’s attention to a different topic.

Both fallacies can be used as a tool of deception. However, they operate differently and serve distinct purposes in arguments.

Argumentum ad misericordiam (Latin for “argument from pity or misery”) is another name for appeal to pity fallacy . It occurs when someone evokes sympathy or guilt in an attempt to gain support for their claim, without providing any logical reasons to support the claim itself. Appeal to pity is a deceptive tactic of argumentation, playing on people’s emotions to sway their opinion.

Yes, it’s quite common to start a sentence with a preposition, and there’s no reason not to do so.

For example, the sentence “ To many, she was a hero” is perfectly grammatical. It could also be rephrased as “She was a hero to  many”, but there’s no particular reason to do so. Both versions are fine.

Some people argue that you shouldn’t end a sentence with a preposition , but that “rule” can also be ignored, since it’s not supported by serious language authorities.

Yes, it’s fine to end a sentence with a preposition . The “rule” against doing so is overwhelmingly rejected by modern style guides and language authorities and is based on the rules of Latin grammar, not English.

Trying to avoid ending a sentence with a preposition often results in very unnatural phrasings. For example, turning “He knows what he’s talking about ” into “He knows about what he’s talking” or “He knows that about which he’s talking” is definitely not an improvement.

No, ChatGPT is not a credible source of factual information and can’t be cited for this purpose in academic writing . While it tries to provide accurate answers, it often gets things wrong because its responses are based on patterns, not facts and data.

Specifically, the CRAAP test for evaluating sources includes five criteria: currency , relevance , authority , accuracy , and purpose . ChatGPT fails to meet at least three of them:

• Currency: The dataset that ChatGPT was trained on only extends to 2021, making it slightly outdated.
• Authority: It’s just a language model and is not considered a trustworthy source of factual information.
• Accuracy: It bases its responses on patterns rather than evidence and is unable to cite its sources .

So you shouldn’t cite ChatGPT as a trustworthy source for a factual claim. You might still cite ChatGPT for other reasons – for example, if you’re writing a paper about AI language models, ChatGPT responses are a relevant primary source .

ChatGPT is an AI language model that was trained on a large body of text from a variety of sources (e.g., Wikipedia, books, news articles, scientific journals). The dataset only went up to 2021, meaning that it lacks information on more recent events.

It’s also important to understand that ChatGPT doesn’t access a database of facts to answer your questions. Instead, its responses are based on patterns that it saw in the training data.

So ChatGPT is not always trustworthy . It can usually answer general knowledge questions accurately, but it can easily give misleading answers on more specialist topics.

Another consequence of this way of generating responses is that ChatGPT usually can’t cite its sources accurately. It doesn’t really know what source it’s basing any specific claim on. It’s best to check any information you get from it against a credible source .

No, it is not possible to cite your sources with ChatGPT . You can ask it to create citations, but it isn’t designed for this task and tends to make up sources that don’t exist or present information in the wrong format. ChatGPT also cannot add citations to direct quotes in your text.

Instead, use a tool designed for this purpose, like the Scribbr Citation Generator .

But you can use ChatGPT for assignments in other ways, to provide inspiration, feedback, and general writing advice.

GPT  stands for “generative pre-trained transformer”, which is a type of large language model: a neural network trained on a very large amount of text to produce convincing, human-like language outputs. The Chat part of the name just means “chat”: ChatGPT is a chatbot that you interact with by typing in text.

The technology behind ChatGPT is GPT-3.5 (in the free version) or GPT-4 (in the premium version). These are the names for the specific versions of the GPT model. GPT-4 is currently the most advanced model that OpenAI has created. It’s also the model used in Bing’s chatbot feature.

ChatGPT was created by OpenAI, an AI research company. It started as a nonprofit company in 2015 but became for-profit in 2019. Its CEO is Sam Altman, who also co-founded the company. OpenAI released ChatGPT as a free “research preview” in November 2022. Currently, it’s still available for free, although a more advanced premium version is available if you pay for it.

OpenAI is also known for developing DALL-E, an AI image generator that runs on similar technology to ChatGPT.

ChatGPT is owned by OpenAI, the company that developed and released it. OpenAI is a company dedicated to AI research. It started as a nonprofit company in 2015 but transitioned to for-profit in 2019. Its current CEO is Sam Altman, who also co-founded the company.

In terms of who owns the content generated by ChatGPT, OpenAI states that it will not claim copyright on this content , and the terms of use state that “you can use Content for any purpose, including commercial purposes such as sale or publication”. This means that you effectively own any content you generate with ChatGPT and can use it for your own purposes.

Be cautious about how you use ChatGPT content in an academic context. University policies on AI writing are still developing, so even if you “own” the content, you’re often not allowed to submit it as your own work according to your university or to publish it in a journal.

ChatGPT is a chatbot based on a large language model (LLM). These models are trained on huge datasets consisting of hundreds of billions of words of text, based on which the model learns to effectively predict natural responses to the prompts you enter.

ChatGPT was also refined through a process called reinforcement learning from human feedback (RLHF), which involves “rewarding” the model for providing useful answers and discouraging inappropriate answers – encouraging it to make fewer mistakes.

Essentially, ChatGPT’s answers are based on predicting the most likely responses to your inputs based on its training data, with a reward system on top of this to incentivise it to give you the most helpful answers possible. It’s a bit like an incredibly advanced version of predictive text. This is also one of ChatGPT’s limitations : because its answers are based on probabilities, they’re not always trustworthy .

OpenAI may store ChatGPT conversations for the purposes of future training. Additionally, these conversations may be monitored by human AI trainers.

Users can choose not to have their chat history saved. Unsaved chats are not used to train future models and are permanently deleted from ChatGPT’s system after 30 days.

The official ChatGPT app is currently only available on iOS devices. If you don’t have an iOS device, only use the official OpenAI website to access the tool. This helps to eliminate the potential risk of downloading fraudulent or malicious software.

ChatGPT conversations are generally used to train future models and to resolve issues/bugs. These chats may be monitored by human AI trainers.

However, users can opt out of having their conversations used for training. In these instances, chats are monitored only for potential abuse.

Yes, using ChatGPT as a conversation partner is a great way to practice a language in an interactive way.

Try using a prompt like this one:

“Please be my Spanish conversation partner. Only speak to me in Spanish. Keep your answers short (maximum 50 words). Ask me questions. Let’s start the conversation with the following topic: [conversation topic].”

Yes, there are a variety of ways to use ChatGPT for language learning , including treating it as a conversation partner, asking it for translations, and using it to generate a curriculum or practice exercises.

AI detectors aim to identify the presence of AI-generated text (e.g., from ChatGPT ) in a piece of writing, but they can’t do so with complete accuracy. In our comparison of the best AI detectors , we found that the 10 tools we tested had an average accuracy of 60%. The best free tool had 68% accuracy, the best premium tool 84%.

Because of how AI detectors work , they can never guarantee 100% accuracy, and there is always at least a small risk of false positives (human text being marked as AI-generated). Therefore, these tools should not be relied upon to provide absolute proof that a text is or isn’t AI-generated. Rather, they can provide a good indication in combination with other evidence.

Tools called AI detectors are designed to label text as AI-generated or human. AI detectors work by looking for specific characteristics in the text, such as a low level of randomness in word choice and sentence length. These characteristics are typical of AI writing, allowing the detector to make a good guess at when text is AI-generated.

But these tools can’t guarantee 100% accuracy. Check out our comparison of the best AI detectors to learn more.

You can also manually watch for clues that a text is AI-generated – for example, a very different style from the writer’s usual voice or a generic, overly polite tone.

Our research into the best summary generators (aka summarisers or summarising tools) found that the best summariser available in 2023 is the one offered by QuillBot.

While many summarisers just pick out some sentences from the text, QuillBot generates original summaries that are creative, clear, accurate, and concise. It can summarise texts of up to 1,200 words for free, or up to 6,000 with a premium subscription.

Try the QuillBot summarizer for free

Deep learning requires a large dataset (e.g., images or text) to learn from. The more diverse and representative the data, the better the model will learn to recognise objects or make predictions. Only when the training data is sufficiently varied can the model make accurate predictions or recognise objects from new data.

Deep learning models can be biased in their predictions if the training data consist of biased information. For example, if a deep learning model used for screening job applicants has been trained with a dataset consisting primarily of white male applicants, it will consistently favour this specific population over others.

A good ChatGPT prompt (i.e., one that will get you the kinds of responses you want):

• Gives the tool a role to explain what type of answer you expect from it
• Is precisely formulated and gives enough context
• Is free from bias
• Has been tested and improved by experimenting with the tool

ChatGPT prompts are the textual inputs (e.g., questions, instructions) that you enter into ChatGPT to get responses.

ChatGPT predicts an appropriate response to the prompt you entered. In general, a more specific and carefully worded prompt will get you better responses.

Yes, ChatGPT is currently available for free. You have to sign up for a free account to use the tool, and you should be aware that your data may be collected to train future versions of the model.

To sign up and use the tool for free, go to this page and click “Sign up”. You can do so with your email or with a Google account.

A premium version of the tool called ChatGPT Plus is available as a monthly subscription. It currently costs £16 and gets you access to features like GPT-4 (a more advanced version of the language model). But it’s optional: you can use the tool completely free if you’re not interested in the extra features.

You can access ChatGPT by signing up for a free account:

• Follow this link to the ChatGPT website.
• Click on “Sign up” and fill in the necessary details (or use your Google account). It’s free to sign up and use the tool.
• Type a prompt into the chat box to get started!

A ChatGPT app is also available for iOS, and an Android app is planned for the future. The app works similarly to the website, and you log in with the same account for both.

According to OpenAI’s terms of use, users have the right to reproduce text generated by ChatGPT during conversations.

However, publishing ChatGPT outputs may have legal implications , such as copyright infringement.

Users should be aware of such issues and use ChatGPT outputs as a source of inspiration instead.

According to OpenAI’s terms of use, users have the right to use outputs from their own ChatGPT conversations for any purpose (including commercial publication).

However, users should be aware of the potential legal implications of publishing ChatGPT outputs. ChatGPT responses are not always unique: different users may receive the same response.

Furthermore, ChatGPT outputs may contain copyrighted material. Users may be liable if they reproduce such material.

ChatGPT can sometimes reproduce biases from its training data , since it draws on the text it has “seen” to create plausible responses to your prompts.

For example, users have shown that it sometimes makes sexist assumptions such as that a doctor mentioned in a prompt must be a man rather than a woman. Some have also pointed out political bias in terms of which political figures the tool is willing to write positively or negatively about and which requests it refuses.

The tool is unlikely to be consistently biased toward a particular perspective or against a particular group. Rather, its responses are based on its training data and on the way you phrase your ChatGPT prompts . It’s sensitive to phrasing, so asking it the same question in different ways will result in quite different answers.

Information extraction  refers to the process of starting from unstructured sources (e.g., text documents written in ordinary English) and automatically extracting structured information (i.e., data in a clearly defined format that’s easily understood by computers). It’s an important concept in natural language processing (NLP) .

For example, you might think of using news articles full of celebrity gossip to automatically create a database of the relationships between the celebrities mentioned (e.g., married, dating, divorced, feuding). You would end up with data in a structured format, something like MarriageBetween(celebrity 1 ,celebrity 2 ,date) .

The challenge involves developing systems that can “understand” the text well enough to extract this kind of data from it.

Knowledge representation and reasoning (KRR) is the study of how to represent information about the world in a form that can be used by a computer system to solve and reason about complex problems. It is an important field of artificial intelligence (AI) research.

An example of a KRR application is a semantic network, a way of grouping words or concepts by how closely related they are and formally defining the relationships between them so that a machine can “understand” language in something like the way people do.

A related concept is information extraction , concerned with how to get structured information from unstructured sources.

Yes, you can use ChatGPT to summarise text . This can help you understand complex information more easily, summarise the central argument of your own paper, or clarify your research question.

You can also use Scribbr’s free text summariser , which is designed specifically for this purpose.

Yes, you can use ChatGPT to paraphrase text to help you express your ideas more clearly, explore different ways of phrasing your arguments, and avoid repetition.

However, it’s not specifically designed for this purpose. We recommend using a specialised tool like Scribbr’s free paraphrasing tool , which will provide a smoother user experience.

Yes, you use ChatGPT to help write your college essay by having it generate feedback on certain aspects of your work (consistency of tone, clarity of structure, etc.).

However, ChatGPT is not able to adequately judge qualities like vulnerability and authenticity. For this reason, it’s important to also ask for feedback from people who have experience with college essays and who know you well. Alternatively, you can get advice using Scribbr’s essay editing service .

No, having ChatGPT write your college essay can negatively impact your application in numerous ways. ChatGPT outputs are unoriginal and lack personal insight.

Furthermore, Passing off AI-generated text as your own work is considered academically dishonest . AI detectors may be used to detect this offense, and it’s highly unlikely that any university will accept you if you are caught submitting an AI-generated admission essay.

However, you can use ChatGPT to help write your college essay during the preparation and revision stages (e.g., for brainstorming ideas and generating feedback).

ChatGPT and other AI writing tools can have unethical uses. These include:

• Reproducing biases and false information
• Using ChatGPT to cheat in academic contexts
• Violating the privacy of others by inputting personal information

However, when used correctly, AI writing tools can be helpful resources for improving your academic writing and research skills. Some ways to use ChatGPT ethically include:

• Following your institution’s guidelines
• Critically evaluating outputs
• Being transparent about how you used the tool

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Good academic writing should be understandable to a non-expert reader, and we believe that academic editing is a discipline in itself. The research, ideas and arguments are all yours – we’re here to make sure they shine!

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Dissertation vs Thesis: Your 2024 Guide

If you’ve been thinking about going to graduate school, you may be familiar with the application requirements, rigorous academic schedule, and thesis or dissertation you’ll be expected to complete. So, what exactly is the difference between a thesis and a dissertation? While there are similarities, there’s a clear difference between the two. In our guide, we compare dissertation vs thesis. Discover more about both – and what you can expect during your graduate program. Let’s get started!

• Table of Contents

What Is a Thesis?

A thesis is an academic paper or project that’s completed towards the end of a master’s degree program . It is typically completed as the capstone project , meaning it’s the final project required for a student to graduate.

Students need to select a narrow, specific topic within – or relating to – their field of study. Once they’ve selected a topic, students must conduct an in-depth review of existing research on their chosen subjects. The next step is to formulate an academic argument, an assertion they’ll need to support or prove with said research.

Therefore, a thesis is akin to an in-depth research paper. It’s comprised of research that essentially proves what a student has learned during their program.

What Is a Typical Thesis Structure?

A thesis generally follows a rigid structure that’s decided by the program, department, or university. Here is an example of a thesis structure:

• The Title Page
• Summary of Thesis Abstract
• Table of Maps and Figures
• The Thesis Body (Sometimes divided into chapters)
• The Results or Conclusion

Who Needs to Complete a Thesis?

Most master’s degree programs require students to complete a thesis. While some undergraduate programs may also require a thesis, these are generally shorter and narrower in scope.

Some programs will also require a master’s student to defend their thesis in front of a panel or committee.

What Is a Dissertation?

What is “the PhD paper” called? Some people refer to it as a PhD thesis, but it’s most commonly known as a dissertation in the US. Dissertations are the capstone project required at the tail end of a PhD program . It is almost always required, except for a select few one-year PhD programs .

Much like a thesis, dissertations are also academic papers that aim to prove a student’s expertise – while adding to the current body of knowledge – in their field. Thus, a student must look at existing research and conduct their own research .

Basically, it’s the magnum opus of a doctoral journey in the United States. A dissertation isn’t just a long research paper; it’s a beast of a project. It demands extensive research, originality, and the ability to make a meaningful contribution to your chosen field. Think of it as a research odyssey guided by a seasoned mentor. Once you’ve conquered this scholarly quest and defended your findings, you’ll proudly emerge with your hard-earned doctoral degree, a testament to your dedication and scholarly prowess.

A dissertation typically comes after a PhD student completes their required courses and passes their qualifying exams. In some programs, the dissertation process is embedded into the coursework. In such cases, students receive a jump start on their work, allowing them to potentially finish their program earlier.

What Does a Dissertation Do?

PhD candidates must present a new theory or hypothesis. Alternatively, they must present their research to question (or disprove) the existing accepted theory on their chosen subject. Students may choose to tackle their topic from a new angle or take their research in a different direction.

Most programs will require students to defend their dissertations. During the defense, candidates must be able to justify the methodology of their research and the results and interpretation of their findings. Defenses are typically oral presentations in front of a dissertation committee , where the students are asked questions or presented with challenges.

Although the defense may seem daunting, PhD students work closely with their advisors to prepare for their dissertations. Students receive feedback and advice to guide their dissertations in their chosen direction.

What Is the Typical Dissertation Structure? 

Dissertations follow a rigid structure typically set by the program, department, or university. Here is an example format:

• The Acknowledgments Page
• The Abstract
• Introduction
• The Literature Review & Theoretical Framework
• The Methodology
• Findings/Results
• Discussions of the Findings, including analysis, interpretation, and applications
• The Conclusion
• List of References
• Any Appendices

What Is a Doctoral Thesis?

A doctoral thesis is a substantial piece of scholarly work that marks the pinnacle of a doctoral degree program, such as a PhD. Think of it as the academic grand finale. Its primary mission? To showcase the candidate’s mastery in their chosen field and their knack for delving deep into research.

In a nutshell, a doctoral thesis is a mammoth project that calls for originality. You’ve got to dig, investigate, gather data, crunch numbers, and present real data-supported findings. All this hard work usually happens under the watchful eye of a knowledgeable mentor. Once you’ve conquered this scholarly mountain and defended your thesis successfully, you’ll be proudly awarded your well-deserved doctoral degree. It’s the hallmark of your expertise and contribution to your field.

And how does a doctoral thesis differ from a dissertation? That’s mainly a geographic explanation. While they’re largely similar in scope and purpose, when comparing a doctoral thesis vs. a dissertation:

• A dissertation is the PhD capstone requirement in the US .
• A doctoral thesis is the PhD capstone requirement in Europe .

Related Reading: The Easiest PhDs

Dissertation vs. Thesis: The Similarities

In the master’s thesis vs dissertation discussion, there are plenty of similarities. Both are lengthy academic papers that require intense research and original writing. They’re also capstone projects which are completed at the tail end of their respective programs.

Students must work closely with their respective committees (e.g., faculty members, advisors, professionals) who provide feedback and guidance on their research, writing, and academic arguments. Both thesis and dissertation committees have a committee chair with whom the students work closely.

In some ways, the requirements for theses and dissertations are quite similar. They require a skillful defense of a student’s academic arguments. What’s more, both papers require critical thinking and good analytical reasoning, as well as in-depth expertise in the chosen field of study.

Students must also invest a significant amount of time into both projects while also being able to accept and action feedback on their work.

Dissertation vs. Thesis: The Differences

What are the differences between a PhD dissertation vs. thesis? The first and most distinct difference is the degree program requiring a PhD dissertation or thesis. A dissertation is typically the capstone project for a doctorate, while a thesis is the capstone project for a master’s degree program (or undergraduate program).

Candidates will have to defend their dissertation during an oral presentation in front of their committee. Only some master’s theses require this.

During a thesis, students typically conduct research by reviewing existing literature and knowledge on their chosen subject. During a dissertation, students must do their own research and prove their theory, concept, or hypothesis. They should also expect to develop a unique concept and defend it based on the practical and theoretical results achieved from their rigorous research.

Theses are also typically shorter (around 40 to 80 pages). Dissertations, however, are much longer (between 100 and 300 pages). Of course, the actual length of the paper may depend on the topic, program, department, or university.

Related Reading : PhD Candidate vs Student: What’s the Difference? 

Dissertations and Theses: US vs. Europe

Whether you’re in the US or Europe, dissertations and theses are similar. However, European requirements and conventions differ slightly:

Doctoral Thesis

To ensure your PhD graduation, a dissertation is generally required. Doctoral theses in Europe are much like a PhD dissertation in the US : You must complete your own research and add to the existing body of knowledge in your field.

Master’s Dissertation

It may seem odd to require a dissertation for master’s degree programs, but in Europe, this is exactly what you’ll need. A master’s dissertation is a broader post-graduate program research project , though it’s most typically required for master’s programs.

Frequently Asked Questions

Here are a few of the most common questions we hear about the meaning of thesis vs. dissertation.

Is a Thesis and a Dissertation the Same?

Yes and no. In some ways, a dissertation and a thesis are the same. For example, both require original writing, critical skills, analytical thinking, plenty of research, and lots of academic effort. However, a thesis is more commonly reserved for master’s – and some undergraduate – programs. Dissertations are generally required by PhD programs in the United States.

Additionally, a thesis typically calls for heavy research and compilation of existing knowledge and literature on a subject. A dissertation requires candidates to conduct their own research to prove their own theory, concept, or hypothesis – adding to the existing body of knowledge in their chosen field of study.

How Long Is a Thesis vs. a Dissertation?

One of the primary differences between thesis and dissertation papers is their length. While a thesis might be anywhere from 40 to 80 pages long, a dissertation can easily run from 100 to 300. It’s important to note that these numbers depend on the specific program and university.

Does a PhD Require a Thesis or a Dissertation?

It all depends on where you are! While a US-based PhD requires you to complete a dissertation, a thesis (or “doctoral thesis”) is more commonly required for PhD candidates in Europe. In the US, a thesis is more commonly reserved for master’s degree programs and occasionally undergraduate programs. In Europe, a “master’s dissertation” is typically required for the completion of a master’s degree.

So, there you have it: an in-depth comparison of the dissertation vs. thesis academic requirements. Now that you know the primary similarities and differences between the two, it might become easier to decide your academic path. Just remember, you may be able to find a master’s program without a thesis or a doctorate without a dissertation requirement if you prefer. Good luck!

Are you ready to jump into your doctorate? Find out if you need a master’s degree to get a PhD .

Chriselle Sy

Chriselle has been a passionate professional content writer for over 10 years. She writes educational content for The Grad Cafe, Productivity Spot, The College Monk, and other digital publications.  When she isn't busy writing, she spends her time streaming video games and learning new skills.

• Chriselle Sy https://blog.thegradcafe.com/author/chriselle-sy/ When to Apply for Grad School: Easy Monthly Timeline [2025-2026]
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• Chriselle Sy https://blog.thegradcafe.com/author/chriselle-sy/ Graduate Certificate vs Degree: What’s the Difference? [2024 Guide]

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Dissertation vs Thesis: Understanding the Key Differences

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Undergraduate and graduate students often find themselves navigating the intricacies of higher education, including the requirement to complete a research project as part of their academic journey.

This can be a source of confusion, particularly when it comes to distinguishing between a dissertation and a thesis. While both terms are used interchangeably in some educational institutions, they actually have distinct meanings and purposes. Let's delve into the world of dissertations and theses, exploring their differences, purposes, and unique attributes.

Defining the Terms: Dissertation and Thesis

What is a dissertation.

A dissertation is a research project that marks the culmination of a doctoral program. It requires students to conduct original research and contribute new knowledge to their field of study. Dissertations are typically longer and more comprehensive than theses, as they delve deep into a specific topic, often spanning several chapters.

When embarking on a dissertation, students are expected to choose a research topic that is both relevant and original. This topic should contribute to the existing body of knowledge in their field and address a gap in current research. To accomplish this, students must thoroughly review the existing literature and identify areas that require further investigation.

What is a Thesis?

A thesis, on the other hand, is usually associated with a master's degree program. It is a research project that allows students to explore a particular topic in depth. Theses are generally shorter than dissertations, spanning fewer chapters. While they also require original research, the depth and scope may be narrower compared to a dissertation.

Similar to a dissertation, a thesis requires students to select a research topic and conduct a thorough literature review. However, due to the shorter length of a thesis, the literature review may not be as extensive as that of a dissertation. Nevertheless, it is still important for students to demonstrate a comprehensive understanding of the existing knowledge on their chosen topic.

Key Differences Between Dissertation and Thesis

Purpose and structure.

The primary difference between a dissertation and a thesis lies in their purpose and structure. A dissertation aims to contribute new knowledge to a specific field of study and is typically a more extensive and comprehensive project. It involves an in-depth exploration of a research problem or question, often requiring the collection and analysis of primary data. The structure of a dissertation usually includes multiple chapters, such as an introduction, literature review, methodology, results, discussion, and conclusion.

Furthermore, a dissertation often requires the student to engage in critical thinking, originality, and creativity to develop a unique contribution to the field. It may involve the development of new theories, models, or frameworks that can advance the understanding of a particular subject area.

Length and Depth of Research

Dissertations are known for their length and the depth of research they require. Doctoral candidates spend years conducting original research, analyzing data, and crafting comprehensive arguments. The research conducted for a dissertation is typically more extensive and rigorous compared to that of a thesis.

In addition, a dissertation often involves a thorough review of existing literature to establish a theoretical framework and identify research gaps. This review helps situate the research within the broader academic context and provides a foundation for the research design and methodology. The depth of research in a dissertation allows for a more comprehensive analysis and interpretation of the findings.

Degree Level and Requirements

Another key difference between dissertations and theses is the level of education for which they are typically required. Dissertations are a common requirement for doctoral degrees, such as Ph.D. programs, while theses are more commonly associated with master's degree programs. The specific requirements for each project may vary across institutions and academic disciplines.

Doctoral candidates are expected to demonstrate a high level of expertise and mastery in their field of study. They are often required to defend their dissertation orally in front of a committee of experts in the field. This defense allows for a rigorous examination of the research, ensuring its validity and contribution to the field.

On the other hand, theses for master's degrees are usually shorter in length and may not require the same level of originality and depth of research as a dissertation. However, they still require students to demonstrate their ability to critically analyze existing literature, conduct research, and present their findings in a coherent and scholarly manner.

Choosing Between a Dissertation and a Thesis

Factors to consider.

When deciding between a dissertation and a thesis, several factors should be taken into account. Firstly, consider your academic goals and the requirements of your degree program. If you aim to pursue a doctoral degree or a research career, a dissertation may be the most appropriate choice. However, if your goals are more focused on professional advancement or further specialization within your field, a thesis may suit your needs.

Understanding Your Academic Goals

Reflect on your academic interests and aspirations, as well as the amount of time and resources you are willing to invest in your research project. Each option comes with its own set of challenges and expectations, so it is important to choose the path that aligns with your academic and career goals.

The Process: From Proposal to Defense

The dissertation process.

The dissertation process involves multiple stages, starting with the development of a research proposal. Doctoral candidates must conduct a literature review, outline their research methodology, collect and analyze data, and present their findings in a comprehensive written document. The final step typically involves defending the dissertation orally, where candidates must respond to questions and critique from a committee of experts in the field.

The Thesis Process

The thesis process follows a similar trajectory but on a smaller scale. Students will still need to develop a research proposal, conduct a literature review, collect and analyze data, and present their findings in a written document. The defense process for a thesis may involve an oral presentation or an examination by a committee, depending on the institution's requirements.

The Role of Advisors in Dissertations and Theses

Guidance and support in the dissertation journey.

Dissertation advisors play a crucial role in guiding students through the research process. They provide valuable mentorship, offer insights into the field, and help refine research questions and methodologies. Advisor-advisee relationships are essential for the successful completion of a dissertation, as advisors provide ongoing feedback and support during the entire research journey.

Mentorship in the Thesis Process

Similarly, thesis advisors offer mentorship and guidance to students pursuing a master's degree. They help students refine their research topic, provide feedback on drafts, and ensure that the research project meets the required standards. Working closely with a knowledgeable advisor can significantly enhance a student's thesis experience and contribute to the overall success of the project.

Understanding the differences between dissertations and theses is essential for students embarking on their research journey. By considering their academic goals and evaluating the resources available, students can make an informed decision when choosing between a dissertation and a thesis. Additionally, the guidance and support provided by advisors throughout the process are invaluable and contribute to the successful completion of these significant research endeavors.

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Thesis vs. Dissertation: What’s the difference?

Thesis and dissertation are extensive research papers that differ in terms of their requirements, length, and purpose, with the former being associated with a master's degree and the latter with a doctoral degree, but are often used interchangeably.

Updated on September 15, 2023

A thesis and a dissertation are both extensive research papers, and both require literature searches and novel findings, but the two differ in various ways. Their definitions also differ across regions. Typically, in North America, a thesis is required for the completion of a master’s degree, while a dissertation is required for the completion of a doctoral degree. The former is long, while the latter is longer and more intensive.

Despite these differences, the two terms are often used interchangeably, especially among those who haven’t completed one or the other. Here, we’ll compare the components, length, and purpose of these two academic documents to clearly understand the differences between these important papers in the life of a graduate student.

What’s a thesis?

The term “thesis” explained here is generally consistent with how the word is used in North America to describe this substantive research paper.

A thesis is an extended argument (PDF). It is a research-based document that displays the student’s/author’s knowledge and understanding of a specific subject within their field of study. It generally presents findings on a particular topic. 

See this and this (PDFs) for examples. These superb master’s theses from Canada will give you an idea of the size and format of these papers.

Who would write a thesis?

You generally write a thesis if you’re undertaking a research-oriented master's degree program (as opposed to a practical program, which may require a capstone, internship, exam, etc.). 

The thesis is the essential part of a program’s research component, demonstrating the student's ability to critically analyze the literature and complete independent research. The process of writing a thesis involves exploring a specific research question, conducting a comprehensive literature review, collecting and analyzing data, and presenting findings in a structured and cohesive way.

A thesis' specific requirements and expectations differ depending on the academic institution, department, and program.

Components of a thesis

A thesis is typically presented in chapters. How many chapters will vary, but a common structure is:

• Introduction: Presents the research topic, purpose, and objectives, setting the context for the work.
• Literature review: Comprehensive survey of existing scholarly material related to the research topic, highlighting key theories and findings.
• Methodology: Describes the methods, procedures, and tools used in doing the research.
• Research: The actual performing of the study, collecting, and analyzing data relevant to the research question.
• Findings and conclusions: Gives the results obtained and explains their significance in relation to the research question.
• Limitations and future research: Outlines the study’s shortcomings and suggests potential areas for future investigation.

Within that structure, and in addition to those parts, a thesis may also include: 

• Cover page: Contains the thesis title, author's name, institution, department, date, and other relevant information
• Abstract : A brief summary of the thesis, highlighting the research objectives, methods, key findings, and conclusions.
• Certificates of own work
• Certificate of readiness to be included in the library
• Certificate that the research has not been presented to another university
• Acknowledgments
• Table of contents: List of the main sections, subsections, and corresponding page numbers.
• Index of figures and tables
• References: A comprehensive list of all the sources cited in the thesis, following a specific citation style (e.g., APA, MLA).
• Appendices (optional): Additional materials include:
• Abbreviations and/or acronyms used
• Questionnaire or interview schedule/s (if used)
• Data acquired in the form of transcripts or numeric tables
• Research protocol
• Ethics protocol

What’s a dissertation?

This is also viewed from a North American perspective, where a dissertation is usually the main research work toward completing a research-based doctoral program.

A dissertation is a comprehensive and in-depth research project completed as part of the requirements for a doctoral degree. It’s a substantial piece of original work that contributes new knowledge to a specific field of study.  Naturally, when it’s completed as the major requirement for earning a PhD, it’s longer, more detailed, and the expectations are higher.

Dissertations themselves can add to the literature in the field. For this reason, some students choose to publish them and have them indexed. The research and the data acquired while working on a dissertation can potentially lead to more publications and help define the researcher’s growing area of expertise.

See this and this (PDFs)  top-ranking dissertation on ProQuest for good examples.

Who would write a dissertation?

Completion and defense of a dissertation is a standard requirement for doctoral students to earn a PhD or another doctorate such as an EdD or DM. But some specialized degrees, such as a PsyD (Doctor of Psychology), JD (Juris Doctor) or DPT (Doctor of Physical Therapy) may have practice-based requirements in place of a research project, as these courses of study are geared more toward practical application.

Components of a dissertation

A dissertation’s components are generally the same as those of a thesis. You can look at the list above for a thesis to see what typically goes into a dissertation. But, if compared with a master’s thesis, most aspects are longer and more rigorous.

The word count requirements for theses can vary significantly, but doctoral dissertations often range 40,000–80,000 words or, per Harvard , 100–300 pages.

Differences between a thesis and a dissertation

As already touched on, the key differences are in where the two documents are used, length, and rigor. There are also regional differences.

A thesis typically demonstrates a master’s degree program student's grasp and presentation of a specific subject in their field of study. It normally involves a literature review, data analysis, and original research, but it is usually shorter and less comprehensive than a dissertation. The standards for rigor and novelty may also be lower.

A dissertation requires more extensive research, original contributions to the field, and a deeper exploration of the research topic. A dissertation is typically the output associated with a doctoral degree program.

The main differences in structure between a thesis and a dissertation are in the scope and complexity.

The word count requirement for theses and dissertations can vary depending on the institution and program.

A thesis is usually 20,000–40,000 words. However, there have been cases of mathematics dissertations that were only a few pages long!

Doctoral dissertations may range 60,000 to upward of 100,000 words, and exceed 100 pages. Many universities, however, seek around 80,000 words.

Oversight and process

A thesis may simply be submitted to the student's instructor, though rigorous thesis programs require a committee and defense. A dissertation will nearly always require the student to choose a chair, a committee, and then go through a more rigorous defense and revision (if necessary).

• Committee: Master's thesis committees usually have fewer members (typically 2–3) than doctoral dissertation committees (often 4–5, or even more).
• Guidance: Master's students often receive more detailed direction from advisers than doctoral students, who are expected to work more independently.
• Review: Dissertation reviews are typically more rigorous, often involving external reviewers, while thesis reviews are usually internal.
• Defense: A dissertation defense is generally more intense and formal, as it often involves a presentation to the wider academic community, while a thesis defense might be more confined and informal.
• Revision: The revision process for a doctoral dissertation is typically more extensive, given the larger scope of the project and higher stakes involved, compared with those for a master's thesis.

Regional differences

The terms' use varies among (and even within) countries. Here are some general regional differences:

In the United Kingdom, a thesis is commonly associated with both master's and doctoral degree programs. For example, the University College London  refers to a thesis for EngD, MPhil, MD(Res), and PhD degrees. At the University of Nottingham , a dissertation is written for a research master’s degree.

In Australia and New Zealand , “thesis” is generally used to refer to a substantial research project completed for a higher degree, though not limited to a master’s (you’ll find ample references to a “PhD thesis”).

In Latin American countries,  the thesis is commonly used to refer to both master's and doctoral research projects.

Closing thoughts

Both theses and dissertations are necessary documents for students in graduate programs. Despite the differences in expectations, and even in definitions of these papers, the student-author must do a diligent and rigorous job to earn their degree.

Here are a few helpful resources if you want to get into greater detail:

• Writing the Winning Thesis or Dissertation: A Step-By-Step Guide
• 100 PhD rules of the game to successfully complete a doctoral dissertation (PDF)
• Theses and Dissertations: A Guide to Writing in Social and Physical Sciences

Perfect the English on your thesis or dissertation

Whether you’re submitting a thesis or a dissertation, if it’s in English, it should:

• Have no grammatical or spelling mistakes
• Use field-appropriate language
• Concisely and clearly communicate your research.

That’s what AJE expert editors will do for you. Within days, you can receive an expert English edit of your work. The editor will be familiar with your field of study and will comprehensively improve both the language quality and the delivery of your message. Look into AJE English Editing .

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Dissertation vs Thesis: Understanding the Key Differences

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Embarking on an academic journey often involves deciphering the complexities of advanced research projects like dissertations and theses. While these terms might seem interchangeable, they possess distinctive changes in the world of higher education. A fundamental distinction between a thesis and a dissertation lies in their approach to research. A thesis typically involves synthesizing existing research and knowledge in your field, while a dissertation requires conducting original research, addressing research gaps, and making a substantive contribution to the academic domain. 

As you continue your higher education journey in academia, it’s critical to decipher the fundamental differences between dissertation and thesis that set them apart.

What Is a Thesis?

A thesis is a long-term academic research paper that presents an in-depth review of existing research on a specific subject. It requires extensive research, data collection, analysis, and critical interpretation of the findings. Although some undergraduate programs may mandate a thesis, it is more commonly expected in postgraduate studies, such as upon completing a master’s degree . 

What Is a Dissertation?

A dissertation is a longer and more comprehensive research project based on original research. It’s a substantial piece of academic writing required for the completion of a doctoral degree . The dissertation is the culmination of years of research, study, and expertise, contributing valuable insights in a particular field of study. 

Dissertation vs Thesis: Key Differences

Both theses and dissertations serve as culminating projects for program graduation, demanding a profound grasp of the research subject and analytical skills to substantiate findings. Despite these commonalities, significant differences set them apart. The key differences include: 

Academic and Research Requirements

The academic requirements for a doctoral dissertation are clearly defined hypotheses, a detailed methodology section, rigorous data analysis, and a critical discussion of the results in the context of existing literature.

In contrast, the requirements for a master’s thesis include a thorough literature review, methodology, data analysis, and a conclusion that summarizes the findings.

Research requirements are also more extensive for dissertations compared to theses, as they include conducting original experiments and studies.

Length and Complexity

The length of a dissertation or a thesis varies according to the topic and the method of analysis, or it can vary based on the departmental requirements. Usually, a master’s thesis is around 40-80 pages, sometimes up to 100 pages. A dissertation, however, is significantly longer, ranging from 100 to 300 pages and sometimes up to 400. 

Dissertations and theses also vary on the level of complexity. While the thesis requires a thorough literature review and analysis of existing research, it’s less complex than a dissertation. Moreover, the original research is limited, contrary to dissertations involving extensive original research (experiments and studies). 

Research Objectives

The research objectives are an essential component that can guide the research project and highlight the specific goals to achieve. Moreover, they outline the grounds for pursuing a particular topic.

However, they can vary depending on the academic level and the nature of the research. In a master’s thesis, the research objectives usually focus on addressing specific research questions related to the chosen topic, to deepen the understanding of existing theories within the field of study. Contrarily, in a doctoral dissertation, the research objectives are broader and are formulated to address complex research gaps, propose new theories, and contribute to the academic field. 

Timeframe and Milestones

The timeframe depends on internal factors like the student’s work pace and personal circumstances and external factors like the complexity of the subject, availability of resources, and academic level. While we can’t give a definitive answer, it usually takes a couple of semesters or 1-2 years to complete a master’s thesis. On the contrary, a doctoral dissertation is more time-consuming and can take 4-7 years to complete. 

Although there are many similarities between the milestones for completing a thesis and a dissertation, such as topic selection, literature review, and data collection, their differences lie in the higher complexity of doctoral dissertations, including original research, review by the advisory committee, and publication. 

Review and Approval Process

The review and approval process is vital to evaluate the quality of research, analysis, and presentation. Although the overall process is similar for both a master’s thesis and a doctoral dissertation, the scrutiny applied to dissertations is notably more rigorous. For a master’s thesis, a committee of professors or advisors within the university’s department evaluates the thesis for adherence to academic standards, clarity, and coherence. Following the review, approval is granted to the thesis if the evaluators are content with the student’s work. On the other hand, for a doctoral dissertation, the review process includes a committee of experts in the field, often external reviewers, to assess the dissertation’s quality, methodology, and contribution to the academic field. The approval process is more challenging as it may require defending the dissertation orally and answering questions from the committee members and to a broader audience than a master’s thesis presentation.

Potential for Publication

Lastly, one of the main differences between a dissertation and a thesis is the potential for publication. As the dissertation is more extensive and requires original research contributing to the academic field, theses are less likely to be published in a peer-reviewed journal. Although a master’s thesis is more narrowly focused, it can still be published as a single article. In contrast, a doctoral dissertation is generally equivalent to at least three articles. 

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The Scope of Dissertation vs Thesis

While both require extensive research and dedication, the thesis has a narrower scope on a specific topic within the field of study. It aims to illustrate the student’s mastery of the subject matter, ability to synthesize existing research, and ability to present coherent arguments. On the other hand, the dissertation has a broader scope , encompassing a comprehensive analysis of a complex research problem or exploring interconnected topics in the field. It aims to showcase the student’s expertise and ability to conduct original and independent research and contribute new knowledge in the field. 

As we draw the curtain in exploring the factors that differentiate a thesis and a dissertation, it becomes evident that both academic endeavors are crucial in unraveling discoveries. A master’s thesis showcases analytical finesse and a deep understanding of existing theories. And a doctoral dissertation displays new groundbreaking insights, original research, and innovative methodologies. Therefore, while they may have substantial differences, they remain a driving force in shaping the future of academia. 

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs): What is the main difference between a dissertation and a thesis?

While many factors differentiate a dissertation and a thesis, the main difference is their academic level. A thesis is usually required at the end of a master’s degree program. In contrast, a dissertation is necessary to complete a doctoral degree.

How long does it take to complete a thesis or a dissertation?

The time it takes to complete a thesis or a dissertation depends on the complexity of the research, the availability of resources, and the student’s work pace. Usually, it takes a couple of semesters to complete a thesis at the end of a master’s program. In contrast, completing a doctoral dissertation can take four to seven years.

Is there a difference in the level of research expected in a dissertation vs a thesis?

Although a thesis requires a significant amount of research literature review and analysis of existing studies, a dissertation demands a higher level of original research through identifying research gaps, developing new hypotheses, conducting experiments, and collecting and analyzing data. 

Are there any specific publication or accessibility differences between dissertations and theses?

Yes, there are specific publication and accessibility differences between dissertations and theses. Doctoral dissertations are usually published and made public through university libraries or digital repositories. Whereas a master’s thesis is less frequently published in academic journals compared to doctoral dissertations. Theses are often made available within the university’s library or department.

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• Difference Between Thesis and Dissertation: Key Differences
• Difference Between Thesis and Dissertation: Learn More Today

Difference between dissertation and thesis: Similarities and differences

Tips on writing and planning thesis, recommendations on writing a high-quality dissertation, what is the difference between a thesis and a dissertation: final thoughts.

Dissertation and thesis are often thought to be the same thing. Nevertheless, in many countries the difference between thesis and dissertation is huge. In some universities, thesis and dissertation have the same meaning. So what is the difference between thesis? In this article, you will find out everything you need to know about both types of literary works.

What is the difference between thesis and dissertation? Before taking a look at distinctions, first, let’s see what the similarities between both documents are.

• Both thesis and dissertation have the same meaning in many universities and can be interchangeable.
• Thesis and dissertation have similar time frames when the work has to be done and submitted. And if it is not done by some period of time, it will result in the loss of points.
• In order to get a certain type of degree, you need to write a thesis or dissertation, and then defend it.
• If students are working on any of these papers, they should not steal the words of other writers. If a professor detects plagiarism , neither a thesis or dissertation will be accepted.
• Before writing actual papers, a student has to create a proposal for a thesis or dissertation. A goal of the proposal is to describe the purpose of the future paper.

Here are some of the differences between thesis and dissertation:

• In many universities, thesis and dissertation are meant for getting different degrees. The thesis is written to get a Master’s degree when the dissertation is usually for the Ph.D. degree .
• A dissertation requires much more research than a thesis, which makes the dissertation a more complex paper.
• The dissertation is usually longer than a thesis.
• For the dissertation, you will have to focus on a more specific topic that you have studied.

If you are trying to find out what is the difference between thesis and dissertation, you should know a thing or two about writing both types of work. Here are some of the tips on composing a good thesis:

• Know the topic of your paper. Many students fail to pose a specific question that they are going to answer in the thesis, and this is where the problems begin. Set the goal of your thesis.
• Instead of writing everything at once, divide your thesis into smaller parts. This advice is also suitable for writing your dissertation. It’s going to be much easier to write something if it is separated into a few pieces.
• Don’t just blindly trust your thesis supervisor. Even though it is a person with much more experience than you have (mostly), don’t listen to every advice they give you. Trust your own feelings and knowledge, and don’t do something just because someone else thinks it’s a good idea.
• Come up with counter-arguments. In your thesis, you will try to prove your point of view. In order to convince someone about anything, you need to know what the counterarguments are and how to react to them.

A thesis requires some thinking and researching, but in the end, you will be proud of yourself. The thesis is a great way to get a scholarship or grant, so do your best to write it well!

Here are some tips on how to create an amazing dissertation:

• Never wait until the last moment to start writing your dissertation. A dissertation requires a lot of work, and if you wait until the deadline, you will not be able to write a good paper.
• Use samples of other dissertations to see how others handled this task. You should never compare your work with others. Check out how graduated students mastered the dissertation, and learn from their experience.
• Work on the structure of your dissertation. Create a plan for your dissertation and try to stick to it.
• When writing a dissertation, leave your introduction for the last moment. After you are done with the rest of the text, you will know exactly how to present your topic in the beginning.

What is the difference between thesis and dissertation? Hard to say. But for many students dissertation is often more complicated, Writing a dissertation is difficult, but not impossible: just do your best.

What’s the Difference Between a Dissertation vs. Thesis?

If you plan to pursue an advanced degree, you may be wondering about the differences between dissertation vs. thesis projects.

Most candidates in master’s or PhD programs are required to complete a final project in the form of a thesis or dissertation before graduating.

Editorial Listing ShortCode:

Because both a master’s thesis and a doctoral dissertation consist of in-depth research, analysis, and writing, some people use the terms interchangeably. They are separate assignments, though, that are completed at different stages in a student’s academic journey.

What’s the Difference Between a Dissertation vs. Thesis?

Students enrolled in masters degree programs typically write a thesis, whereas doctoral students complete a dissertation.

Although these projects are both research-based and are usually required for graduation, they have different lengths, requirements, and timeframes. Knowing how to distinguish between them is vital for anyone hoping to attend graduate school.

What Is a Thesis?

A thesis is a scholarly paper that many students write before completing their master’s programs. Most graduate schools require students to submit a thesis that reflects the breadth and depth of their knowledge of the field and demonstrates their advanced research skills.

To create a thesis, students begin by selecting a topic of interest and conducting extensive research in that area. That information serves as the basis for a lengthy paper that describes the student’s position on the subject and presents evidence proving their assertion. Although it’s not common, some undergraduate schools also require students to write a short thesis.

What Is a Dissertation?

A dissertation is a doctoral-level project that is a standard feature of PhD programs. When completing a dissertation, a student will conduct original or expanded research that can contribute to their field and solidify their status as a scholar.

So, what’s a dissertation and how long does it take to write one? Dissertations are often hundreds of pages in length and are completed over several years. They reflect that a student not only understands the current state of the field but also has a unique approach to the subject matter. After writing a dissertation, a student must defend it to a committee and faculty chair, who determine whether it is acceptable.

A number of universities now offer doctorate programs without dissertations but have a capstone project for completion. Common programs are DBA degrees or doctoral programs in education with no dissertation online or on campus.

Differences Between a Dissertation vs. Thesis

A dissertation and thesis are distinct in important ways, including:

• Academic level . A thesis is generally the final project required for a master’s degree. Students complete a dissertation during their doctoral programs.
• Research requirements . Writing a thesis involves reviewing and compiling information from reputable sources. To complete a dissertation, students must also present new information based on original research.
• Length . The difference in the length of a PhD dissertation vs. masters thesis is noteworthy. A thesis is typically between 50 and 100 pages in length and is written during the final year of a master’s degree program. A dissertation is generally 100 to 400 pages long and may involve several years of work.
• Completion process . Students submit their thesis projects to a group of two or more faculty mentors. Dissertation projects culminate with an oral defense, where the student answers questions from a committee of various faculty members.

The difference between dissertation and thesis projects depends on where you’re studying. For instance, in the United Kingdom, master’s students complete a dissertation, and PhD students write a doctoral thesis.

Similarities Between a Thesis vs. Dissertation

Much like the similarity between a dissertation vs. capstone, a thesis is usually accomplished as a partial requirement for an academic degree. A thesis and a dissertation usually share these common features:

• Purpose . Thesis and dissertation projects are designed to indicate whether a student is ready to graduate.
• Required skills . To successfully write a dissertation or thesis, students often have strong writing, analytical, research, and editing skills.
• Process . To complete either project, students select a focused research area, review existing sources, and write a long paper summarizing their findings and analysis.
• Expectations . Students cannot commit plagiarism or act unethically.
• Benefits . Completing a thesis or dissertation helps students gain a more thorough understanding of their field, narrow down their career goals, and demonstrate their achievements.

If you intend to complete a doctoral dissertation, you may have the opportunity to expand on the research from your master’s thesis or select a new area of interest.

Theses and Dissertations

There may be a difference between a thesis and a dissertation in terms of when students complete them, how long they are, and what type of research they involve, but they are both beneficial academically and professionally.

These projects provide students with an opportunity to gain expertise in their fields and prepare for their careers. Graduates also sometimes publish their work as journal articles or books. Having a record of publications may strengthen your candidacy for future positions. Writing a dissertation or thesis is challenging, but it can be a valuable experience.

You can take the next step in your educational journey today by researching accredited master’s and PhD programs.

Thesis Vs. Dissertation — Know the difference and similarities!

The academic world is filled with many different types of writing assignments, each with its own unique set of requirements and expectations. One common source of confusion for students is the distinction between a thesis and a dissertation. Both are long-form academic works, but there are several key differences between the two that are important to understand.

In Shakespeare’s day, a candidate for a master’s degree would write a thesis, an original paper in which he maintained a certain proposition. Whereas, completion of a doctoral program required submission and defense of a dissertation. He would read his thesis to his committee, after which he sat in silence while two faculty members gave point-by-point refutations of everything the candidate said.

The focus here was on the student’s ideas and his ability to arrange and express them clearly. If a student wished to advance further in academia he could pursue a dissertation. This was more of a  literature review . He would read widely in a particular area and write up his findings, discussing the various authorities and their opinions. The point was to demonstrate that he was well-versed in the literature of the field. While the confusion between the two terms is understandable, we shall tackle the dissertation vs. thesis topic in this article and provide unambiguous insights on it.

Table of Contents

What Is a Thesis?

A thesis is a critically written scholarly piece of research work. Typically, it is submitted by students graduating from a master’s program. The purpose of a thesis is to allow students to showcase their knowledge and expertise within the subject matter they have been studying as part of the program.

What Is a Dissertation?

A dissertation is a comparatively lengthier piece of scholarly writing that accounts for your research work throughout the doctoral program. A researcher earns the Ph.D. after submitting and defending his/her dissertation. It includes all information about the original research or expanded research on a new or existing topic conducted by the Ph.D. candidate.

Dissertation vs. Thesis: Differences

• The primary difference between a thesis and a dissertation is the time when they are completed. As mentioned earlier, a thesis is presented at the culmination of a master’s program, whereas, a dissertation is presented to earn a Ph.D.
• A thesis is a compilation of research ensuring that the researcher is well-informed and has knowledge about the research topic learned in the study program. On the other hand, a dissertation provides an opportunity for the researcher to contribute new theories and information to the existing literature in the research field.
• A thesis is a presentation of learned and existing information, while the purpose of a dissertation is to develop a unique concept and defend it based on theoretical and practical results.
• A master’s thesis is approximately 100 pages in length. However, a Ph.D. dissertation should be much longer than a thesis and must include background and research information. A dissertation must include your research proposal, grant proposal, literature review , ideation of research topic, and every other minute detail about your research. Ideally, a dissertation inclusive of all details mentioned above should be three times the length of a master’s thesis.

Dissertation vs. Thesis: Similarities

• Both a thesis and a dissertation are considered final projects and are required to graduate from respective programs.
• The thesis and dissertation both require a deep and accurate understanding of the research problem.
• Both forms of scholarly written pieces must address specific research questions.
• Academic writing skills are imperative for a thesis as well as a dissertation.
• Ethical practices must be followed while collating and documenting research data.
• Plagiarism is not accepted in either.
• Both require analytical skills to support the findings.
• It is essential that both undergo intense dissertation/ thesis editing  and  critical proofreading  before final submission.

Dissertation vs. Thesis: Europe

In Europe, the original distinction between a thesis and a dissertation has been largely retained. A doctoral thesis is a focused piece of original research that is performed to obtain a Ph.D. A dissertation is part of a broader post-graduate research project.

However, the thesis has evolved since original research nowadays requires plenty of background research . So, a thesis will contain extensive citations and references to earlier work, although the focus remains on the original work that comes out of it.

Dissertation vs. Thesis: USA

In the United States, the definition of a thesis is almost the opposite of that in Europe. Because a thesis is shorter than a dissertation it gradually came to mean a preliminary degree on the way to a doctorate. A thesis is now performed to earn a Master’s degree. In scientific fields, a master’s candidate takes advanced coursework and gains hands-on experience in a research project but does not direct the project to the same extent that he would in a doctoral program. In a master’s project, the student’s ideas are welcomed and expected but the focus is on obtaining technical expertise, not doing original research. Engineering students commonly obtain Master’s degrees and seldom go on to get PhDs. In other fields such as Chemistry, the opposite is true, with a Master’s degree no longer being required as the first step for a doctorate. Almost everyone I know who received a Master’s degree in Chemistry got one because they dropped out of graduate school and wrote their truncated research as a Master’s project.

In a Nutshell

Needless to say, the dissertation vs. thesis facts are real. Therefore, using one term instead of another is not acceptable as an academic. One must remember the purpose of each and use them accordingly. However, one is not undermined by the other. Whether you are writing a thesis or a dissertation, both must be done with the same seriousness. Both require critical technical and soft skills. Improving your time management and academic writing skills plays a major role in acing both forms of scholarly writing.

How do you decipher dissertation vs. thesis? Should the interchanged usage of these terms be acceptable? How is your approach to writing a thesis different from that of a dissertation? What are the other differences associated with the thesis and dissertation? Let us know in the comments section below!

Frequently Asked Questions

"Dissertation" and "thesis" are used interchangeably but differ in: Academic Level: Thesis for master's, dissertation for doctoral degrees (US). Scope and Depth: Thesis shorter, demonstrates mastery; dissertation extensive, original research. Originality: Thesis may involve original analysis; dissertation presents significant new insights. Time and Effort: Dissertations require more resources and time than theses.

The length of a dissertation varies depending on factors like academic discipline, research topic, institution, and country. Generally, dissertations are longer than theses, ranging from 10,000 to over 100,000 words. However, word count alone does not reflect the quality or depth of the research. Guidelines from the academic institution should be consulted for specific requirements.

The length of a thesis varies depending on factors like academic discipline, research topic, institution, and country. Generally, the word count ranges from around 10,000 to 50,000 words. Specific guidelines from the academic institution should be consulted for precise requirements.

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Dissertation vs thesis: what’s the difference?

(Last updated: 29 May 2024)

Since 2006, Oxbridge Essays has been the UK’s leading paid essay-writing and dissertation service

We have helped 10,000s of undergraduate, Masters and PhD students to maximise their grades in essays, dissertations, model-exam answers, applications and other materials. If you would like a free chat about your project with one of our UK staff, then please just reach out on one of the methods below.

First thoughts

The summer seems a very long way away, particularly during a COVID lockdown when normal university life seems suspended. But round about now is when students begin thinking about their thesis dissertation. If you were hoping for a flash of inspiration to strike later on, remember that ‘chance only favours the well-prepared mind’!

When it comes to your thesis dissertation, it’s always good to start early. You can gather ideas, run initial thoughts past lecturers, and do some preliminary reading, at leisure. Your library can start retrieving your hard-to-find research materials. And the weeks, sometimes months, they take to arrive won’t stress you out! Meanwhile, you can set to work on initial thesis dissertations ideas. If, for whatever reason, they stop working out, you can discard them without penalty. There's ample time to come up with something new.

Often, initial ideas for the thesis dissertation are far too ambitious. They tend to be loose, baggy monsters, so broad in scope that they cannot tamed with even the most ingenious research and structure. Starting on your thesis dissertation now gives you time to step back and reflect. It gives you time to make good, strategic choices, without kettling yourself into a corner with limited time and no alternatives.

What is a thesis dissertation?

What precisely is a thesis dissertation? Strangely, this is a question often overlooked by both students and lecturers alike. Perhaps where you are studying it’s just called a ‘dissertation’ or a ‘thesis’. At which point, the question becomes: dissertation versus thesis – what’s the difference? This blog post attempts to answer just that question. It also shows how you can move forward in your studies, by understanding the difference between a dissertation and a thesis.

For undergraduates

If you are an undergraduate and have been tasked with writing a dissertation, this differs to a dissertation (or thesis) at postgraduate level.

The task you have been set is what many departments at the University of Oxford continue to call the ‘long essay’. This is an extended form that mimics the kind of written work that you’ve already been submitting throughout the year. It may be more ambitious than those other pieces of work. It may use more primary and secondary sources, and will likely be longer. But, overall, it will be similar in form and structure to your usual essays.

Be aware, though, that this is not always the case.

Recently, digital technologies have made research materials more readily accessible to larger audiences. In response, traditional long essays are evolving to resemble higher degree research. Oxford’s Faculty of History has been something of a pioneer in transferring undergraduates from ‘long essays’ to ‘theses’. ‘The thesis offers you the opportunity to engage in primary research on a subject of your own revising, and to work out arguments which are entirely your own, not a synthesis of the conclusions of others’, they explain, ‘[...] Some undergraduate theses are so good that they are ready to be published as they stand’ (University of Oxford, 2020).

The 12,000-word limit of these new undergraduate theses is comparable to that found in peer-reviewed journals. And other universities are following suit. They, too, are making changes towards this new research-based dissertation thesis model.

At the time of writing, these new research-based undergraduate theses are still quite rare. For now, the thesis dissertation remains central to organisation of higher, postgraduate degrees.

What the books say

Commercial press literature doesn't help much when it comes to the thesis versus dissertation discussion. Savvy writers and publishers are eager for as broad a readership – and as many library catalogue search hits – as possible. Because of this, they tend to hedge their bets when it comes to their choice of title.

Patrick Dunleavy goes with Authoring a PhD Thesis: How to Plan, Draft, Write and Finish a Doctoral Dissertation (2003). Joan Balker chooses Writing Your Dissertation in Fifteen Minutes a Day: A Guide to Starting, Revising, and Finishing Your Doctoral Thesis (1998).

Others bring the terms closer together. Randy L. Jayner chooses Writing the winning thesis or dissertation: a step-by-step guide (2018). R. Murray Thomas markets Avoiding Thesis and Dissertation Pitfalls: 61 Cases of Problems and Solutions (2001).

The thesis versus dissertation terminology gets even more strained as you move beyond the covers. Inger Mewburn’s How to Tame Your PhD (2013) discusses ‘the oddities of the thesis/dissertation process’. Fred Pyrczak does the same in his Completing Your Thesis or Dissertation (2000), ‘a book to help students with the thesis/dissertation’.

It’s a short skip from Nineties-looking ‘thesis/dissertation’ (complete with forward slash or oblique). And, from there, to the hybrid ‘thesis dissertation’ term that we’ve used so far. This is a term that can be spotted in Alet Kruger’s Corpus-Based Translation Studies (2011). It is also in Antonio Blanco’s Medical Biochemistry (2017), and many other books and publications.

Thesis and dissertation: a brief history

As the two terms blend, it is becoming harder to recognise the difference between 'thesis' and 'dissertation'. The appearance of the new 'thesis dissertation' catch-all doesn't help much either.

Historical usage offers a much-needed point of clarity. In the UK, the extended piece of work done at the end of a master’s degree has traditionally been called a ‘dissertation’. This has been the case since the seventeenth century. The long piece of work done as the primary requirement for a PhD has been called a ‘thesis’ for almost as long.

Cultural influences from America have unsettled these once-fixed definitions. Until the early twentieth century, America followed Britain closely when it came to the use of 'thesis' and dissertation.

Recording Dan Dodson vs The State, the Records and Briefs of the Supreme Court (1832) is one of the earliest mentions of the ‘doctoral thesis’ in America. ‘I have a doctoral thesis on this problem and it tends to say that the new building, at least in a short run, didn’t make that much difference’. As late as 1919, the University of Chicago’s Circular of Information, recorded the ‘Master’s Dissertation’ passed.

By the mid-1960s, however, the terms in America had reversed. The archives begin to discuss and cite the ‘Master’s Thesis’ and ‘Doctoral Dissertation’. The reason for this switch remains unclear. The classical etymologies of the terms don’t point to any distinction that might be pertinent to a dissertation vs thesis debate. ‘Dissertation’ comes from the Latin ‘dissertatio’ meaning ‘discussion or debate’. ‘Thesis’ comes from a Greek/late Latin ‘thesis’ meaning ‘placing, a proposition’. The origins of these words seem to allow for a flexible interchangeability. The fact that ‘dissertation’ and ‘thesis’ traded meanings in America indicate as much too.

It is anyone’s guess why America started referring to ‘Master’s Theses’ and ‘Doctoral Dissertations’. And this after more than a century of ‘Master’s Dissertations’ and ‘Doctoral Theses’.

In post-war America, there was an expansion of liberal arts colleges in America. This was accompanied by a proliferation of higher degrees. The master’s degree quickly became more significant, financially, than the doctoral degree. And it may be that, in this transition, the 'thesis' was transplanted over, from doctoral student to master’s, in an act of linguistic grade inflation.

American universities and colleges wanted their master’s students to feel proud and clever. In engineering this, they handed over the ‘thesis’ term from their more advanced doctoral counterparts.

The confusion that we witness in the Dissertation vs Thesis UK debate today is due to the exporting of these revised terms back from America to the UK. Their effect is amplified because of the increasing globalisation of higher education. Their effect is also amplified by a larger trans-Atlantic cultural homogenisation.

We have, then, considered two forces operating on the language of thesis dissertation. There is this American muddling of the traditional thesis/dissertation hierarchy. And there is a second, similar process at work, in the upgrade of undergraduate 'long essay' to 'dissertation' or 'thesis'. It is no longer practical or possible to draw a hard distinction between a thesis and a dissertation.

Interestingly, the confusion has not only resulted in the necessity of the ‘thesis dissertation’ hybrid term. It has, more sinisterly, afforded opportunities for unscrupulous academics to exaggerate their qualifications.

Potential for abuse

Recently, a public complaint was made against a British lecturer. This lecturer had listed postgraduate qualifications on his staff profile page. All of them were from prestigious universities.

For many years, these went unchecked and unchallenged. But, recently, one member of the public read the lecturer, bragging on social media that he’d been awarded a First for his research thesis.

The member of the public was sceptical of the truth of this claim. Postgraduate research degrees are not classified like undergraduate ones. They were unable to locate the lecturer’s thesis in centralised research catalogues. The complainant soon discovered the lecturer's postgraduate qualifications were actually undergraduate level. They were continuing education diplomas. These diplomas are a fine achievement for those who work hard to get them. But they are a far cry from the postgraduate qualifications from topflight universities that the academic had suggested.

At the time of writing, the academic’s qualifications were being investigated by his own university. They were also being investigated by the national Office for Students.

You can check people's CV claims by knowing about the different types of ‘thesis dissertations’. You can spot fraudulent behaviour when it comes your way! More usefully, knowing those differences allows you to judge what is expected of you, at whichever level you are studying.

Summary of differences

Writing a thesis dissertation at any level can be daunting, particularly if you’ve never attempted one before. If you’re unsure what your thesis dissertation should be, the best thing you can do is to read a few recent examples from your department or speak to your dissertation supervisor. How easy this is to do highlights one major difference between thesis and dissertation. What follows, to conclude, is a list of those major differences.

1. Accessibility and assessment

Undergraduate long essays are sometimes called dissertations or theses. These are internally assessed and not made publicly accessible. You will only be able to read them if you borrow them from former students or ask your lecturer for outstanding examples from previous years.

Master’s dissertations, also internally assessed, are stored either in departmental libraries and/or the university library. These can usually be accessed by physically visiting the library. More conveniently, master’s dissertations can also be requested via the UK’s Interlibrary loan agreement.

PhD theses, once externally examined, are stored both in the library of the host university and the national British Library. Theses are searchable through the British Library's online ETHOS catalogue.

As a rule, the greater the ease of public access, the more significant or important the thesis dissertation is deemed to be. The same is true of the use of external staff. Undergraduate and master’s-level courses are internally marked and externally moderated. Higher profile PhD theses are always externally examined.

Finally, undergraduate degrees are the only ones that receive grades or classifications. Master’s and PhD aren't classified – just a simple question of pass or fail.

2. Duration of study

In the UK, master’s degrees take one or two years of full-time study. The master’s dissertation is a significant component of that study. This is less so the case in special MRes or ‘master’s by research degrees’, where the dissertation plays a more central role in the course of study.

By contrast, PhDs take a minimum of three years. In practice, the PhD thesis is the sole work of a doctoral student. Any other study requirements, if any, are very limited by comparison.

3. Word count

The prescribed word count for thesis dissertations is indicative of the academic level at which they are pitched. Undergraduate dissertations tend to be no longer than 12,000 words. Master’s dissertations run at closer to 40,000. PhD theses usually clock in at 80,000 to 120,000 words. PhDs in Fine Art with a practice component tend to be shorter as they work alongside an exhibition of artwork.

If you are studying for a PhD, it’s worth noting that academic publishers prefer to publish new academics writing towards that minimum. If publishing is one of your postdoctoral ambitions, sticking to the lower limit could save you years of rewriting!

Original contribution to knowledge

Any student at any level of study can have an original thought, and it is always hugely satisfying to read when it occurs.

At undergraduate level, originality tends to be defined relatively loosely. A thoughtful synthesis of existing ideas is, in practice, usually assessed as original thinking, even if it isn’t, strictly original.

Original thinking an often be found in a master’s dissertation. But the emphasis continues to be on that synthesis of existing knowledge. Master’s students are expected to know the literature around their chosen subject thoroughly and have done their research. They are expected to demonstrate an expert command of its arguments. This is what they are primarily assessed on.

PhD theses, however, are made or broken by their original contribution to knowledge. Expert understanding of the subject tends to be relegated to an early literature review chapter. Out of review emerges a central, truly original idea, that propels the rest of the thesis.

As we have already seen, undergraduate theses can, in exceptional cases, be publishable. PhD theses, on the other hand, are far more ambitious with regards to publication. Their successful completion marks the first step in professional, academic career.

Choosing an academic editor

Also Read: Master’s Dissertation vs Undergraduate Dissertation: What’s the Difference?

We hope this blog post has cleared up any confusion you might have had about the difference between dissertation and thesis. A final note: at every level – undergraduate, master’s, or doctoral – meticulous presentation, correct referencing, appropriate register, robust argumentation, and strong evidence for those arguments are always rewarded.

Furthermore, the higher the level of degree, the more all these things are expected. Choosing an academic editor who knows your subject well is important at undergraduate level. But at master’s and PhD level, it becomes crucial. Those higher degrees are predicated on expert knowledge of the field and original contribution to knowledge.

Whoever you approach as an editor, always ask what direct experience they have that relates to your work. If the experience they state seems cursory or adjunct, be prepared to walk away and find someone else more familiar with your chosen field.

Top 10 tips for writing a dissertation methodology

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Know the Differences & Comparisons

Difference Between Thesis and Dissertation

Different countries define the words thesis and dissertation differently, i.e. in some countries they are used interchangeably, while in some countries thesis is related to bachelor’s or master’s degree course and dissertation is used in the context of a doctorate degree, whereas in some countries the reverse is true. In India, PhD scholars have to submit a thesis, while M.Phil students submit a dissertation.

So, the meaning of the two words varies from country to country. Broadly speaking, in a master’s degree course, all the students have to submit their thesis, which is nothing but the final project, to obtain their degree, whereas one needs to submit a dissertation, to acquire doctorate degree.

Come let’s move further to understand the difference between thesis and dissertation.

Content: Thesis Vs Dissertation

Comparison chart, similarities, research process.

Definition of Thesis

The word ‘thesis’ is originated from the Greek language which means “ something put forth “. Thesis implies a research document in written or printed form, prepared after conducting novel research on a particular topic and submitted to the university, for an academic degree.

Basically, it is meant to profess “ what the candidate believes and what they aim to prove .” Thesis prepared by the students should be good enough to indicate the actual thought behind the research, rather than just retelling the existing facts. And to do so, students need to collect a plethora of information and a lot of background reading, to have sufficient knowledge about the subject, to develop questions.

Students who pursue a master’s degree or professional degree course, are required to complete the thesis in their last semester, under the guidance of an Assistant Professor.

While preparing the thesis, first of all, the candidate needs to research the topic, for which he/she formulates a proposition, on the basis of the research work previously performed in the concerned field. The student analyzes this research work and gives his/her opinion thereon, on the information collected, and the way information is associated with the topic of study.

Attributes of an Ideal Thesis

• It should never be in the first person and does not contain vague language.
• It has to be contestable, i.e. putting forward a questionable, or arguable point with which people often disagree.
• It should be provocative.
• It declares the conclusion on the basis of evidence and facts, with certainty.
• It assumes and disproves counter-arguments.
• It should be complete, specific and focused.

Definition of Dissertation

The dissertation is a Latin term which refers to “ discussion “. In common terms, a dissertation is a structured research work, in which the Doctorate in Philosophy (PhD) scholars have to demonstrate their findings with a logical argument, as an answer to the proposition chosen by them.

The dissertation is prepared at the end of the PhD program , under a guide, who teaches, instructs and guides the candidate, regarding the selection of the topic, which is not just interesting but unique, original and contestable.

It is a kind of assessment which checks the researching skills and the knowledge of the students and their ability to defend the argument, which forms the basis for their final grade. It includes abstract, introduction, methodology, literature review, findings, discussion, conclusion and recommendation .

The candidate uses the research of other people, as a guide to arrive at and prove/disprove the own novel hypothesis, theory or concept. It takes years to complete the research work, i.e. to gather information, to compile the information in written form, to edit the material and cite the document.

The dissertation is based on original research, in the sense that the candidates have to decide the topic relating to his/her field of study, on which no primary research has been conducted, and arrive at a hypothesis, to perform original research so as to prove or disprove the hypothesis.

Key Differences Between Thesis and Dissertation

The difference between thesis and dissertation are discussed hereunder:

• Thesis refers to an extraordinary piece of writing prepared after a deep research on a topic as a part of university or degree program, wherein a particular idea or concept is put forward as a statement for further discussion. On the other hand, the dissertation implies a document that compiles research, which is a primary requirement for the doctoral program, to prove one’s findings.
• With the thesis, the student makes additions to the existing research, whereas with dissertation the student contributes to the novel discovery in the specific field of study.
• The thesis is all about claiming a hypothesis, whereas dissertation describes or explains, how the researcher proves or disproves the hypothesis.
• While the thesis is submitted at the end of the Graduate or Master’s degree program, as a final project, the submission of the dissertation is done at the end of the Doctorate program.
• The objective of the thesis is to check the candidate’s ability to critically think the topic and to intellectually discuss the information in-depth. On the contrary, the dissertation aims at showcasing the candidate’s capacity as a research scholar, i.e. the student’s ability in identifying the area of interest, exploring the topic, compiling the research work, developing questions and defending.
• When it comes to the length or size of the document, the dissertation is lengthier than a thesis, as the former is about 400 pages, while the latter extends to 100 pages.

While pursuing a higher degree course, the student needs to submit his/her research work, i.e. thesis or dissertation. Both present the candidate’s research and findings on the specific topic. Further, both are prepared under the guidance of an expert in the concerned field.

• Process of research starts with the preparation of a thesis or dissertation, which helps a student to excel in different areas, if they follow the research process, in a proper way.
• Formulating research proposal to explore a particular research question.
• Ascertaining and accessing resources, needed to perform the research work.
• Observe, analyse and review the existing research work.
• Opting a suitable research methodology.
• Preparing a report on the project, indicating the objective, method, findings, conclusion and recommendation.
• Interpreting the findings and generalizing the results.

The two types of research work, usually end up with an oral defence in front of the panel of examiners, wherein they ask the student, question relating to their study, findings and final paper. Its main aim is to check the student’s ability to defend their research work.

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September 3, 2023 at 1:59 am

this is very helpful

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Dissertation Vs Thesis: How Are They Different

Dissertation vs thesis! What are you writing? 

Table of Contents

Many graduate students from universities in Canada often get confused and mix both terms. While these terms are often used interchangeably, they carry distinct meanings and purposes in academia. Read this blog to fully understand the difference between a thesis and a dissertation. 

What Is A Dissertation

A dissertation is a substantial piece of academic writing typically required to complete a doctoral degree (such as a Ph.D.). It represents an original and significant contribution to the field of study and is usually the culmination of several years of research and study.

What Is A Thesis

A thesis is a scholarly piece of writing, usually at the master’s or undergraduate level, that presents an original research question, methodology, and findings. It represents the culmination of a student’s academic work and demonstrates their ability to contribute to the field of study.

The Evolution Of Dissertation Vs Thesis

The history of the thesis and dissertation dates back several centuries, and the evolution of these academic documents reflects changes in scholarly practices, educational systems, and the expectations of advanced degree programs. 

Medieval Origins

The concept of a scholarly thesis has roots in medieval universities. In the 12th and 13th centuries, institutions like the University of Paris introduced the practice of disputations, where students defended their theses in a public forum. These early theses were often theological or philosophical in nature.

Renaissance And Early Modern Period

During the Renaissance, the practice of defending theses continued to evolve. The 16th and 17th centuries saw an increasing emphasis on empirical observation and scientific inquiry. The thesis became more diverse, covering topics in natural philosophy, mathematics, and other emerging disciplines.

18th And 19th Centuries

The 18th century marked the formalization of the thesis as a requirement for academic degrees. Universities started to mandate the submission of a written document along with the oral defence. This practice became more standardized in the 19th century as universities across Europe and North America adopted similar academic norms.

Evolution Of The Dissertation

The term “dissertation” has its roots in the Latin word “dissertatio,” meaning “discussion.” Dissertations, as we understand them today, emerged in the 19th century, primarily in German universities. Doctoral candidates were required to produce substantial research demonstrating their ability to contribute original knowledge to their field.

20th Century

The 20th century saw a global expansion of higher education and an increase in the number of doctoral programs. The thesis and dissertation became integral components of graduate education worldwide. The structure, format (eg, APA or MLA ), and expectations for these documents varied among disciplines and institutions.

Electronic Theses And Dissertations (ETDs)

With the advent of digital technology in the late 20th century, there was a shift toward electronic submission of theses and dissertations. This made research papers more accessible and facilitated the dissemination of knowledge. Many universities now require the submission of ETDs.

Contemporary Trends In Dissertation Vs Thesis

In the 21st century, the thesis and dissertation continue to evolve. Educational institutions are adapting to new forms of scholarship , interdisciplinary research, and varied modes of dissemination. The focus is often on producing high-quality, original research that contributes significantly to the academic community.

What Is The Difference Between A Dissertation And A Thesis 

Thesis Vs Dissertation: Length And Depth

One of the key differences between a thesis vs dissertation lies in their length and depth of research:

Theses are typically shorter in length, ranging from 50 to 100 pages, depending on the institution and program requirements. The research conducted for a thesis is expected to contribute to the existing literature but may not need to be as exhaustive as that of a dissertation.

Dissertation

Dissertations, being the pinnacle of doctoral research, are substantially longer, often exceeding 100 pages and sometimes reaching several hundred pages. Doctoral candidates are expected to delve deeply into their chosen topic, conducting extensive research and offering a unique contribution to the academic community.

Dissertation Vs Thesis: Scope And Purpose

Another significant distinction between a dissertation vs thesis is the scope and purpose of the research:

The primary goal of a thesis is to demonstrate a student’s understanding of the subject and their ability to conduct independent research within a defined scope. A thesis is often more focused and may be an exploration or analysis of a specific aspect of a broader topic. For example, a finance thesis could be about any topic within the subject. 

Dissertations, being doctoral-level projects, have a broader scope. Doctoral candidates are expected to make an original and substantial contribution to the field, advancing existing knowledge and addressing gaps in the current literature. Dissertations often involve more extensive data collection, analysis, and synthesis of information.

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Dissertation Vs Thesis: The Similarities

While there are distinct differences between a thesis vs dissertation, they also share several similarities, reflecting their common purpose within academic research papers . Here are some key similarities between a dissertation and a thesis.

Research Component

Both dissertations and theses involve original research and scholarly inquiry. Students are expected to engage in a systematic investigation of a chosen topic, demonstrate a deep understanding of existing literature, and contribute new knowledge or insights to their field.

Academic Rigour

Both documents adhere to high standards of academic rigour and integrity. They require meticulous attention to detail, adherence to citation and referencing styles, and a commitment to intellectual honesty.

Formal Structure

Dissertations and theses typically follow a formal structure, including elements such as a thesis statement , an introduction, a literature review, methodology, results, a discussion, and a conclusion. This structured format ensures a comprehensive presentation of the research.

Faculty Guidance

In both cases, students work closely with faculty advisors or mentors throughout the research process. Advisors guide research design, literature review, data analysis, and other aspects of the project.

Oral Defense

A commonality between dissertations and theses is the requirement for an oral defence. In many academic institutions, students must defend their research findings before a committee of faculty members. This defence allows students to articulate their research methods, results, and conclusions, while also responding to questions and critiques.

Degree Requirement

Both a thesis and a dissertation serve as a crucial component for the completion of an academic degree. Thesis is typically associated with master’s programs, while dissertations are a requirement for doctoral degrees. In both cases, successfully completing the research project is essential for obtaining the respective degrees.

Contribution To Knowledge

Whether a thesis or a dissertation, the primary goal is to contribute to the existing body of knowledge in a particular field. Both documents aim to advance understanding, address gaps in the literature, and offer meaningful insights that can inform future research.

Literature Review

A comprehensive literature review is a common element in both dissertations and theses. This section provides context for the research by summarizing and critiquing relevant scholarly works, helping establish the rationale and significance of the study.

Frequently Asked Questions

What is the difference between a dissertation and a thesis.

A thesis is a shorter, master’s-level research document demonstrating mastery of a subject. A dissertation, typically for a doctoral degree, is longer and requires a more extensive, original contribution to the field.

What is the difference between a master thesis and dissertation?

A master’s thesis is a shorter research document showcasing mastery of a specific subject. A dissertation, associated with a doctoral degree, is more extensive, requiring a substantial, original contribution to the field.

Are thesis and dissertation the same thing?

No, a thesis and a dissertation are not the same. A thesis is a research document associated with a master’s degree, demonstrating mastery of a subject. A dissertation is a more extensive research document required for a doctoral degree, emphasizing original contribution to the field.

Where to find thesis and dissertations?

There are several online sources that can help you in finding the perfect thesis and dissertation for your research. ResearchProspect Canada is one of the leading and trustworthy brands, helping students achieve academic excellence.

What is electronic thesis and dissertation?

An Electronic Thesis and Dissertation (ETD) is a digital version of a student’s thesis or dissertation. It is submitted and stored electronically, allowing easy access, distribution, and archiving, reflecting the shift towards digital formats in academia.

How to cite theses and dissertation?

To cite theses and dissertations, follow the citation style specified by your academic institution or the preferred style guide (e.g., APA, MLA, Chicago). Include author, title, publication year, institution, and retrieval information for online sources, ensuring consistency and accuracy.

How to cite pro quest dissertation and theses APA?

To cite a ProQuest dissertation or thesis in APA format, use the following template: Author, A. A. (Year). Title of dissertation/thesis (Publication No.). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses Global. Include the ProQuest publication number for online sources.

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Dissertation vs thesis

Difference Between Dissertation and Thesis: An Overview

No matter the location or timing of your pursuit for a master's or doctoral degree, you'll probably need to undertake either a thesis or a dissertation. The primary distinction lies in the academic level of these requirements: a thesis is typically completed for a master's degree, whereas a dissertation is pursued for a doctoral degree.

Feeling stumped? Check out our comprehensive guide to know the distinctions between a dissertation and a thesis! Delve into their purpose, structure, and requirements. We’ll also clarify common questions and misconceptions along the way.

Our goal is to show how these two differ in scope, depth of research, and academic contexts, particularly across different regions like the United States and beyond. Our team offers expert insights to empower you on your academic journey.

Both can be daunting, so we’re ready with helping hands. Whether you're tackling a master's thesis or a doctoral dissertation, we're here to provide the support you need to succeed in your scholarly endeavors.

What is a Dissertation Vs Thesis? The Primary Differences

The primary distinction between a thesis and a dissertation lies in the degree they're aimed at: a thesis is typically required for a master's program, while a dissertation is necessary for a doctoral degree. The prospect of conducting extensive research and writing a substantial paper might seem daunting, but it's a manageable and rewarding part of your academic journey.

In the academic world, a thesis and a dissertation have different roles, not just in timing but in purpose too. Picture a thesis as the final lap of your master's degree journey, where you showcase your understanding of what you've learned. On the other hand, a dissertation is an ultimate challenge in your struggle to get a doctorate. It's your chance to pioneer new ideas and theories.

In simpler terms, a thesis is akin to following a recipe, where you compile existing knowledge to demonstrate your mastery, much like copying a tried-and-tested dish. Meanwhile, a dissertation is like crafting a completely new dish, requiring innovation and creativity to contribute fresh insights and theories to your field.

It's your chance to concoct something entirely novel and defend its value, similar to creating a unique culinary masterpiece from scratch. So, whether you're wrapping up your master's degree or a doctoral degree, think of this writing challenge as the opportunity to create something truly original, innovative, and impactful.

Thesis Vs Dissertation: Different Structures

A master's thesis mirrors the familiar research papers from undergrad, where you delve into a topic, analyze findings, and showcase critical thinking skills. It's an opportunity to deepen your understanding of a specialized area while demonstrating your expertise.

Conversely, a doctoral dissertation is a monumental endeavor, focusing on your original hypothesis or concept, with the bulk of content attributed to you. While a thesis typically spans around 100 pages, a dissertation is far more extensive.

An expert dissertation writing service notes that it is often two to three times longer, encompassing exhaustive research and intricate details. Despite differing lengths, both projects offer valuable academic growth under the guidance of a faculty adviser.

What are the Similarities of Thesis Vs Dissertation? 

Masteral and doctoral thesis vs dissertation can be puzzling. All share several similarities, contributing to the confusion surrounding them. They are substantial research projects undertaken by students to fulfill academic requirements for advanced degrees. They demand the following: 

• clear presentation of the problem and goals
• extensive literature review
• data gathering 
• critical analysis
• exemplary writing
• original contribution to the field of study. 

Moreover, these projects involve rigorous research methodology that follows the guidance of faculty and adheres to academic standards. Furthermore, they both conclude with a final oral defense to evaluate the student’s understanding and expertise in the subject matter. These resemblances frequently blur the lines, causing bewilderment and confusion.

Dissertation vs. Thesis: Contrasts Across Continents

Is it a master's thesis, PhD thesis or dissertation? It can be very confusing since the names may vary depending on where you’re from. You'll hear about "dissertations" and "theses" in school, as they are major independent research projects needed to finish a doctoral degree program. 

However, the two terms are used differently based on where you are. At times, "dissertation" might encompass both master's and doctoral levels, while "thesis" is solely for master's degrees.

Conversely, in some cases, "thesis" pertains to doctoral research, with "dissertation" reserved for master's studies. Confusing, right? But knowing these differences is key for understanding what's expected in your academic journey, wherever you may be!

Doctoral Degree Dissertation Details in the USA

Let’s settle the conundrum between dissertation and thesis. In the U.S., a thesis represents a preliminary degree, typically for a bachelor’s or master’s degree, emphasizing technical expertise rather than original research.

For example, a communication undergrad will need a thesis, while engineering students often pursue master’s degrees and master's thesis. In fields like Chemistry that require a direct path to a doctorate, students need dissertations to complete a PhD. In former colonies and countries with American influence, they also follow these labels. 

How They Roll in the Academe in Europe

And since the world is a global village, it’s also important to take note what is the difference between a thesis and a dissertation in Europe. In this region, including former colonies (e.g., Great Britain and Hong Kong), a doctoral thesis signifies original research for a PhD.

Therefore, completing a PhD program necessitates a thesis. Conversely, a dissertation represents the culmination of earning a bachelor's or master's degree. The word dissertation also forms part of broader postgraduate research. 

The Differences Between Writing a Thesis and Crafting a Dissertation 

Experts from a thesis writing service explained that when you write this document, you gather existing knowledge to build a strong argument. You do so to show expertise in a specific area.

On the other hand, tackling a dissertation means conducting your own research to bring new ideas or theories to the table. 

While both demand thorough research and critical thinking, a thesis focuses on summarizing and analyzing existing information. Conversely, a dissertation aims to innovate and contribute new knowledge. So, your approach to a thesis involves organizing existing information, while with a dissertation, it involves exploring new ideas through primary research.

Thesis and Dissertation Writing Difficulty Levels

You must always remember the difference between a thesis and dissertation before planning your work. More importantly, keep in mind that you need proper preparation because both need a lot of time and hard work, no matter what country you’re in or what term you use. 

Moreover, remember that the evolving nature of the thesis and dissertation entails extensive background research with a focus on original contributions and plagiarism-free work. Any written output must reflect the changing demands of academic scholarship and research.

No matter the term–dissertation vs thesis– academic institutions recognize how labor-intensive these works are. After all, these endeavors are significant because they shape scholarly pursuits and advance knowledge.

Essential Tips for Writing a Master's Thesis and Dissertation

Organize your thoughts systematically, write progressively, understand what examiners seek, substantiate personal insights with evidence, gain insights from peers, ensure logical coherence and clarity, seek constructive feedback, and meticulously proofread your work for perfection.

Wondering how to write a dissertation or thesis? It doesn’t matter what scholarly work you’re writing. Avoid burning the midnight oil and prevent panic by following these tips: 

• Start early to allow ample time for research and writing.
• Clearly define your research question or hypothesis.
• Develop a detailed outline to guide your writing process.
• Stay organized with your sources and citations.
• Seek feedback from your advisor or peers throughout your writing journey.
• Pay attention to formatting, following your institution's guidelines.
• Edit and revise your work mercilessly for clarity and coherence.
• Rest is essential to avoid burnout and maintain peak productivity.

How much time do I have to finish my thesis or doctoral degree program dissertation? 

The time frame varies but typically ranges from several months to a few years. The duration is influenced also by factors like:

• program requirements
• degree level
• research complexity
• individual progress. 

It's essential to consult with your academic advisor to establish a realistic timeline for completion.

What is the difference between a dissertation and a thesis?

I’m ready to write my thesis , but don’t understand the difference between thesis and dissertation. Let’s break it down. A dissertation is usually for a doctoral degree, where you dive deep into original research, while a thesis is often for a master's degree, where you gather and analyze existing information.

You can think of it as making a new discovery versus summarizing what's already known in your field. But, of course, take a look at your geographic location to ascertain which term is acceptable for your programs and degree level.

Can I seek help in writing my thesis or dissertation? 

Yes, seeking help from a service like ours is common and acceptable, especially if you feel confused about dissertation vs thesis. It can provide valuable guidance, especially when navigating complex academic requirements.

However, maintain academic integrity by acknowledging assistance appropriately and contributing substantially to the work. 

Any research paper or literature review writing for a graduate student or doctoral students is complex. This is the perfect time to remember seeking help is never a sign of weakness.

‍ How do I find a reputable service? 

When stressing over PhD thesis vs dissertation, consider professional help. Seek recommendations from peers or faculty, read reviews, assess sample work, and inquire about credentials and guarantees. Additionally, ensure transparency in pricing and communication.

Any graduate student or a doctoral programs student with a dissertation defense coming soon can utilize research paper writing help. A PhD dissertation is a major project that combs through existing research and creates a sturdy dissertation defense - all of which are challenging and may require a helping hand.

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Dissertation vs. Thesis: Comparing the Two Academic Projects

In the academic world, students are often required to complete a research project such as a thesis or a dissertation in order to earn their degree. Depending on your field of study, you might need to submit—and then defend—a thesis or a dissertation before you can graduate.

Although these two academic research projects might seem interchangeable, there are key differences between the two. And understanding these differences is essential for both students and their academic institution.

Thesis and dissertation: definitions

A thesis is a formal paper that presents original research and findings on a particular topic. It is typically submitted as part of the requirements for a master’s degree, although some doctoral programs may also require a thesis. A thesis is usually shorter in length than a dissertation and focuses more on original research and findings.

Conversely, a dissertation is a longer, more comprehensive piece of research that is written as part of the requirements for a doctoral degree. Dissertations are usually around 100 to 300 pages in length—and they require a great deal of original research and analysis. Unlike a thesis, a dissertation is not just focused on presenting findings but also on offering new insights and contributions to the field. In fact, the requirements of each project are folded into their definitions.

What defines a thesis?

A thesis is often a requirement for a master’s degree. While it’s usually shorter and more focused than a dissertation, your thesis will be expected to demonstrate your mastery of the subject and your ability to conduct original research. On top of that, you’ll have to analyze your findings—and present an organized, thoughtful argument! Thesis projects typically involve the collection and analysis of data, as well as the presentation of the findings.

What defines a dissertation?

On the other hand, a dissertation is a longer piece of research that is written as part of the requirements for a doctoral degree. Students pursuing their PhD might need to submit a dissertation in order to graduate.

Similar to a thesis, a dissertation must demonstrate the student’s mastery of their chosen research subject. Additionally, a dissertation must show the student’s ability to conduct original research and their ability to contribute new insights and knowledge to the field. Dissertations usually involve a great deal of research, data collection, and analysis and are typically 100 to 300 pages in length. In other words, these are major projects that take a lot of time to complete!

Thesis vs dissertation: a comparison

Perhaps the biggest differences between a thesis and a dissertation are the length and scope of each project. Theses are shorter, laser-focused pieces of research that are typically submitted as part of a master’s degree. Conversely, dissertations are longer, more comprehensive pieces of research that are submitted as part of a doctoral degree.

Another key difference between the two projects is the level of original research and analysis that is expected and required of the student. Theses are expected to demonstrate the student’s ability to conduct original research and present their findings; dissertations are expected to not only present findings but also to offer new insights and contributions to the field.

In terms of the academic requirements, the difference between a thesis and a dissertation is largely based on the level of the degree being pursued. Master’s programs typically require a thesis, while doctoral programs require a dissertation. The specific requirements and expectations for each project will vary depending on the institution and academic field. In other words, the higher your degree, the more intensive your research project. Perhaps that’s why the dissertation is the longer of these two academic research projects.

What is the difference in length between the two?

Length is one of the most noticeable differences between a thesis and a dissertation. A thesis is typically shorter than a dissertation, with an average length of around 50 pages. On the other hand, a dissertation is a much longer piece of work, typically around 100–200 pages in length.

However, length isn’t the only difference between these two academic research projects. The purpose can be largely different too!

What is the difference in purpose between the two?

The purpose of a thesis and a dissertation will vary according to your field of study. However, here’s a look at the main purpose of each:

• A thesis summarizes the student’s research findings. It must demonstrate the student’s understanding of the subject and their ability to apply what they’ve learned in a practical way.
• A dissertation shows the student’s ability to conduct independent and original research. It’s a comprehensive piece of work that is meant to contribute new knowledge and insights to their field.

In other words, a thesis researches a topic, and a dissertation might add a new research source because it helps position you as a thought leader .

Completing your thesis or dissertation is a huge accomplishment. However you’re not done when you turn in your paper. You’ll need to defend your research before you can earn that degree.

How is the defense different between the two?

The defense of a thesis and a dissertation is another difference between the two projects; however, it’s common for both projects to have an oral dissertation. In a thesis defense, the student is usually required to present their research and findings to a committee of professors within the institution. After the presentation, the committee will ask the student questions about their research and their findings. If the student demonstrates their mastery of the subject, there’s a good chance they’ll pass with flying colors!

Dissertation defense is more intensive—and more intimidating for the student. Your institution might assemble a committee of professors, peers, and other experts in your field. The committee will ask difficult questions to ensure that you not only have a firm grasp of the topic but have a well-developed argument with evidence to support your dissertation’s conclusion.

Regardless of whether you’re defending a thesis or a dissertation, you’ll probably have the moral support of your academic advisor in the room with you. A student’s advisor is with them every step of the way throughout the project, so it’s helpful and comforting when they attend the defense!

Perfect your dissertation or thesis with professional proofreading

The academic world is fun—but it’s also extremely challenging! As you write your thesis or dissertation, you might need a little professional assistance to proofread it. You’ve poured your heart and soul into this project, so make sure it’s perfectly proofread and ready for your defense committee!

Elite Editing offers proofreading services for students, businesses, and individuals. Visit our website to learn more!

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What is the difference between a thesis and a dissertation?

I have seen some sites that distinguish a dissertation as what is written as the requirements of a doctoral degree.

Others that distinguish a thesis as a document written for the fulfillment of any degree (Bachelors, Masters or Doctoral) while a dissertation is a more general name for a document where someone is presenting findings.

I am curious if there is any more rigorous definition which distinguishes the two, but my more immediate question is this:

I am writing the document to fulfill a doctoral degree. Within the text of the document do I refer to it as a "Dissertation" or a "Thesis"?

For example: "A more thorough review of this analysis is presented in Chapter 5 of this ________."

Maybe the fact that the [thesis] is the tag used for all of these documents is an indication of the answer?

I've also seen this question on this site, but it doesn't seem to answer my question: What are the main differences between undergraduate, master's, and doctoral theses?

• terminology

• I read somewhere that it is a "doctoral thesis" before it is approved and a "doctoral dissertation" afterwards. This does not seem to be standard, though. –  Anonymous Physicist Commented Nov 12, 2014 at 16:28
• 2 If you don't want to make a decision yet (postponing decisions is supposed to be good 1 2 , sometimes!) then simply write {\thesis} in LaTeX or $thesis in anything else (unless you are an "advanced user" managing variables), then you will be able to do a search&replace later. This doesn't solve the problem, but effectively postpones its solution in a harmless way IMHO. –  Trylks Commented Nov 12, 2014 at 17:30
• 1 What about just `in Chapter 5'? –  Jessica B Commented Nov 13, 2014 at 7:13
• 5 A thesis has two humps; a dissertation has only one. –  JeffE Commented Nov 13, 2014 at 22:14

3 Answers 3

"Work" is just as good as either. There's no need for precision or rigor here. All three would be acceptable.

Follow the guidelines of your university's thesis office (or dissertation office, or whatever they call it). They'll probably have a format guide that specifies how to refer to the document, or if not, you can contact someone at the office and ask.

If they really don't tell you which one to use, you can probably use either, but it helps to be consistent.

• 2 Certainly be consistent! If you choose one, stick to it. –  yo' Commented Nov 12, 2014 at 11:14

To lift from the definition provided here :

A Thesis is a scholarly written document of a smaller study on a particular topic in consistent with every details of Research Methodology. It's written usually for obtaining a Masters Degree. A Dissertation is a scholarly document of a larger study on a particular topic in consistent with every details of research Methodology. It's written usually to obtain a Doctoral Degree.

• 4 Not a good definition. A dissertation is almost always written for a doctoral degree; the term "thesis" can be used at the bachelor's, master's, and doctoral level. –  aeismail Commented Nov 12, 2014 at 21:00
• 2 @aeismail Clearly there is a cultural problem here. I would say exactly the reverse of your answer. –  Jessica B Commented Nov 13, 2014 at 6:59
• @JessicaB: My definition seems to apply to the US as well as many European countries. I have never heard anyone from anywhere ever say "bachelor's dissertation" or "master's dissertation." –  aeismail Commented Nov 13, 2014 at 10:56
• 3 @aeismail The UK must be different. When I just googled 'dissertation' the results I got seem to agree with me. Wikipedia says that one convention applies in some contexts and the reverse in others (without specifying what contexts these are). –  Jessica B Commented Nov 13, 2014 at 19:49
• There are also habilitation theses/dissertations. –  JeffE Commented Nov 13, 2014 at 20:59

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Thesis Vs Dissertation: What Are The Differences Between Them?

by  Antony W

June 28, 2024

Many people use these terms thesis vs dissertation interchangeably to mean the same thing.

There are even education departments and academic institutions that use these terms differently, making them all the more confusing and therefore difficult to understand.

In this guide, you’ll learn about thesis vs dissertation so you know exactly what they mean when someone in your academic institution mentions the terms.

We’ll look at: 

• What a dissertation is
• What a thesis is
• The similarities between a thesis and a dissertation and
• The differences between a thesis and a dissertation

The primary difference between a dissertation and a thesis is the level at which a learner completes them. You’ll write a thesis if you enroll in a master’s degree courses and work on a dissertation to earn a doctoral degree.

You’ll have to do a lot of research and writing in both cases. And although the task can seem overwhelming, especially given the scope of the research and the length of the assignment, starting early can go a long way to help you finish a thesis or dissertation within the respective deadline.

What is a Dissertation in Academic Writing?

A dissertation is a written assignment that features original or expanded research by a PhD student on a new or existing topic. The doctoral student chooses the topic they would like to explore within their field of study, conducts their own original research, and then presents their results (findings) in writing.

There are two reasons why writing a dissertation is worth it . First, it proves the knowledge and research skills of a doctoral student. Second, it presents an opportunity for the student to add to the existing body of knowledge in their respective field.

The time to start working on a dissertation varies from institution to institution.

In some schools, students have to complete a doctoral course, sit through a series of examinations, and then spend at least 24 weeks writing the dissertation . Other schools integrate dissertation writing into the curriculum, allowing the doctoral to start their research early.

In dissertation writing, a student has the opportunity to present a hypothesis or a new theory in their field of research, which they can use to either disapprove or support a previously presented theory in existing research.

They also have the option to add to the existing research, in which case they have to consider a unique angle that can establish their research in a unique direction.

Perhaps the most intimidating part of working on a dissertation is the defense stage because you can’t be certain of the outcome.

However, you can work closely with the assigned committee throughout the writing process to point your research and writing in the right direction.

What is a Thesis in Academic Writing?

A thesis is an academic piece of writing done by students who wish to graduate from a Master’s degree program.

The purpose of writing a thesis is to examine whether students can express their knowledge within the subject they’ve been studying in their Master’s degree program.

Some universities require Master’s students to write undergraduate theses, but these tend to be shorter with less depth compared to the Master’s degree theses.

As with dissertation, thesis writing requires that a student choose a topic of their interest in their field of study.

The minor difference is that the topic has to be narrow. For example, if you’re taking a course in computer science, you might focus on a topic such as the effect of internet of things in textile industry.

Next, look into existing research on the topic and then use the knowledge gathered to construct an academic argument. You will finalize the process by using already existing research to prove your argument. 

Thesis vs Dissertation: What are the Similarities?

In dissertation and thesis writing, PhD and Master’s students have to choose topics to explore. We recommend that you choose a topic that interests you so you can have an easy time researching, writing, presenting, and defending your findings.

Thesis and dissertation writing requires a student to demonstrate their ability to think and express their view in writing.

Both assignments requires defense, in which case the selected committee asses a student’s ability to present their academic findings in their field of study.

Both assignments have specific deadlines that students have to observe. Start working on your thesis or dissertation early so you don’t end up making unnecessary excuses when it’s almost time to submit your work.

Thesis vs Dissertation: What Are The Differences?

The following table explains the difference between a thesis and a dissertation:

Final Thoughts on Dissertation vs Thesis

As you can see, the main difference between a thesis vs dissertation is the academic level at which students have to complete them. In other words, you will work on a thesis to earn a master’s degree and write a dissertation to earn a doctorate degree at the end of your academic year. 

Writing a thesis or dissertation shouldn’t be difficult either. That’s because your academic journey equips you with the knowledge necessary to write an authentic and comprehensive assignment.

The most important rule when it comes to doing such assignments is to start early. Never wait until it’s too late to start writing your thesis or dissertation. Last minute rush may work well for an essay, but it won’t be quite as effective for thesis or dissertation writing. 

We hope this guide clears the confusion on thesis vs dissertation. 

About the author 

Antony W is a professional writer and coach at Help for Assessment. He spends countless hours every day researching and writing great content filled with expert advice on how to write engaging essays, research papers, and assignments.

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Dissertation vs Thesis

• Updated on  
• Apr 21, 2023

Many students get confused between a Dissertation and a Thesis. A thesis is an academic essay or a research paper that is written as a part of a higher degree. The aim of a thesis is to prove your opinion through a statement. It has a specific length limit and takes less time to complete. It is extremely important for a student to complete and submit their thesis on time to obtain a Master’s Degree. On the other hand, a dissertation is an academic piece of writing based on one’s independent research. It is meant to be submitted as a part of one’s PhD , Bachelor’s or Master’s Degree. It can take several months or even years to complete a dissertation. It prepares students to develop problem-solving, project management and numerical skills.  Read the whole blog to understand the difference between a thesis and a dissertation, its structure, types of dissertations, thesis and dissertation in India , US , EU and more.

Also Read: What is Research Proposal?

This Blog Includes:

Difference between a dissertation and a thesis, major difference between a dissertation and a thesis, structure of a dissertation, structure of a thesis, similarities between a dissertation and a thesis.

The main difference is the purpose of the submission. A Dissertation is meant to be submitted with the aim of projecting the student’s skills and experience throughout the course of their doctoral program. While a Thesis is meant to be submitted to complete one’s master’s degree. 

• A Dissertation consumes more time to complete while a thesis can be completed in even 2 weeks as it comes with a specific length.
• A dissertation is completely based on original research; there is no place for secondary research sources.
• A thesis includes primary and secondary sources; there is no need to analyze a particular field of study.
• A thesis requires argumentation to prove a particular point while a dissertation needs a lot of background research. A thesis includes a viewpoint of the findings while a dissertation requires students to extrapolate their findings. 
• A thesis is more of an academic research paper while a dissertation is a lot lengthier than a thesis and is required to be submitted in the form of a book.

The primary distinction between a thesis and a dissertation is that a thesis is based on previously conducted research.

A dissertation, on the other hand, will almost certainly require the doctorate student to conduct their own research and analysis. Another significant distinction is that a thesis is for master’s students and a dissertation is for PhD students.

Structure of Dissertation vs Thesis

The structural difference between the two lies in the length of the document. A dissertation is a lot lengthier than a thesis which is meant to be at least 100 pages long. The outline of both a dissertation and a thesis is quite similar. Below mentioned are the structures:

The structure must include the 5 chapters of a dissertation that are mentioned below:

• Chapter I: Introduction
• Chapter II: Review of Literature
• Chapter III:  Research Methodology 
• Chapter IV:  Result Presentation
• Chapter V: Summary, Implications and Conclusions

Here is the typical outline of a Thesis for your reference:

• Introduction
• Problem Statement
• Purpose/Aim/ResearchQuestions
• Review of Literature
• Methodology
• Significance/Implications (Results of the Discussion)
• Overview of Chapter (Conclusion)
• Recommendation
• A dissertation and a thesis are extremely important to get the respective degree.
• The aim of both a dissertation and a thesis is to test a student’s research abilities.
• An obvious similarity between the two is the structure/outline that is followed by both.
• Another similarity is the Guidance, teachers and supervisors are assigned to personally guide the students by helping them through the course of the research.
• Plagiarism is meant to be followed strictly while writing a thesis and a dissertation 

Some people use the word dissertation as a synonym for a thesis which is not correct. The purpose of a dissertation and a thesis is what makes it complex to understand the difference between the two. This blog has covered almost everything you needed to know about the difference between the two. However, both of them have a lot of similarities but are done for obtaining different degrees. While writing any of them, remember that it is only adding to your skills. The aim is to improve your academic and research skills.

Dissertation vs Thesis in Different Countries

Those who are pursuing a PhD are required to submit a thesis while the ones pursuing an MPhil must submit a dissertation.

A thesis must be submitted to complete a PhD Degree while a dissertation is supposed to be part of a research project.

The purpose of submitting a dissertation and a thesis is completely different. A dissertation is an independent research project to obtain a Doctoral Degree in the US, while a thesis is a shorter research project that is required to obtain a Master’s Degree.

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A master’s dissertation is generally between 15,000 and 20,000 words.

The top PhD subjects include physical therapy, education, administration, chemistry, political science and technology.

Yes, you can complete a PhD Degree in 2 years.

Because it is based on original research, a doctoral dissertation has greater breadth, depth, and intention than a master’s thesis. A master’s thesis is typically 100 pages long, and a doctorate dissertation can be 400-500 pages long.

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Daman is an author with profound expertise in writing engaging and informative content focused on EdTech and Study Abroad. With a keen understanding of these domains, Daman excels at creating complex concepts into accessible, reader-friendly material. With a proven track record of insightful articles, Daman stands as a reliable source for providing content for EdTech and Study Abroad.

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Thesis vs. Theses: What’s the Difference and Why It Matters

Understanding the difference between 'thesis' and 'theses' is important for students and researchers alike. These terms, while similar, have distinct meanings and implications in academic writing. A thesis usually refers to a single document written for a master's degree, while theses is the plural form, referring to multiple such documents. This article will explore these differences and why they matter in the academic world.

Key Takeaways

• A thesis is a single document for a master's program, while theses refers to multiple such documents.
• Thesis statements are crucial as they outline the main argument of a paper.
• Understanding the context of thesis writing can improve academic success.
• Crafting a strong thesis statement requires clarity and focus.
• The process of defending a thesis is an important milestone in graduate studies.

Understanding Thesis and Theses in Academic Contexts

Defining thesis and theses.

In academic writing, the terms thesis and theses are often confused. A thesis typically refers to a substantial research project that a student completes for a master's degree, while theses is the plural form, referring to multiple such projects. Understanding this distinction is crucial for your academic journey.

Historical Perspectives on Thesis

Historically, the concept of a thesis has evolved. In earlier times, a thesis was primarily a statement or argument presented for debate. Today, it represents a comprehensive research project that showcases your ability to conduct independent research. This shift highlights the growing importance of original contributions to knowledge in academia.

Cultural Variations in Usage

Cultural differences also play a role in how these terms are used. In the United States, a thesis is often associated with master's programs, while a dissertation is linked to doctoral studies. In contrast, some European countries may use the term thesis for both levels. This variation can affect your understanding of academic expectations in different regions.

Understanding these distinctions is essential for navigating your academic path effectively. By grasping the differences between a thesis and theses, you can better prepare for the challenges ahead in your research and writing endeavors.

For more insights on academic writing, check out resources from Research Rebels that provide valuable tips on crafting effective thesis statements and navigating the complexities of academic writing.

The Role of Thesis Statements in Research

Importance of a strong thesis statement.

A strong thesis statement is essential for guiding your research. It serves as a roadmap, helping you stay focused on your main argument. Without it, your paper may lack direction and coherence. A well-crafted thesis statement not only clarifies your position but also engages your reader, making them eager to learn more about your findings.

Components of an Effective Thesis Statement

To create an effective thesis statement, consider these key components:

• Clarity : Clearly express your main argument.
• Specificity : Focus on a particular aspect of your topic.
• Debatable : Present an argument that invites discussion.
• Evidence : Support your claim with relevant examples.
• Coherence : Ensure all parts of your statement connect logically.

Common Pitfalls in Thesis Development

When developing your thesis statement, avoid these common mistakes:

• Being too vague or general.
• Making a statement that is not arguable.
• Failing to provide supporting evidence.
• Overcomplicating your statement with unnecessary details.

By focusing on these elements, you can craft a thesis statement that not only enhances your research but also strengthens your overall argument. Remember, a strong thesis statement is the backbone of your academic writing, guiding both you and your readers through your work. For more resources on improving your research skills, check out this guide .

Distinguishing Between Thesis and Theses

Key differences in definition.

Understanding the difference between a thesis and theses is essential for academic success. A thesis is a comprehensive document that presents original research, typically required for a master's degree. In contrast, theses refer to multiple works of this nature. Each thesis embodies the results of original research and supports a specific viewpoint, often written by students pursuing advanced degrees.

Contextual Usage in Academia

In academic contexts, the term "thesis" is often used to describe the singular work, while "theses" is the plural form. This distinction is crucial when discussing your own work or referencing others. For example, when you say, "I am writing my thesis," it indicates a singular focus on your research project. Conversely, when discussing various research projects, you would refer to them as "theses."

Implications for Graduate Students

For graduate students, understanding these terms can impact how you communicate your research. Misusing these terms may lead to confusion among peers and faculty. Therefore, always ensure you use the correct form based on the context. This clarity not only enhances your academic communication but also reflects your understanding of academic conventions.

The Process of Crafting a Thesis Statement

Researching your topic.

When you start your thesis journey, the first step is to research your topic . This involves gathering information from various sources to understand the existing knowledge in your field. A well-researched topic lays the foundation for a strong thesis statement. Here are some steps to guide you:

• Identify credible sources such as academic journals, books, and reputable websites.
• Take notes on key points and arguments related to your topic.
• Look for gaps in the existing research that your thesis could address.

Drafting and Revising Your Thesis Statement

Once you have a solid understanding of your topic, you can begin drafting your thesis statement. This statement should clearly express your main argument or claim. Remember, it’s okay to revise your thesis as you learn more. Here’s how to approach this:

• Start with a working thesis that outlines your main argument.
• As you gather more information, refine your thesis to make it more specific and focused.
• Ensure that your thesis is debatable, inviting discussion and analysis.

Seeking Feedback and Refinement

After drafting your thesis statement, it’s crucial to seek feedback. This can help you identify any weaknesses or areas for improvement. Consider the following:

• Share your thesis with peers or mentors for their insights.
• Be open to constructive criticism and use it to refine your statement.
• Remember, a strong thesis statement is a living document that may evolve as your research progresses.

By following these steps, you can craft a thesis statement that not only guides your writing but also engages your readers effectively. For additional resources, consider exploring tools like the [ Thesis Success Essentials ](https://www.researchrebels.com/products/thesis-success-essentials-free-25-templates) which offer templates to help you through this process.

The Impact of Thesis on Academic Success

Thesis as a Reflection of Research Skills

Completing a thesis is a significant milestone in your academic journey. It showcases your ability to conduct independent research and demonstrates your mastery of a specific subject. This process not only enhances your research skills but also prepares you for future academic challenges. A well-executed thesis can lead to recognition from peers and professors, which is crucial for your academic reputation.

Influence on Future Academic Opportunities

Your thesis can open doors to various academic opportunities. Many graduate programs and research positions look for candidates who have successfully completed a thesis. This accomplishment signals to potential advisors and employers that you possess the skills necessary for advanced research. Additionally, your thesis may serve as a foundation for future publications, further enhancing your academic profile.

Role in Professional Development

Beyond academia, a thesis can significantly impact your career. Completing a thesis demonstrates your ability to manage complex projects, conduct thorough research, and communicate effectively. These skills are highly valued in many professional fields. Moreover, the process of writing a thesis often involves collaboration with faculty and peers, helping you build a network that can be beneficial in your career.

In summary, the impact of your thesis on academic success is profound. It not only reflects your research capabilities but also influences your future opportunities in both academia and your professional life. Embrace this journey, as it is a vital step toward achieving your goals.

Navigating the Thesis Defense

Preparing for the defense.

Preparing for your thesis defense is crucial. This is your chance to showcase your hard work and research. Start by reviewing your thesis thoroughly. Make sure you understand every part of it, especially the sections that received feedback. Organize a mock defense with friends or mentors to practice. This will help you get comfortable with the format and types of questions you might face.

Common Questions and Challenges

During the defense, you may encounter various questions. Here are some common ones:

• What motivated your research?
• How did you choose your methodology?
• What are the implications of your findings?

Anticipating these questions can help you prepare better. Think about potential weaknesses in your work and how you would address them.

Strategies for Success

To ensure a successful defense, consider these strategies:

• Create a clear presentation that highlights your research questions, methods, findings, and conclusions.
• Practice your delivery multiple times to build confidence.
• Seek feedback from peers or mentors to refine your presentation.
• Arrive early on the day of your defense to get comfortable with the environment.
• Dress professionally to convey seriousness.

By following these steps, you can navigate your thesis defense with confidence and clarity. Remember, this is not just an exam; it’s an opportunity to discuss your research and its significance in your field. Embrace it!

The Evolution of Thesis Writing

Historical changes in thesis requirements.

The concept of a thesis has evolved significantly over the years. In the past, a thesis was often seen as a mere formality, but today, it is a critical component of academic achievement. Understanding this evolution is essential for students. Initially, theses were primarily focused on theoretical frameworks, but now they often emphasize practical applications and real-world relevance. For instance, in the United States, a thesis typically refers to master's level work, while a dissertation is associated with doctoral studies. This distinction highlights the growing complexity and depth of research expected at different academic levels.

Modern Trends in Thesis Composition

In recent years, the approach to thesis writing has shifted towards a more collaborative and interdisciplinary model. Students are encouraged to engage with various fields, integrating diverse perspectives into their research. This trend is supported by advancements in technology, which facilitate communication and collaboration. For example, platforms like WhatsApp allow students to connect with peers and mentors, making it easier to share ideas and receive feedback. As a result, students can learn how to write a thesis fast and how to write thesis easily by leveraging these tools.

Technological Influences on Thesis Writing

Technology has transformed the way students approach thesis writing. With access to vast online resources, students can conduct research more efficiently than ever before. The integration of digital tools has made it easier to organize data, analyze findings, and present results. This evolution not only enhances the quality of research but also empowers students to express their ideas more clearly. As you navigate your thesis journey, remember that embracing these technological advancements can significantly improve your writing process.

The Interrelationship Between Thesis and Research Questions

Defining research questions.

Your research question is the starting point of your academic journey. It guides your study and helps you focus on what you want to explore. A well-defined research question is crucial because it sets the direction for your entire project. Without a clear question, your research may lack focus and depth.

Aligning Thesis Statements with Research Objectives

Once you have your research question, the next step is to develop your thesis statement. This statement is your main argument or conclusion based on the findings from your research. Think of it as the bridge connecting your question to your conclusions. Here’s how to align them effectively:

• Identify the core components of your research question.
• Gather and analyze relevant data and literature.
• Refine your question based on your findings.
• Distill the refined question into a clear thesis statement.

The Feedback Loop Between Thesis and Questions

As you progress in your research, your initial question may evolve. This is a natural part of the process. Your thesis statement should also adapt to reflect these changes. This dynamic relationship ensures that your work remains relevant and insightful. For example, if your research leads you to new findings, you might need to adjust your thesis to incorporate these insights. This feedback loop is essential for producing a robust academic argument.

In summary, the relationship between your thesis and research questions is not static; it’s a continuous cycle of inquiry and refinement. By understanding this interrelationship, you can enhance the quality and impact of your academic work.

For more resources on crafting effective research questions and thesis statements, check out Thesis Action Plan and Research Proposal Compass .

Exploring Various Thesis Formats

Types of thesis statements.

When writing a thesis, it's essential to understand the different types of thesis statements you can use. Each type serves a unique purpose and can shape your research in various ways. Here are the main types:

• Analytical Thesis Statement : This type breaks down a complex issue into its parts and analyzes them. It requires critical thinking and is often used in research papers.
• Argumentative Thesis Statement : This statement presents a clear argument on a specific topic, aiming to convince the reader of your viewpoint. It should be debatable and supported by evidence.
• Expository Thesis Statement : This type explains a topic or idea without taking a stance. It provides information and is often used in informative essays.

Structural Components of a Thesis

While the format may vary, most theses share common structural components. Here’s a typical outline:

Variations Across Disciplines

Different academic fields may have specific requirements for thesis formats. For example:

• In the sciences, a more structured approach with detailed methodologies is common.
• In the humanities, a narrative style may be preferred, allowing for more creative expression.

Understanding these variations is crucial for tailoring your thesis to meet the expectations of your discipline. By recognizing the different formats and structures, you can better prepare your thesis for success.

The Importance of Clarity in Thesis Statements

Techniques for Achieving Clarity

To ensure your thesis statement is clear, consider the following techniques:

• Be Specific : Avoid vague language. Clearly state your main argument.
• Use Simple Language : Choose words that are easy to understand.
• Limit Length : Keep your thesis statement concise, ideally one or two sentences.

Examples of Clear vs. Vague Thesis Statements

The Role of Clarity in Reader Engagement

A clear thesis statement not only helps you stay focused but also engages your readers. When they understand your main argument, they are more likely to follow your reasoning and stay interested in your work. A well-defined thesis acts as a roadmap , guiding readers through your research and findings.

In summary, clarity in your thesis statement is essential for effective communication. By employing techniques to enhance clarity, you can create a strong foundation for your academic writing. Remember, a clear thesis statement is not just beneficial for your readers; it also helps you maintain focus and direction in your writing process. For additional support, consider resources like the Thesis Action Plan from Research Rebels, which offers structured guidance to help you develop a clear and effective thesis statement.

Future Trends in Thesis Writing

As you look ahead in your academic journey, it's essential to understand the future trends in thesis writing. These trends are shaped by advancements in technology and changing academic expectations.

Emerging Topics in Thesis Research

One significant trend is the rise of interdisciplinary research. This approach encourages you to combine insights from different fields, leading to innovative solutions and broader perspectives. For instance, topics like climate change, artificial intelligence, and public health are increasingly popular as they require knowledge from various disciplines.

The Role of Interdisciplinary Approaches

Interdisciplinary approaches not only enhance the depth of your research but also make your thesis more relevant in today’s complex world. By integrating methods and theories from multiple fields, you can address real-world problems more effectively.

Anticipating Changes in Academic Standards

As academic standards evolve, you may find that institutions are placing greater emphasis on the practical applications of research. This shift means that your thesis should not only contribute to academic knowledge but also demonstrate how it can be applied in real-world scenarios.

In summary, staying informed about these trends will help you craft a thesis that is not only academically rigorous but also relevant and impactful. Embrace these changes, and you will be well-prepared for the future of academic writing!

As we look ahead, the future of thesis writing is changing fast. With new tools and methods, students can tackle their projects with less stress and more confidence. If you're feeling lost or anxious about your thesis, don’t worry! Visit our website to discover how our Thesis Action Plan can guide you step-by-step to success. Don’t wait—take the first step towards a smoother thesis journey today!

In summary, understanding the difference between a thesis and theses is essential for students and scholars alike. A thesis is a significant piece of writing that showcases a student's research and findings, typically for a master's degree. In contrast, theses refer to multiple such works. Recognizing these distinctions not only helps in academic writing but also enhances clarity in communication. A strong thesis statement is vital as it serves as the backbone of any academic paper, guiding the reader through the writer's argument. By mastering the art of crafting a clear and focused thesis statement, students can improve their writing and effectively convey their ideas.

Frequently Asked Questions

What is the difference between a thesis and theses.

A thesis is a single document that presents a student's research for a master's degree. Theses is the plural form, referring to multiple such documents.

Why is a thesis statement important?

A thesis statement is important because it clearly outlines the main point of your paper, guiding both the writer and the reader.

How long should a thesis be?

A thesis typically ranges from 40 to 100 pages, depending on the program and specific requirements.

What are the common challenges when writing a thesis?

Common challenges include choosing a topic, managing time effectively, and staying focused on the main argument.

Can a thesis be revised after submission?

Generally, once a thesis is submitted, it cannot be revised. However, feedback from the defense may lead to minor changes.

What is a thesis defense?

A thesis defense is a formal presentation where the student defends their research and findings before a committee.

How can I improve my thesis statement?

To improve your thesis statement, make sure it is clear, specific, and arguable. Seek feedback from peers or instructors.

What role does a thesis play in academic success?

A thesis showcases your research skills and understanding of a topic, which can open doors for future academic and career opportunities.

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Difference Between Thesis and Dissertation

• Categorized under Language | Difference Between Thesis and Dissertation

In some universities, dissertation and thesis are seen as the same thing, however, there are a number of differences between the two. Usually a thesis is submitted at the end of one’s master’s degree, and dissertation is submitted at the end of a PhD.

In thesis, you have to conduct your own research, which has to be original; while for a dissertation, you have to synthesize any information that is collected. As well, in a dissertation you can post your own thoughts. Yet another difference between the two, lies in the fact that these two terms are for different degrees. If you have written a thesis, you will get a higher degree, while a dissertation may a part of the process required to obtain the degree.

So, when you are writing a thesis, you have to ensure that you include the hypothesis, which is quite new, and your thesis should be about the research that you have conducted. In case you are writing a dissertation, you have to ensure that you have a good knowledge of the recent discoveries. Basically, you have to infer new conclusions on what you have read and evaluated.

Thesis writing usually takes place when you have reached the last two years of your student life (while doing a PhD). You won’t need to write a thesis if you are doing a master’s degree. However, if your aim is to obtain a doctor’s degree, then you have to write dissertations. Although, in the USA, you write a dissertation if you are doing a PhD, while you write a thesis if you have are enrolled in a master’s program. On the other hand, in the UK, you have to write a thesis if you are doing a PhD, while you have to write a dissertation if you are enrolled in a master’s program.

When you are writing a thesis you usually get scholarships.

There is also a difference between the thesis/dissertation and dissertation statement. The thesis statement is more focused on your primary argument, and it presents the readers with what you are actually trying to prove. It tells your various states of point, and in the end, summarizes the argument.

In a master’s thesis or dissertation you have to conduct research on a specific topic to present your point. In a PhD thesis or dissertation you have to conduct original research, and add novel findings to the already existing literature.

1. A thesis is submitted at the end of one’s master’s degree, and a dissertation is submitted at the end of a PhD.

2. For a thesis, you have conduct original research, while for a dissertation you have to synthesize already existing literature.

3. Thesis analysis is added to the already existing literature, while dissertation is an analysis of the existing literature.

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Cite APA 7 Kumar, M. (2016, June 8). Difference Between Thesis and Dissertation. Difference Between Similar Terms and Objects. http://www.differencebetween.net/language/difference-between-thesis-and-dissertation/. MLA 8 Kumar, Manisha. "Difference Between Thesis and Dissertation." Difference Between Similar Terms and Objects, 8 June, 2016, http://www.differencebetween.net/language/difference-between-thesis-and-dissertation/.

15 Comments

Thanks so much for your submission here. Looking at various definitions of different scholars and contributors on this subject matter ” Thesis vs Dissertation”, they all have the same definitions for each of these words. The problem is which of the Degrees should the definitions apply?. Everybody agrees that: 1. A thesis is concise about 100+pgs, does not consume time and demands the students to conduct a hypothesis based on their secondary research.It is also meant to get scholarship. 2. A dissertation is lengthy about 300+pgs, It is usually written in form of a book for academic purposes. It is comprised of arguments and theories based on original research. In view of these little differences I highlighted above, it can only appeal to common sense to know that “Dissertation” should apply to Ph.D degree looking at what these two words stand for in comparison with what it demands to get the degrees – Masters and Ph.D. I appreciate your scholarship on this issue and it is very in-dept.

Difference between thesis and dissertation

In summary the things are not correct that make confusion in front of reader. In my opinion this is more correct

Correct: 1. A thesis is submitted at the end of Ph.D degree , and a dissertation is submitted at the end of Masters degree.

2. For a thesis, you have conduct original research with large sample size , while for a dissertation you have to synthesize already existing literature as well as do a original research with small sample size.

3. Thesis analysis is added to the already existing literature as well as with the new data collection give the conclusion and possible solution, while dissertation is an analysis of the existing literature with positive views.

A clear and concise submission devoid of any controversy or ambiguity

Which one shud we follow…..the information given in this website contradicts to ur reply or comment to the author of this info….

So may i know which one is correct

An informative and beneficial website which helps a lot foriegn students which contains helping tips and informations for getting admissions in verious degree programs all over the world.

Hello Abdul

It is informative site for the interview purpose also, so many things are clear here briefly.

Looks like the first paragraph may required some rewriting.

hold that, Second para as well.

The writer is very confused. A dissertation is the written document you write to defend your thesis (e.g., claim).

In the US: When discussing work product in pursuit of a higher-level degree, I believe that the terms can be used somewhat interchangeably, in reference to scholarly work. The word thesis is used more often and seems to encompass both oral and written theoretical work.

Generally speaking, however, at the culmination of the PhD degree, one produces a DISSERTATION. which is a lengthy WRITTEN documentation of the research contributions the student has made to his or her field, and how the student’s research fits into the larger picture of research already conducted by others. My daughter, who is at the end of her PhD study, just submitted a final draft of her dissertation to her PhD committee a week ago.

A PhD student like my daughter can put forth and work on a number of THESES during his or her PhD study. Both in the Masters degree and the PhD, the student proposes and researches theses (theories, propositions, proposals). In her PhD defense two days ago, my daughter presented (and defended) to her committee 3 THESES out of her original research work. The first hour and a half was public, and we were allowed to attend. The second hour was behind closed doors, where her committee questioned her more closely about her research contributions to her field.

Differences between Masters-level theses and PhD level theses: Masters-degree candidates often work on and eventually defend their work on one thesis (theory, proposition, proposal). The resulting thesis paper is about the size of a fully-documented research paper. The PhD candidacy lasts 2-3 times as long as the time needed to obtain a Masters degree. The PhD student learns much more than the Masters degree student about conducting original research in one’s field, and to that end, the PhD student often advances and works on multiple theses (theories, propositions, proposals) that support an original thesis that is larger or more novel in scope than many Masters-degree theses.

Obtaining a Masters degree sometimes involves writing and presenting a thesis paper, which includes the outcomes of the student’s thesis work plus references to current and prior research in the field of study. To obtain a PhD, one must usually contribute something original and important to existing research, so the final paper (which is the length of a book) includes both references to existing prior research and, more importantly, a detailed discussion and analysis of the PhD candidate’s research contributions in her or his field.

T0 sum, the written form of the research conducted in the Masters degree is usually called a thesis paper in the US. The written form of the research conducted in the PhD degree is usually called a dissertation in the US. In both situations, theses are the theories and propositions that drive the research work.

By the way, my daughter was successful in her thesis defense. Her dissertation is in the final stages of editing and will be published soon.

Hi D Best, Thanks for yor detailed elaboration of these two terms, really appreciate it. And congratulations to your daughter on completing her PhD!! 🙂 You must be very proud of her! I wish your family great success in future as well.

Very thanks for this clarification. In some contexts, the word “thesis” or a cognate is used for part of a bachelor’s or master’s course, while “dissertation” is normally applied to a doctorate, while in other contexts, the reverse is true. So I think the difference between thesis and dissertation is not so important.

So in simple and plain terms, both terms may refer to either of the meanings depending on your lenses. Semantics!

I wrote a book report in 5th grade. I be smart and stuff.

I just wanted to let you know that this article is inaccurate. Many (if not most) PhD students do original research.

Best, Nicholas

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Written by : Manisha Kumar. and updated on 2016, June 8 Articles on DifferenceBetween.net are general information, and are not intended to substitute for professional advice. The information is "AS IS", "WITH ALL FAULTS". User assumes all risk of use, damage, or injury. You agree that we have no liability for any damages.

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