case study of meaning making

The Ultimate Guide to Qualitative Research - Part 1: The Basics

• Introduction and overview
• What is qualitative research?
• What is qualitative data?
• Examples of qualitative data
• Qualitative vs. quantitative research
• Mixed methods
• Qualitative research preparation
• Theoretical perspective
• Theoretical framework
• Literature reviews

Research question

• Conceptual framework
• Conceptual vs. theoretical framework

Data collection

• Qualitative research methods
• Focus groups
• Observational research

What is a case study?

Applications for case study research, what is a good case study, process of case study design, benefits and limitations of case studies.

• Ethnographical research
• Ethical considerations
• Confidentiality and privacy
• Power dynamics
• Reflexivity

Case studies

Case studies are essential to qualitative research , offering a lens through which researchers can investigate complex phenomena within their real-life contexts. This chapter explores the concept, purpose, applications, examples, and types of case studies and provides guidance on how to conduct case study research effectively.

Whereas quantitative methods look at phenomena at scale, case study research looks at a concept or phenomenon in considerable detail. While analyzing a single case can help understand one perspective regarding the object of research inquiry, analyzing multiple cases can help obtain a more holistic sense of the topic or issue. Let's provide a basic definition of a case study, then explore its characteristics and role in the qualitative research process.

Definition of a case study

A case study in qualitative research is a strategy of inquiry that involves an in-depth investigation of a phenomenon within its real-world context. It provides researchers with the opportunity to acquire an in-depth understanding of intricate details that might not be as apparent or accessible through other methods of research. The specific case or cases being studied can be a single person, group, or organization – demarcating what constitutes a relevant case worth studying depends on the researcher and their research question .

Among qualitative research methods , a case study relies on multiple sources of evidence, such as documents, artifacts, interviews , or observations , to present a complete and nuanced understanding of the phenomenon under investigation. The objective is to illuminate the readers' understanding of the phenomenon beyond its abstract statistical or theoretical explanations.

Characteristics of case studies

Case studies typically possess a number of distinct characteristics that set them apart from other research methods. These characteristics include a focus on holistic description and explanation, flexibility in the design and data collection methods, reliance on multiple sources of evidence, and emphasis on the context in which the phenomenon occurs.

Furthermore, case studies can often involve a longitudinal examination of the case, meaning they study the case over a period of time. These characteristics allow case studies to yield comprehensive, in-depth, and richly contextualized insights about the phenomenon of interest.

The role of case studies in research

Case studies hold a unique position in the broader landscape of research methods aimed at theory development. They are instrumental when the primary research interest is to gain an intensive, detailed understanding of a phenomenon in its real-life context.

In addition, case studies can serve different purposes within research - they can be used for exploratory, descriptive, or explanatory purposes, depending on the research question and objectives. This flexibility and depth make case studies a valuable tool in the toolkit of qualitative researchers.

Remember, a well-conducted case study can offer a rich, insightful contribution to both academic and practical knowledge through theory development or theory verification, thus enhancing our understanding of complex phenomena in their real-world contexts.

What is the purpose of a case study?

Case study research aims for a more comprehensive understanding of phenomena, requiring various research methods to gather information for qualitative analysis . Ultimately, a case study can allow the researcher to gain insight into a particular object of inquiry and develop a theoretical framework relevant to the research inquiry.

Why use case studies in qualitative research?

Using case studies as a research strategy depends mainly on the nature of the research question and the researcher's access to the data.

Conducting case study research provides a level of detail and contextual richness that other research methods might not offer. They are beneficial when there's a need to understand complex social phenomena within their natural contexts.

The explanatory, exploratory, and descriptive roles of case studies

Case studies can take on various roles depending on the research objectives. They can be exploratory when the research aims to discover new phenomena or define new research questions; they are descriptive when the objective is to depict a phenomenon within its context in a detailed manner; and they can be explanatory if the goal is to understand specific relationships within the studied context. Thus, the versatility of case studies allows researchers to approach their topic from different angles, offering multiple ways to uncover and interpret the data .

The impact of case studies on knowledge development

Case studies play a significant role in knowledge development across various disciplines. Analysis of cases provides an avenue for researchers to explore phenomena within their context based on the collected data.

This can result in the production of rich, practical insights that can be instrumental in both theory-building and practice. Case studies allow researchers to delve into the intricacies and complexities of real-life situations, uncovering insights that might otherwise remain hidden.

Types of case studies

In qualitative research , a case study is not a one-size-fits-all approach. Depending on the nature of the research question and the specific objectives of the study, researchers might choose to use different types of case studies. These types differ in their focus, methodology, and the level of detail they provide about the phenomenon under investigation.

Understanding these types is crucial for selecting the most appropriate approach for your research project and effectively achieving your research goals. Let's briefly look at the main types of case studies.

Exploratory case studies

Exploratory case studies are typically conducted to develop a theory or framework around an understudied phenomenon. They can also serve as a precursor to a larger-scale research project. Exploratory case studies are useful when a researcher wants to identify the key issues or questions which can spur more extensive study or be used to develop propositions for further research. These case studies are characterized by flexibility, allowing researchers to explore various aspects of a phenomenon as they emerge, which can also form the foundation for subsequent studies.

Descriptive case studies

Descriptive case studies aim to provide a complete and accurate representation of a phenomenon or event within its context. These case studies are often based on an established theoretical framework, which guides how data is collected and analyzed. The researcher is concerned with describing the phenomenon in detail, as it occurs naturally, without trying to influence or manipulate it.

Explanatory case studies

Explanatory case studies are focused on explanation - they seek to clarify how or why certain phenomena occur. Often used in complex, real-life situations, they can be particularly valuable in clarifying causal relationships among concepts and understanding the interplay between different factors within a specific context.

Intrinsic, instrumental, and collective case studies

These three categories of case studies focus on the nature and purpose of the study. An intrinsic case study is conducted when a researcher has an inherent interest in the case itself. Instrumental case studies are employed when the case is used to provide insight into a particular issue or phenomenon. A collective case study, on the other hand, involves studying multiple cases simultaneously to investigate some general phenomena.

Each type of case study serves a different purpose and has its own strengths and challenges. The selection of the type should be guided by the research question and objectives, as well as the context and constraints of the research.

The flexibility, depth, and contextual richness offered by case studies make this approach an excellent research method for various fields of study. They enable researchers to investigate real-world phenomena within their specific contexts, capturing nuances that other research methods might miss. Across numerous fields, case studies provide valuable insights into complex issues.

Critical information systems research

Case studies provide a detailed understanding of the role and impact of information systems in different contexts. They offer a platform to explore how information systems are designed, implemented, and used and how they interact with various social, economic, and political factors. Case studies in this field often focus on examining the intricate relationship between technology, organizational processes, and user behavior, helping to uncover insights that can inform better system design and implementation.

Health research

Health research is another field where case studies are highly valuable. They offer a way to explore patient experiences, healthcare delivery processes, and the impact of various interventions in a real-world context.

Case studies can provide a deep understanding of a patient's journey, giving insights into the intricacies of disease progression, treatment effects, and the psychosocial aspects of health and illness.

Asthma research studies

Specifically within medical research, studies on asthma often employ case studies to explore the individual and environmental factors that influence asthma development, management, and outcomes. A case study can provide rich, detailed data about individual patients' experiences, from the triggers and symptoms they experience to the effectiveness of various management strategies. This can be crucial for developing patient-centered asthma care approaches.

Other fields

Apart from the fields mentioned, case studies are also extensively used in business and management research, education research, and political sciences, among many others. They provide an opportunity to delve into the intricacies of real-world situations, allowing for a comprehensive understanding of various phenomena.

Case studies, with their depth and contextual focus, offer unique insights across these varied fields. They allow researchers to illuminate the complexities of real-life situations, contributing to both theory and practice.

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Understanding the key elements of case study design is crucial for conducting rigorous and impactful case study research. A well-structured design guides the researcher through the process, ensuring that the study is methodologically sound and its findings are reliable and valid. The main elements of case study design include the research question , propositions, units of analysis, and the logic linking the data to the propositions.

The research question is the foundation of any research study. A good research question guides the direction of the study and informs the selection of the case, the methods of collecting data, and the analysis techniques. A well-formulated research question in case study research is typically clear, focused, and complex enough to merit further detailed examination of the relevant case(s).

Propositions

Propositions, though not necessary in every case study, provide a direction by stating what we might expect to find in the data collected. They guide how data is collected and analyzed by helping researchers focus on specific aspects of the case. They are particularly important in explanatory case studies, which seek to understand the relationships among concepts within the studied phenomenon.

Units of analysis

The unit of analysis refers to the case, or the main entity or entities that are being analyzed in the study. In case study research, the unit of analysis can be an individual, a group, an organization, a decision, an event, or even a time period. It's crucial to clearly define the unit of analysis, as it shapes the qualitative data analysis process by allowing the researcher to analyze a particular case and synthesize analysis across multiple case studies to draw conclusions.

Argumentation

This refers to the inferential model that allows researchers to draw conclusions from the data. The researcher needs to ensure that there is a clear link between the data, the propositions (if any), and the conclusions drawn. This argumentation is what enables the researcher to make valid and credible inferences about the phenomenon under study.

Understanding and carefully considering these elements in the design phase of a case study can significantly enhance the quality of the research. It can help ensure that the study is methodologically sound and its findings contribute meaningful insights about the case.

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Conducting a case study involves several steps, from defining the research question and selecting the case to collecting and analyzing data . This section outlines these key stages, providing a practical guide on how to conduct case study research.

Defining the research question

The first step in case study research is defining a clear, focused research question. This question should guide the entire research process, from case selection to analysis. It's crucial to ensure that the research question is suitable for a case study approach. Typically, such questions are exploratory or descriptive in nature and focus on understanding a phenomenon within its real-life context.

Selecting and defining the case

The selection of the case should be based on the research question and the objectives of the study. It involves choosing a unique example or a set of examples that provide rich, in-depth data about the phenomenon under investigation. After selecting the case, it's crucial to define it clearly, setting the boundaries of the case, including the time period and the specific context.

Previous research can help guide the case study design. When considering a case study, an example of a case could be taken from previous case study research and used to define cases in a new research inquiry. Considering recently published examples can help understand how to select and define cases effectively.

Developing a detailed case study protocol

A case study protocol outlines the procedures and general rules to be followed during the case study. This includes the data collection methods to be used, the sources of data, and the procedures for analysis. Having a detailed case study protocol ensures consistency and reliability in the study.

The protocol should also consider how to work with the people involved in the research context to grant the research team access to collecting data. As mentioned in previous sections of this guide, establishing rapport is an essential component of qualitative research as it shapes the overall potential for collecting and analyzing data.

Collecting data

Gathering data in case study research often involves multiple sources of evidence, including documents, archival records, interviews, observations, and physical artifacts. This allows for a comprehensive understanding of the case. The process for gathering data should be systematic and carefully documented to ensure the reliability and validity of the study.

Analyzing and interpreting data

The next step is analyzing the data. This involves organizing the data , categorizing it into themes or patterns , and interpreting these patterns to answer the research question. The analysis might also involve comparing the findings with prior research or theoretical propositions.

Writing the case study report

The final step is writing the case study report . This should provide a detailed description of the case, the data, the analysis process, and the findings. The report should be clear, organized, and carefully written to ensure that the reader can understand the case and the conclusions drawn from it.

Each of these steps is crucial in ensuring that the case study research is rigorous, reliable, and provides valuable insights about the case.

The type, depth, and quality of data in your study can significantly influence the validity and utility of the study. In case study research, data is usually collected from multiple sources to provide a comprehensive and nuanced understanding of the case. This section will outline the various methods of collecting data used in case study research and discuss considerations for ensuring the quality of the data.

Interviews are a common method of gathering data in case study research. They can provide rich, in-depth data about the perspectives, experiences, and interpretations of the individuals involved in the case. Interviews can be structured , semi-structured , or unstructured , depending on the research question and the degree of flexibility needed.

Observations

Observations involve the researcher observing the case in its natural setting, providing first-hand information about the case and its context. Observations can provide data that might not be revealed in interviews or documents, such as non-verbal cues or contextual information.

Documents and artifacts

Documents and archival records provide a valuable source of data in case study research. They can include reports, letters, memos, meeting minutes, email correspondence, and various public and private documents related to the case.

These records can provide historical context, corroborate evidence from other sources, and offer insights into the case that might not be apparent from interviews or observations.

Physical artifacts refer to any physical evidence related to the case, such as tools, products, or physical environments. These artifacts can provide tangible insights into the case, complementing the data gathered from other sources.

Ensuring the quality of data collection

Determining the quality of data in case study research requires careful planning and execution. It's crucial to ensure that the data is reliable, accurate, and relevant to the research question. This involves selecting appropriate methods of collecting data, properly training interviewers or observers, and systematically recording and storing the data. It also includes considering ethical issues related to collecting and handling data, such as obtaining informed consent and ensuring the privacy and confidentiality of the participants.

Data analysis

Analyzing case study research involves making sense of the rich, detailed data to answer the research question. This process can be challenging due to the volume and complexity of case study data. However, a systematic and rigorous approach to analysis can ensure that the findings are credible and meaningful. This section outlines the main steps and considerations in analyzing data in case study research.

Organizing the data

The first step in the analysis is organizing the data. This involves sorting the data into manageable sections, often according to the data source or the theme. This step can also involve transcribing interviews, digitizing physical artifacts, or organizing observational data.

Categorizing and coding the data

Once the data is organized, the next step is to categorize or code the data. This involves identifying common themes, patterns, or concepts in the data and assigning codes to relevant data segments. Coding can be done manually or with the help of software tools, and in either case, qualitative analysis software can greatly facilitate the entire coding process. Coding helps to reduce the data to a set of themes or categories that can be more easily analyzed.

Identifying patterns and themes

After coding the data, the researcher looks for patterns or themes in the coded data. This involves comparing and contrasting the codes and looking for relationships or patterns among them. The identified patterns and themes should help answer the research question.

Interpreting the data

Once patterns and themes have been identified, the next step is to interpret these findings. This involves explaining what the patterns or themes mean in the context of the research question and the case. This interpretation should be grounded in the data, but it can also involve drawing on theoretical concepts or prior research.

Verification of the data

The last step in the analysis is verification. This involves checking the accuracy and consistency of the analysis process and confirming that the findings are supported by the data. This can involve re-checking the original data, checking the consistency of codes, or seeking feedback from research participants or peers.

Like any research method , case study research has its strengths and limitations. Researchers must be aware of these, as they can influence the design, conduct, and interpretation of the study.

Understanding the strengths and limitations of case study research can also guide researchers in deciding whether this approach is suitable for their research question . This section outlines some of the key strengths and limitations of case study research.

Benefits include the following:

• Rich, detailed data: One of the main strengths of case study research is that it can generate rich, detailed data about the case. This can provide a deep understanding of the case and its context, which can be valuable in exploring complex phenomena.
• Flexibility: Case study research is flexible in terms of design , data collection , and analysis . A sufficient degree of flexibility allows the researcher to adapt the study according to the case and the emerging findings.
• Real-world context: Case study research involves studying the case in its real-world context, which can provide valuable insights into the interplay between the case and its context.
• Multiple sources of evidence: Case study research often involves collecting data from multiple sources , which can enhance the robustness and validity of the findings.

On the other hand, researchers should consider the following limitations:

• Generalizability: A common criticism of case study research is that its findings might not be generalizable to other cases due to the specificity and uniqueness of each case.
• Time and resource intensive: Case study research can be time and resource intensive due to the depth of the investigation and the amount of collected data.
• Complexity of analysis: The rich, detailed data generated in case study research can make analyzing the data challenging.
• Subjectivity: Given the nature of case study research, there may be a higher degree of subjectivity in interpreting the data , so researchers need to reflect on this and transparently convey to audiences how the research was conducted.

Being aware of these strengths and limitations can help researchers design and conduct case study research effectively and interpret and report the findings appropriately.

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I feel like a scrambled egg in my head: an idiographic case study of meaning making and anger using interpretative phenomenological analysis

Affiliation.

• 1 School of Psychology, Birkbeck University of London, UK. [email protected]
• PMID: 16611426
• DOI: 10.1348/147608305X41100

What does it feel like when one's meaning making is impoverished and threatens to break down? The aim of this study is to show how meaning making is achieved in the context of one's life and how this achievement is often a struggle for the individual. The study reports data from semi-structured interviews with a female participant, which was analysed using interpretative phenomenological analysis (IPA). This paper examines how cultural discourses and conventions are experienced and given meaning by the individual. First, the analysis demonstrates how dominant discourses are used to explain anger and aggression. These include hormones, alcohol, and the influence of past relationships on present action. Second, it examines how the participant's meaning making is often ambiguous and confused, and how she variously accepts and challenges available meanings. Finally, the analysis demonstrates how meaning making can break down and the consequences of this for the individual's sense of self.

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What the Case Study Method Really Teaches

• Nitin Nohria

Seven meta-skills that stick even if the cases fade from memory.

It’s been 100 years since Harvard Business School began using the case study method. Beyond teaching specific subject matter, the case study method excels in instilling meta-skills in students. This article explains the importance of seven such skills: preparation, discernment, bias recognition, judgement, collaboration, curiosity, and self-confidence.

During my decade as dean of Harvard Business School, I spent hundreds of hours talking with our alumni. To enliven these conversations, I relied on a favorite question: “What was the most important thing you learned from your time in our MBA program?”

• Nitin Nohria is the George F. Baker Professor of Business Administration, Distinguished University Service Professor, and former dean of Harvard Business School.

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Home » Case Study – Methods, Examples and Guide

Case Study – Methods, Examples and Guide

Table of Contents

A case study is a research method that involves an in-depth examination and analysis of a particular phenomenon or case, such as an individual, organization, community, event, or situation.

It is a qualitative research approach that aims to provide a detailed and comprehensive understanding of the case being studied. Case studies typically involve multiple sources of data, including interviews, observations, documents, and artifacts, which are analyzed using various techniques, such as content analysis, thematic analysis, and grounded theory. The findings of a case study are often used to develop theories, inform policy or practice, or generate new research questions.

Types of Case Study

Types and Methods of Case Study are as follows:

Single-Case Study

A single-case study is an in-depth analysis of a single case. This type of case study is useful when the researcher wants to understand a specific phenomenon in detail.

For Example , A researcher might conduct a single-case study on a particular individual to understand their experiences with a particular health condition or a specific organization to explore their management practices. The researcher collects data from multiple sources, such as interviews, observations, and documents, and uses various techniques to analyze the data, such as content analysis or thematic analysis. The findings of a single-case study are often used to generate new research questions, develop theories, or inform policy or practice.

Multiple-Case Study

A multiple-case study involves the analysis of several cases that are similar in nature. This type of case study is useful when the researcher wants to identify similarities and differences between the cases.

For Example, a researcher might conduct a multiple-case study on several companies to explore the factors that contribute to their success or failure. The researcher collects data from each case, compares and contrasts the findings, and uses various techniques to analyze the data, such as comparative analysis or pattern-matching. The findings of a multiple-case study can be used to develop theories, inform policy or practice, or generate new research questions.

Exploratory Case Study

An exploratory case study is used to explore a new or understudied phenomenon. This type of case study is useful when the researcher wants to generate hypotheses or theories about the phenomenon.

For Example, a researcher might conduct an exploratory case study on a new technology to understand its potential impact on society. The researcher collects data from multiple sources, such as interviews, observations, and documents, and uses various techniques to analyze the data, such as grounded theory or content analysis. The findings of an exploratory case study can be used to generate new research questions, develop theories, or inform policy or practice.

Descriptive Case Study

A descriptive case study is used to describe a particular phenomenon in detail. This type of case study is useful when the researcher wants to provide a comprehensive account of the phenomenon.

For Example, a researcher might conduct a descriptive case study on a particular community to understand its social and economic characteristics. The researcher collects data from multiple sources, such as interviews, observations, and documents, and uses various techniques to analyze the data, such as content analysis or thematic analysis. The findings of a descriptive case study can be used to inform policy or practice or generate new research questions.

Instrumental Case Study

An instrumental case study is used to understand a particular phenomenon that is instrumental in achieving a particular goal. This type of case study is useful when the researcher wants to understand the role of the phenomenon in achieving the goal.

For Example, a researcher might conduct an instrumental case study on a particular policy to understand its impact on achieving a particular goal, such as reducing poverty. The researcher collects data from multiple sources, such as interviews, observations, and documents, and uses various techniques to analyze the data, such as content analysis or thematic analysis. The findings of an instrumental case study can be used to inform policy or practice or generate new research questions.

Case Study Data Collection Methods

Here are some common data collection methods for case studies:

Interviews involve asking questions to individuals who have knowledge or experience relevant to the case study. Interviews can be structured (where the same questions are asked to all participants) or unstructured (where the interviewer follows up on the responses with further questions). Interviews can be conducted in person, over the phone, or through video conferencing.

Observations

Observations involve watching and recording the behavior and activities of individuals or groups relevant to the case study. Observations can be participant (where the researcher actively participates in the activities) or non-participant (where the researcher observes from a distance). Observations can be recorded using notes, audio or video recordings, or photographs.

Documents can be used as a source of information for case studies. Documents can include reports, memos, emails, letters, and other written materials related to the case study. Documents can be collected from the case study participants or from public sources.

Surveys involve asking a set of questions to a sample of individuals relevant to the case study. Surveys can be administered in person, over the phone, through mail or email, or online. Surveys can be used to gather information on attitudes, opinions, or behaviors related to the case study.

Artifacts are physical objects relevant to the case study. Artifacts can include tools, equipment, products, or other objects that provide insights into the case study phenomenon.

How to conduct Case Study Research

Conducting a case study research involves several steps that need to be followed to ensure the quality and rigor of the study. Here are the steps to conduct case study research:

• Define the research questions: The first step in conducting a case study research is to define the research questions. The research questions should be specific, measurable, and relevant to the case study phenomenon under investigation.
• Select the case: The next step is to select the case or cases to be studied. The case should be relevant to the research questions and should provide rich and diverse data that can be used to answer the research questions.
• Collect data: Data can be collected using various methods, such as interviews, observations, documents, surveys, and artifacts. The data collection method should be selected based on the research questions and the nature of the case study phenomenon.
• Analyze the data: The data collected from the case study should be analyzed using various techniques, such as content analysis, thematic analysis, or grounded theory. The analysis should be guided by the research questions and should aim to provide insights and conclusions relevant to the research questions.
• Draw conclusions: The conclusions drawn from the case study should be based on the data analysis and should be relevant to the research questions. The conclusions should be supported by evidence and should be clearly stated.
• Validate the findings: The findings of the case study should be validated by reviewing the data and the analysis with participants or other experts in the field. This helps to ensure the validity and reliability of the findings.
• Write the report: The final step is to write the report of the case study research. The report should provide a clear description of the case study phenomenon, the research questions, the data collection methods, the data analysis, the findings, and the conclusions. The report should be written in a clear and concise manner and should follow the guidelines for academic writing.

Examples of Case Study

Here are some examples of case study research:

• The Hawthorne Studies : Conducted between 1924 and 1932, the Hawthorne Studies were a series of case studies conducted by Elton Mayo and his colleagues to examine the impact of work environment on employee productivity. The studies were conducted at the Hawthorne Works plant of the Western Electric Company in Chicago and included interviews, observations, and experiments.
• The Stanford Prison Experiment: Conducted in 1971, the Stanford Prison Experiment was a case study conducted by Philip Zimbardo to examine the psychological effects of power and authority. The study involved simulating a prison environment and assigning participants to the role of guards or prisoners. The study was controversial due to the ethical issues it raised.
• The Challenger Disaster: The Challenger Disaster was a case study conducted to examine the causes of the Space Shuttle Challenger explosion in 1986. The study included interviews, observations, and analysis of data to identify the technical, organizational, and cultural factors that contributed to the disaster.
• The Enron Scandal: The Enron Scandal was a case study conducted to examine the causes of the Enron Corporation’s bankruptcy in 2001. The study included interviews, analysis of financial data, and review of documents to identify the accounting practices, corporate culture, and ethical issues that led to the company’s downfall.
• The Fukushima Nuclear Disaster : The Fukushima Nuclear Disaster was a case study conducted to examine the causes of the nuclear accident that occurred at the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant in Japan in 2011. The study included interviews, analysis of data, and review of documents to identify the technical, organizational, and cultural factors that contributed to the disaster.

Application of Case Study

Case studies have a wide range of applications across various fields and industries. Here are some examples:

Business and Management

Case studies are widely used in business and management to examine real-life situations and develop problem-solving skills. Case studies can help students and professionals to develop a deep understanding of business concepts, theories, and best practices.

Case studies are used in healthcare to examine patient care, treatment options, and outcomes. Case studies can help healthcare professionals to develop critical thinking skills, diagnose complex medical conditions, and develop effective treatment plans.

Case studies are used in education to examine teaching and learning practices. Case studies can help educators to develop effective teaching strategies, evaluate student progress, and identify areas for improvement.

Social Sciences

Case studies are widely used in social sciences to examine human behavior, social phenomena, and cultural practices. Case studies can help researchers to develop theories, test hypotheses, and gain insights into complex social issues.

Law and Ethics

Case studies are used in law and ethics to examine legal and ethical dilemmas. Case studies can help lawyers, policymakers, and ethical professionals to develop critical thinking skills, analyze complex cases, and make informed decisions.

Purpose of Case Study

The purpose of a case study is to provide a detailed analysis of a specific phenomenon, issue, or problem in its real-life context. A case study is a qualitative research method that involves the in-depth exploration and analysis of a particular case, which can be an individual, group, organization, event, or community.

The primary purpose of a case study is to generate a comprehensive and nuanced understanding of the case, including its history, context, and dynamics. Case studies can help researchers to identify and examine the underlying factors, processes, and mechanisms that contribute to the case and its outcomes. This can help to develop a more accurate and detailed understanding of the case, which can inform future research, practice, or policy.

Case studies can also serve other purposes, including:

• Illustrating a theory or concept: Case studies can be used to illustrate and explain theoretical concepts and frameworks, providing concrete examples of how they can be applied in real-life situations.
• Developing hypotheses: Case studies can help to generate hypotheses about the causal relationships between different factors and outcomes, which can be tested through further research.
• Providing insight into complex issues: Case studies can provide insights into complex and multifaceted issues, which may be difficult to understand through other research methods.
• Informing practice or policy: Case studies can be used to inform practice or policy by identifying best practices, lessons learned, or areas for improvement.

Advantages of Case Study Research

There are several advantages of case study research, including:

• In-depth exploration: Case study research allows for a detailed exploration and analysis of a specific phenomenon, issue, or problem in its real-life context. This can provide a comprehensive understanding of the case and its dynamics, which may not be possible through other research methods.
• Rich data: Case study research can generate rich and detailed data, including qualitative data such as interviews, observations, and documents. This can provide a nuanced understanding of the case and its complexity.
• Holistic perspective: Case study research allows for a holistic perspective of the case, taking into account the various factors, processes, and mechanisms that contribute to the case and its outcomes. This can help to develop a more accurate and comprehensive understanding of the case.
• Theory development: Case study research can help to develop and refine theories and concepts by providing empirical evidence and concrete examples of how they can be applied in real-life situations.
• Practical application: Case study research can inform practice or policy by identifying best practices, lessons learned, or areas for improvement.
• Contextualization: Case study research takes into account the specific context in which the case is situated, which can help to understand how the case is influenced by the social, cultural, and historical factors of its environment.

Limitations of Case Study Research

There are several limitations of case study research, including:

• Limited generalizability : Case studies are typically focused on a single case or a small number of cases, which limits the generalizability of the findings. The unique characteristics of the case may not be applicable to other contexts or populations, which may limit the external validity of the research.
• Biased sampling: Case studies may rely on purposive or convenience sampling, which can introduce bias into the sample selection process. This may limit the representativeness of the sample and the generalizability of the findings.
• Subjectivity: Case studies rely on the interpretation of the researcher, which can introduce subjectivity into the analysis. The researcher’s own biases, assumptions, and perspectives may influence the findings, which may limit the objectivity of the research.
• Limited control: Case studies are typically conducted in naturalistic settings, which limits the control that the researcher has over the environment and the variables being studied. This may limit the ability to establish causal relationships between variables.
• Time-consuming: Case studies can be time-consuming to conduct, as they typically involve a detailed exploration and analysis of a specific case. This may limit the feasibility of conducting multiple case studies or conducting case studies in a timely manner.
• Resource-intensive: Case studies may require significant resources, including time, funding, and expertise. This may limit the ability of researchers to conduct case studies in resource-constrained settings.

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Meaning Making with Multiple Representations: a Case Study of a Preservice Teacher Creating a Digital Explanation

• Open access
• Published: 11 January 2022
• Volume 52 , pages 871–890, ( 2022 )

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• Wendy Nielsen   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-2066-6200 1 ,
• Annette Turney 1 ,
• Helen Georgiou 1 &
• Pauline Jones 1  

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The construction of dynamic multimedia products requires the selection and integration of a range of semiotic resources. As an assessment task for preservice teachers, this construction process is complex but has significant potential for learning. To investigate how weaving together multiple representations in such tasks enables learners to develop conceptual understanding, the paper presents an indicative case study of a 2nd-year preservice primary (K-6) teacher who created a digital explanation on the topic of ‘transparency’ for stage 3 children (ages 11–12). We focus on data gathered during the 3-h construction process including artefacts such as images, online searches, websites accessed and paper records used for planning; the digital explanation as product; audio and video capture of the construction process and pre- and post-construction interviews. Using multimodal analysis, we examine these data to understand how meanings are negotiated as the maker moves iteratively among multiple representations and through semiotic choices within these representations to explain the science concept. The analyses illustrate the complexity of the construction process while providing insight into the creator’s decision-making and to her developing semiotic and conceptual understandings. These findings allow us to build on the concept of cumulative semiotic progression (Hoban & Nielsen, Research in Science Education , 35, 1101-1119, 2013 ) by explicating the role of iterative reasoning in the production of pedagogic multimedia.

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Introduction

The increasing use of dynamic multimedia construction as an assessment task is based on a dual aim to improve science content knowledge and develop multimodal literacies (Hoban, Nielsen, & Shepherd, 2016 ). These two aims have long been linked in the science education literature, as it is understood that working with and constructing scientific representations is central to learning (Tytler et al. 2014 ). This is because how meanings are made in scientific discourse is considered fundamental to the epistemic processes through which knowledge is generated, validated and communicated in science disciplines (Tytler et al., 2018 ). In science, the different modalities used (such as images, scientific symbols or language) serve to represent different aspects of scientific understanding (Lemke, 1998 ) and offer opportunities for exploring concepts, conducting experiments, recording findings and disseminating understandings. This functional relationship between scientific enterprise and the modalities used signal that learning how to use representations in science is a means through which individuals learn how to reason and theorize in science (Gooding, 2006 ; Latour, 1999 ). Accordingly, science educators are increasingly seeking to foster the development of multimodal disciplinary literacy (see, for example Airey & Larsson 2020 ; Linder et al., 2014 ; Tang et al., 2014 ; Tang & Danielsson, 2014 ; Tytler et al. 2014 ).

Although we are aware of the need to work across multiple scientific representations in assessment tasks, the potential of multimodal environments has not yet been fully realized.

Traditionally, the focus in education has been on the more established disciplinary modes, such as language. As technologies develop, particularly those that enable dynamic representations, this focus has broadened to include other modes, including image (moving and still) (e.g. He, 2020 ; Unsworth, 2020 ) and gesture (e.g. Lim, 2011 , 2019 ). Explicit references to multimodality are now more commonplace in curricula. For instance, in Australia, students studying science from the late primary school level are expected to ‘Communicate ideas, explanations and processes using scientific representations in a variety of ways, including multi-modal texts’ (Australian Curriculum, Assessment and Reporting Authority [ACARA], 2017 ) and university science students ‘gather, synthesize and evaluate information from a range of sources and to communicate science to a range of audiences for a range of purposes and in a variety of modes’ (ALTC, 2011 , p. 14).

The field of research that considers multimodal communication, ‘multimodality’, is still in its infancy (Bateman et al., 2017 ). Although it is described as a field that draws from a range of different philosophies, it is heavily influenced by social semiotics, which posits the close relationship between texts and their social contexts. Though the central assumption of meaning making as a social practice is common, it manifests differently in different fields. For instance, in science education, social semiotics has been used to describe the use of representations in the discipline of physics (Airey & Linder, 2009 ). Theorizing in this space is particularly useful for science educators because specific disciplinary characteristics, such as the concurrent use of modes such as mathematical equations and diagrams, are discussed. Another branch of social semiotics stems from systemic functional theory (SFT) (Halliday, 1978 ). Most fully developed for language, SFT focuses on the function of language (or other modes) and considers meaning making as involving choices made as part of systems of possible options. Systemic functional theory, together with genre theory, has informed current approaches to multimodality (Bateman et al., 2017 ; Kress, 2010 ; O’Halloran, 2011 )

Given the increasing use of student-generated digital explanations as assessment in science education (Hoban, Nielsen, & Shepherd, 2016 ), there is a pressing need to better understand these products, both in terms of their construction as a meaning-making activity and their pedagogic potential. We build on the concept of cumulative semiotic progression (Hoban & Nielsen, 2013 ) to ask the question: How does a social semiotic account of digital media production help us to understand meaning making by a preservice teacher?

Digital Explanations as Assessmen t

Digital explanations are dynamic multimodal texts created by the learner to communicate science meanings (Nielsen & Hoban, 2015 ). These objects are referred to using a range of different terms depending on form and media, but the type we are considering is characterized by being student generated, multimodal and dynamic. Typically, this looks like a 3–5 min, stand-alone, digital, dynamic product employing narration, image and language on screen, with the possibility of animation and video (film) also being included (Nielsen et al., 2018 ). There are a number of different techniques that can be used in the creation, all of which are based on the ubiquity of personal, web-enabled digital devices such as smartphones or tablets and readily available media production software such as iMovie or Explain Everything. The ubiquity and ease of use of contemporary educational technologies have unlocked potential for new and more sophisticated uses as assessment items (see, for example, Bennett et al., 2018 ; Mayer, 2009 ; Prensky, 2001 ). This is particularly important in science, and in preservice teacher education, given the inherent multimodalities of both science and the primary classroom.

Digital explanation developed from an earlier technique called ‘slowmation’ (Hoban, 2005 , 2009 , 2020 ; Hoban et al., 2011 ). Slowmation is a form of stop-motion animation where the learner plans a sequence of representations through storyboarding and model making. The models are then moved manually while taking a sequence of still images and uploading them into a movie-making programme. The sequence is then played at 2 frames per second and narrated. The result is a stand-alone animated explanation of a science concept or process that aims to help the viewer visualize the ideas and make meaning. Hoban’s science learners were preservice primary teachers who, while developing technical skills in creating a digital artefact, also developed conceptual understanding of the science content (Hoban & Nielsen, 2013 ; Nielsen & Hoban, 2015 ). Similar results with slowmation have also been demonstrated across a range of learning contexts and in many different content areas: secondary science teachers in their teacher education programmes (Amos & Campbell, 2016 ; Keast & Cooper, 2016 ; Kidman et al., 2012 ; Paige et al., 2016 ); Aboriginal ways of knowing (McKnight et al., 2011 ); high school students studying geology (Mills et al., 2019 , 2020 ) and preschool children learning about science concepts (Fleer & Hoban, 2012 ).

Recent work on digital explanations reveals significant potential for learning (see, for example Mills et al., 2019 ; Paige et al., 2016 ). In addition, results from a range of studies show that there might also be potential to improve communication skills, collaboration and engagement (Hoban & Nielsen, 2014 ; Nielsen et al., 2017 ). However, multimodal texts are challenging to construct, assess and teach (Jones et al., 2020 ). Researchers in this area highlight that the use of digital explanations (or learner-generated digital products more generally) has occurred without a substantial assessment framework and lacks theoretical underpinning (Reyna & Meier, 2018 ). Constructs from the field of social semiotics are thus helpful if we hope to realize the potential of digital explanations.

Social Semiotics

Social semiotics has proven useful in the fields of multimodality and science education, which is where this particular research lies. However, social semiotics is not a uniform theoretical framework, but rather, different traditions have adapted to different objects of study. In this paper, we draw from a range of concepts from science education, linguistics and multimodality to describe the meaning making and its relationship to learning in preservice primary teacher education.

We begin with the notion of the cumulative semiotic progression (Hoban & Nielsen, 2013 ) which identifies the process of constructing a multimodal product as constituting a number of stages (e.g. research notes, storyboard, models). Hoban and Nielsen argue that throughout these stages, meaning is made through the use of different ‘signs’. Key implications from this theorization include that, first, the signs used in each stage have particular potential for different kinds of meaning making and, second, that the process of recontextualization of meaning across the different signs in these stages results in improved reasoning and understanding.

The potential for meaning making by the different modes, described above, is captured in the concept of ‘affordance’. Here, we use the definition offered by Airey and Linder ( 2009 ) within their disciplinary application of social semiotics. Identifying the discipline of physics, Airey and Linder describe learning or development in the discipline as having access to the ‘disciplinary ways of knowing’, which is achieved through familiarly with the discourse of the discipline. The discourse, in turn, involves tools, representations and activities. Each of these aspects of the disciplinary discourse can occur in different modes, which the authors identify as spoken language, written language, image, gesture, apparatus and so on. Airey and Linder explain that there are different facets to the ways of knowing in a discipline that can only be achieved through the use of multiple modes. They explain that all facets of knowing cannot be expressed monomodally and theorize that each way of knowing is achieved by a ‘critical constellation of modes’: a ‘minimum’, specific combination of the modes detailed above that gives a learner holistic ‘access’ to the disciplinary discourse and thus, ways of knowing. This critical constellation differs for different concepts, and, once fluent in the critical constellation, learners can readily employ any other range of individual modes.

We can thus see how the process of constructing a multimodal resource (such as slowmation, as a multimedia product) provides an opportunity for a learner to achieve a critical constellation of modes, and here, we draw on more recent research in social semiotics to more precisely describe this process. In generating representations, learners must construe scientific meanings and then translate the meanings into different forms, which is where the learning is theorized to happen (Kress et al., 2001 ; Kress & van Leeuwen, 2006 ). Translation has technical meaning here and is used as a general semiotic term to capture changes in meanings from one mode to another that result from having to work in a new medium or for a different audience. The concept of ‘transduction’ refers more specifically to ‘meaning material’ being moved from one semiotic mode to another, for example the kinds of changes that emerge in moving from a written explanation of a process (language as a mode) to a diagram that represents that same process (image as a tool) (Bezemer & Kress, 2008 ). Bezemer and Kress’s idea of ‘epistemological commitments’ is also useful here, in terms of illustrating the additional work required to translate or transduct meaning and further explain that different modes impose a different set of such commitments. Transduction of meaning from written to visual modes, for instance, might require additional detail, such as specific placements, colours or addition of other representations. Such commitments demand the attention of the author or creator of the digital product too.

Svensson and Eriksson ( 2020 ) also made a distinction between the disciplinary and pedagogical affordances of the semiotic resources (Airey and Linder’s ‘modes’), bringing in a consideration of the audience. Depending on the context of their use, the resources may not reflect ‘traditional’ representations in the sense that the disciplinary representations may need to be modified to better suit the intended audience (see also Airey & Linder, 2009 ). Thus, when generating a digital explanation, how a particular learner selects resources may form part of a transductive process as meanings are translated from one representational form to another. Selecting and modifying multiple representations are thus of interest in order to better understand the meaning-making potential of this form of media production.

In addition to the meaning made by the creator, we also consider the multimodal literacies used to address an audience. In order to thus describe the purpose of the text, we draw on systemic functional linguistic theory (SFL) (Halliday & Hasan, 1976 ; Halliday & Matthiessen, 2014 ) together with genre theory (Martin & Rose, 2008 ). Genre theory describes the different patterning of texts according to their social purposes and has impacted curriculum literacies making it possible to identify the major genres associated with disciplinary practices (Martin & Rose, 2008 ). Explanation genres are important in communicating different kinds of scientific processes such as sequencing (cyclical and sequential explanations), expressing causation (causal, factorial and consequential explanations) and describing systems (system explanations) (Derewianka & Jones, 2016 ; Martin & Rose, 2008 ). A causal explanation, for example, consists of the phenomenon identification (identifying the relevant concept) and one or more explanation sequences (linking cause and effect). Different kinds of explanations are recognizable as ‘recurrent patterns of meaning’ (Martin & Rose, 2008 , p. 231) so that it is possible, for analytical and pedagogical purposes, to expect to find distinct stages through which an instance of a genre or text unfolds. Combinations of genres are common in the digital world as evidenced in websites, simulations and other digital artefacts such as videos. In the disciplinary contexts of higher education, texts are expanded through embedding and combining these different genres (Szenes, 2017 ) and learners build an understanding of these systems through countless instances of listening, speaking, writing and reading texts. Furthermore, genres configure three dimensions of context: fields of social activities, tenors of social relations and modes of meaning making (linguistic, visual, spatial, aural and gestural). Collectively, field, tenor and mode comprise register and patterns of register are realized as patterns of meaning in the text. The purpose of the explanation (genre) under focus in this paper is to explain a science concept (field), to children (tenor) drawing on a range of semiotic resources available through digital media (mode).

We adopt an interpretive approach to characterize the meaning making, learning and communicative elements of the construction of a digital explanation. We use case methods (Stake, 2005 ; Yin, 2017 ) to present a study of one preservice primary teacher (PST) who constructed a digital explanation artefact start-to-finish during a 3-h research period. ‘Stacy’ (pseudonym) had previous experience with ‘slowmation’ and multimedia production having created a slowmation in a science methods class in year 1 of her degree programme. The methods class included workshops and assignments to help PSTs develop techniques for digital media creation. During the pre-interview, Stacy was tasked to create a digital explanation about the concept of ‘transparency’ for children in years 5 and 6 (ages 11–12). We assigned the topic of transparency for the digital explanation because it is a familiar but complex concept and is part of the primary science curriculum. At the time of this study, Stacy was mid-way through the second year of the 4-year Bachelor of Primary Education degree programme. During the pre-interview, we asked questions such as what do you know about the topic? How confident are you with your knowledge of the topic? What experience have you had with digital media production? What are your plans for creating this digital explanation? Which keywords will you use to search for information? We also asked Stacy to talk aloud as she worked.

To support the construction, we provided a range of models and construction materials: scissors, coloured paper and plastic sheets, pens, plasticine, etc., as well as a small whiteboard and assorted equipment, such as ‘optics kit’ materials, including concave and convex lenses of different sizes, as well as mirrors, prisms, a light box and flashlights. The study was conducted in a sound studio on the university campus and the construction period was video and audio recorded. The audio recording was transcribed verbatim. Interviews with Stacy before and after the construction period were also transcribed and artefacts she generated during the study period were collected. Additionally, still, photographs were taken throughout the study period including workspace layouts, websites she accessed and other salient details of her construction activities. The resulting digital explanation as well as a summary of the multimodal transcription of the construction period are both included as Supplementary Material for this paper.

We acknowledge that a single case is a limiter to wider generalizations; however, the wide range of data sources for the case offers an unusually rich opportunity to examine how these many resources were used by this preservice teacher to build meanings. Focusing on one or a small number of texts or artefacts allows detail and depth as well as richness to analysis and descriptions and is not uncommon when studying meaning-making processes or representations (see, for example Jamini, 2011 ; Morgan & Kynigos, 2014 ; Unsworth, 2006 ; Zappavigna, 2016 ). The depth provided in this single case allows us to look at how relevant theories inform our understandings in the rich spaces of multimodalities, multiple representations, scientific explanations and the digital environment where student-generated products like digital explanations are artefacts of learning.

Analysis and Results

The research aims to describe the links between meaning making, learning and communication of a scientific concept. There were two key steps in the analysis. Firstly, we used genre theory to identify the stages of the digital explanation that Stacy generated, including the phenomenon identification (which includes a definition), two explanation sequences, rounded out by a concluding statement. The stages also serve to organize the multimodal transcription of the construction period and presentation of the multiple representations she accessed or generated during the study period. Table 1 presents the transcription of the digital explanation, with time-stamped stages, that ran for 1 min and 28 s in total.

The transcription in Table 1 characterizes the digital explanation that Stacy created in terms of the purpose of the different stages in the genre, alongside a screenshot from that stage and our generalized multimodal analysis of visual and aural elements, similar to the analysis done by Tan ( 2014 ). The videographic elements are further characterized in terms of the static and dynamic representations used. An additional visual element is ‘on-screen text’, which was typically overlaid as a title or a label. In Stacy’s digital explanation, a scripted narration comprises the aural element.

The second step in the analysis process involved exploring, in more detail, the context of the construction period where each of the stages was developed more expressly, in terms of how Stacy selected and worked with representations. The full summary of the multimodal transcript of the construction period is found in Supplementary Materials, while Table 2 presents a part of this analysis. The construction period transcript includes timestamps, images of websites Stacy visited as source material and interpretive commentary for the segment. The quotes in red are phrases that Stacy read directly from the source material she accessed and in the case of Table 2 , the sequence displayed reflects her refining a key definition for the digital explanation. We aim to show how the many moments reflected in Tables 1 and 2 are consequential for the dual aims of Stacy’s learning about science and communicating the science content in the digital explanation.

Through analysis, we thus consider how Stacy built topic-related meanings through her representational choices (field); how she oriented these choices to the needs of her young viewers (tenor) and, then, how she organised the various semiotic resources into the digital explanation (mode). Interview data complements the analysis of the artefact. We draw on the identified range of concepts from social semiotics for this work, examining each of the key informational sequences from the digital explanation she produced to understand how she chose the representation(s) and for what purpose.

Preparation for Construction

The task to create a digital explanation on the concept of transparency for children aged 11–12 was explained to Stacy during the pre-interview, and she indicated that she didn’t know very much about the concept. She noted that she would begin the task by conducting internet searches for information. Initially, she conducted a google search using the keyword ‘transparency’, but she also searched for ‘experiments with kids’ realizing that many of the definitions she found in her initial searching were too advanced for the intended audience of years 5 and 6 children.

The construction period transcript foregrounds the recursive nature of Stacy’s production process as she moved backwards and forwards between the representations as she developed her reasoning about the topic. Rows 5 to 11 in Table 2 illustrate this recursive reasoning effectively. In this sequence, we see Stacy moving between different representations as she starts to build her understanding of the concept—potentially the start of the development of a ‘critical constellation’ (Airey & Linder, 2009 ). She looks for further commitment in the images to understand the technical ‘scientific’ meaning of transparent (and the process of light transmission) and be ready to teach it.

Early in the sequence, Stacy is still uncertain of the relationship between transmission and transparency despite the initial definition on the ‘Science Sparks’ website linking the two congruently: ‘the reason we can see through transparent objects is that they transmit light without scattering it’ (row 5 in Table 2 ). By row 10, Stacy is still trying to reconcile the definitions of transparency, her reading about how light travels and the representations of the process as stylized in Fig. 1 . She used this image to understand the difference between absorption, scattering and transmission.

Differences between scattering, absorption and transmission

The image in Fig. 1 is highly abstract with minimal detail committed visually and requires viewers to decode the meanings represented; notably, it is likely that she has not been taught to do this. Although the diagram does show how light interacts with different materials, Stacy struggles to make the connection between ‘transparent’ and ‘transmission’. She continued searching the internet and making notes for about 45 min before she began choosing resources for parts of the digital explanation.

Selecting resources for inclusion into the digital explanation parallels the pedagogical work teachers do in preparing to teach science in their classrooms. For example, Stacy identified electron excitation or atoms scattering as concepts that were too advanced and thus inappropriate for the digital explanation she was tasked to make. Interestingly, while she noted information that was too advanced for children, she did not seem inclined or curious to pursue a higher level of understanding of the concepts for herself, focusing instead on meeting her aims for the task at hand. Beyond selecting conceptual content, Stacy was also aware that visual, dynamic and auditory elements contribute meanings in the digital explanation. Late in the pre-interview, she googled ‘diagram of light scattering through see-through object’, commenting on what she was looking for:

I want like an image. It says, ‘Light travels in straight lines, transparent objects let light pass through them, translucent objects let some light pass through them, opaque objects do not let any…’ I could do like a progression of that.

The quote corresponds to line 6 in Table 2 . As she initiated her search and clarified the phenomenon for her digital product, her sense of the required or appropriate stages of an explanation was clear. At 42:25 of the construction period, she stated:

I’ll probably start with ‘What is transparency?’ And then give a basic definition and that will be a slide I think with a voiceover and maybe some pictures, and then…. I might just write out things I definitely want to include and then I’ll think of the order. So, I want [a] definition, I want a diagram of transmission of light passing through, then I’ll have a video maybe something like ‘think about the things in the world that you’re able to see through, the things around you that you’re able to see through’.

Consistent with the expectation that the product should include a range of representations (Nielsen et al., 2020 ), Stacy’s plan for the digital explanation included identifying examples or suggestions for the different stages of the product (see Fig. 2 for her planning sheet).

Stacy’s planning sheet

Phenomenon Identification

The introduction sequence of the digital explanation shows a videographic display of an open-source, colour, still image of a magnifying glass eyeing a field of sunflowers with the on-screen text overlay ‘transparency’ as a title (see Table 1 , line 1). The sequence lasts for 14 s and the narration includes a simple definition: “Transparency is when an object allows all the light to pass through it in a process called ‘transmission.’ Other words we might use to describe something transparent is ‘clear’ or ‘see-through’”. The definition is elaborated with two simple synonyms for ‘transparent’. The brief introduction was scripted during her early work in searching websites to find definitions at a suitable level of technicality for primary school children and her work to set up this stage involved field building of her own knowledge.

As an introduction, the narration is informative and sets out the topic as would be expected in an introductory sequence. In showing a magnifying glass, the image illustrates the concept of ‘see through’ even as the narration makes no explicit link between the visual element of a magnifier and the definition as narrated. The image relates the concept to the everyday lived experience of children, which is theorized to help them understand the technical nominalization and split the semiotic load between the visual and aural elements (Painter et al., 2013 ).

Explanation Sequence 1: Slowmation

Following the opening title and phenomenon identification sequence, the key definition for the digital explanation is presented as a ‘slowmation’ (Hoban, 2005 , 2009 ) that lasts for about 9 s. Visually, the simple slowmation sequence consists of 15 images that Stacy drew on a small whiteboard. Table 1 (line 2) shows two screenshots from the slowmation sequence. A stylized ‘torch’ sits on the left edge of the screen and yellow horizontal lines advance from the torch toward the ‘transparent object’ (shown in the middle of the screen as a vertical green-hashed column) with light ‘rays’ passing through, emerging from the right side of the object. The narration at time 00:14 complements the visual imagery: ‘Here we see the process of transmission as the light from the torch hits the transparent object and passes through the other side’. In this case, Stacy uses a simple definitional sequence to demonstrate the abstract process of light transmission.

The slowmation sequence was based on a still image clipped from a YouTube video called ‘Translucent, Transparent and Opaque’ (Alberta Distance Learning Centre [ADLC], 2020 ). Stacy commented on choosing the ADLC video, even as she had viewed quite a few others in her internet searching: ‘This is probably the most helpful video I’ve seen so far because it has diagrams and a clear explanation’ (0:47:31, construction period). The ADLC educational video was produced for elementary school children and Stacy returned to it many times through the construction period. The main image she referenced is shown in Fig. 3 , which depicts light passing through a transparent object. The stylized sketches she drew on the small whiteboard simplify the ADLC image. Furthermore, she used the general plan from the ADLC video to structure her own digital explanation. Notably, the slowmation illustrates the same process (light passing through a transparent object) and uses the same orientation and labels as the ADLC video.

Screenshot from Alberta Distance Learning Centre (used with permission)

While the ADLC diagram was the source of an idea for how to represent and define the central concept of transparency, Stacy then transformed the information in the ADLC diagram to a slowmation sequence that illustrated the invisible and dynamic process of light transmission. While visually quite basic, the short slowmation sequence illustrates her focus on the key definition in a simple explanation sequence and represents it stylistically and clearly. The slowmation is also an introduction to the subsequent explanation sequences presented next as two short videos in the digital explanation.

Explanation Sequence 2: Video

The two additional explanation sequences in the digital explanation are both dynamic videographic displays (of duration 14 and 26 s, respectively). The first of these videos shows a flashlight as a light source with a glass of water in front to illustrate light passing through a transparent object (see Table 1 , line 3). The flashlight is pointed at a glass of water in a darkened room to highlight the light passing through the glass of water as an example of a ‘transparent’ object. The narration focuses the viewer’s attention on the visual elements to exemplify the concept of transparency, representing the same idea, but in a different way, as part of a transductive process. These elements include the intensity of the light (requiring darkness to exemplify), the positions of the torch and glass and the appearance of the light that had been transmitted.

The second short video extends the concept of light passing through a transparent object by showing a non-example of transparency. In this video, the glass of water is replaced with a piece of cardboard in a plastic sleeve (see Table 1 , line 5). Shining the flashlight toward the cardboard provided the non-example, as described in the narration (00:37): ‘When the cardboard is inside the plastic sleeve, light is unable to pass through as the cardboard is not transparent.’ With the flashlight still in place, a hand pulls the cardboard from the sleeve, offering another example of a transparent object as the narrator states: ‘The plastic on its own, however, allows for light to pass through, showing that it is indeed a transparent object.’ Notably, in the second video, Stacy chose not to introduce the additional term ‘opaque’, instead focusing on the notion of transparent (or ‘not transparent’), as she described in the post-interview:

I didn’t have to say ‘The cardboard is opaque’ and then explain what ‘opaque’ means. So I don’t think it was 100 percent necessary but I thought it was good to show the difference between ‘transparent’ and ‘opaque’, with or without the terminology.

Prior to filming the videos, Stacy modelled her set-up on the examples seen in the ADLC video and noted: ‘I’m just seeing how the light goes through the different objects and trying to see what would be a good demonstration to film for my video’. When she filmed the video sequences, Stacy used slightly different materials to those in the ADLC video but combined them similarly to show what transmission looks like in ‘real-life’. By choosing a video for these parts of the explanation, Stacy demonstrates some level of awareness of a key affordance of video as a medium that can illustrate processes that are not observable to the naked eye. This sequence also builds on the slowmation that preceded it, including how the flashlight is oriented and the direction of travel of the light through the transparent object. By including a non-example, Stacy builds complexity to the meanings represented. There is also a temporal element in Stacy’s modal choices where real-time displays are complemented with examples shown in slow motion: the videos provide real-life examples while the slowmation slows down the process of transmission through the stop-motion animation technique (Hoban, 2005 , 2009 ). This ‘slowing down’ is an important affordance of the slowmation technique as a form of representation. Furthermore, as part of the overall digital artefact, the objects chosen as models would be familiar to children of the age range targeted for the explanation.

Examples and Definition Restatement

The final image in the digital explanation is a busy photographic image that includes a number of transparent objects such as water bottles (both plastic and glass), plastic containers, rolls of plastic film and glass ampules (see Table 1 , line 6). The image remains on screen for 23 s and the narration at 00:54 links children’s experience and the visual representations in the image: ‘Think about some other transparent objects in the world around you. What about windows, or a water bottle, a plastic bag, a container, sticky tape, glasses, a snow globe, a light bulb, magnifying glass, googles, even air is transparent’. By naming a range of transparent objects, the narration complements and extends the visual element to a number of objects and materials that would be familiar to years 5 and 6 children and speaks to the pedagogic purpose of the digital explanation. In a way, this moves from the stylistic or simple representations used earlier to a different form. The familiarity suggests to children that they could also try the same thing on their own, which we note is a common feature of science videos for children.

With 11 s remaining in the digital explanation, the screen goes black and the narration concludes with a restatement of the key definition (Table 1 , line 7): ‘Remember, transparent objects are those which light passes through. These are the things that we are able to see through. Bye!’ As a concluding sequence and by way of summary that restates the key definition, both the narration and the final image are elements that offer a common-sense description along with familiar examples that reinforce the initial definition of ‘transparent’. While planning for the summary sequence and aiming to finish the digital explanation with an ‘interesting ending’, Stacy commented late in the construction period (2:24:26): ‘my idea for this is just to get heaps of images and have them as a collage on the page but each image popping up one at a time.’ While the final image does not do this more technically challenging ‘popping up,’ restating the definition serves as a concluding marker for the digital explanation.

Working with Multiple Representations

In this section, we provide more detail around the translation and transduction across modes and representations. The representations Stacy accessed guided both building her field knowledge of the concept of transparency and a plan for the digital explanation. At some point of her searching for information, she identified one representation that ‘worked’ for her and she used it as a source definition for the product (the ADLC image), choosing it among the range of other representations she had accessed. The range of sources among the possible representational forms that Stacy accessed could be considered as forming part of an apparent ‘critical constellation’ of modes (Airey & Linder, 2009 ); we say ‘apparently’ because it was limited to ‘ways of knowing’ at a less advanced level. As summarized in Table 3 , Stacy used the source definition and diagram from the ADLC video to carry forward meanings into other representations that she constructed. She revised both the definition and the ADLC diagram to nominalize the word ‘transparent’ to ‘transparency’ and elaborated the definition to include everyday words to help clarify meanings. She used the dynamic medium of slowmation to illustrate the process of light transmission. She then expanded the definition through intentional changes to the language used in the narration complemented simply by illustrating light rays passing through the transparent object in the slowmation sequence. Notably, the source diagram as a static image was transformed into a dynamic process shown in the slowmation sequence. As a way to ‘unpack’ meanings, this transformation is significant since it helps to make the invisible visible (Olympiou et al., 2013 ). During the post-interview, Stacy commented on why she made this transformation:

I think the slowmation is good because it doesn’t just show the still image of the diagram which I was initially going with; it actually shows the audience the physical process of what the light is doing as it travels through.

The animation of the process arguably foregrounds the process of transmission, helping to distinguish it from the material property of transparency, which was represented by still photographs.

Stacy is aware of the affordances of the slowmation as a representational form and uses this to bridge the more technical definition and abstract concept from the source material for the intended audience for her digital explanation.

Potentially, any representational form can be transformed in multiple ways and in Stacy’s case, she modified the definition and images to support viewer meaning-making, but this also helped her to better understand the process of light transmission. Through the process of building meanings for the intended viewer, her choices to transform representations illustrate how she resolved contradictions, more specifically, in terms of which parts of the concept to represent and which representational form to use to make a given point.

Many of Stacy’s decisions for selecting or transforming the representations she used in the digital explanation were governed by an aim to appeal to the audience of children. She emphasized this appeal to the audience explicitly in her comments about language choice while displaying images, video or slowmations, but also implicitly in her choice of words in the nominalizations made to modify terminology, also for the intended audience. The significance of explicit or implicit attention may be an interesting direction for future research.

Constructing a digital explanation is a meaning-making exercise that has been associated with improved disciplinary understanding (Nielsen et al., 2018 ; Nielsen & Hoban, 2015 ). Although we understand the importance of working with disciplinary literacies and multiple representations, the complexity of the multimodal environment means that we are still coming to understand learners’ meaning making during the design and construction of multimodal products, particularly dynamic texts, and also, how this is related to the understanding of both a text’s purpose and its register demands. In this paper, we draw on a range of concepts from social semiotic theory to understand the process of meaning-making, and its role in learning content knowledge and acquiring specialized literacy skills.

We first consider the role of the maker’s understanding of the context in terms of the genre at stake. In the product, Stacy adheres to the expected genre of the scientific explanation. In genre theory, the explanation genre employed is ‘causal explanation’ and generally consists of phenomenon identification (e.g. ‘transparency’) and one or more explanation sequences. While genre theory has often been used in literacy pedagogy to understand expert texts and mostly in terms of written language, it is also useful in the context of this dynamic text. Here, existing online texts representing the target genre acted as models for Stacy to construct her digital explanation. Although not stated explicitly by the preservice teacher, it was implicitly understood that the digital explanation text required a particular structure and that repetition was important. This highlights the need for high-quality multimodal model texts, particularly in the classroom, since as Maton and Howard ( 2021 ) have warned ‘not all multimedia are created equal’ (p. 76). In other words, some source material may be better (or worse) suited to the pedagogical purposes in a classroom or as models for digital media creation.

The SFL register variable of field was also important. Field plays a significant role throughout our analysis. We consider two aspects of the field that are relevant here. First, we note the development of Stacy’s field knowledge in the pre-construction phase of the product design. Stacy plans and undertakes research to reach a level of sufficiency of understanding of the concept of transparency, which she admits is a concept she initially knew little about. The process involves accessing a number of different sources of information online and an intentional search for specific representations, such as diagrams. Stacy reaches sufficiency when she reaches the understanding expected of a younger audience, dismissing information considered to be too ‘advanced’. Although it is not clear whether this represents a ‘critical constellation of modes’ (Airey & Linder, 2009 ), there is a distinct point at which she believes she has understood enough, and the similarity to the notion of a critical constellation of modes is striking.

Second, the field knowledge represented in the product is also pertinent. We note that Stacy adopted a range of accepted disciplinary representations. She has appreciated the importance of using technical terms appropriately (e.g. transparent, translucent, opaque) and has understood that a range of disciplinary representations is also required (e.g. diagram, experiment). In the talk-aloud protocol and interview, Stacy explained that it was in fact necessary to include a diagram and from the outset of the study period searched for one that she deemed appropriate. There is also an understanding here of the affordances of different representations. Stacy explained how the experiment (shown in the two short video sequences) displayed ‘what actually happened’ when light interacted with a transparent object, while the slowmation was more useful in showing the ‘process’ of transmission, which couldn’t be seen otherwise. Furthermore, making the slowmation was an important impetus for Stacy to really make sure that her own knowledge was secure. She could have used a ready-made image to show the relationship between transparency and transmission but this would likely have remained quite abstract, whereas the need to show it dynamically prompted her to further interrogate what was going on since the maker needs to commit more meaning-making options in a dynamic semiotic mode such as slowmation.

Ultimately, when preservice teachers develop a digital explanation, they are doing so to produce a learning resource for children. Thus, aspects of tenor include the particulars of age appropriateness (of the individual representations, at a suitable level of technicality) but also moving between what is deemed familiar/unfamiliar for the audience of children. Throughout the digital explanation, and with each of the representations Stacy chose, there is clear attention to the audience through the use of familiar objects presented visually alongside a narration with age appropriate language. The purpose of the digital explanation task as an explanation for children supports this pedagogical emphasis, which is a highly relevant aim for activities in preservice teacher education since teachers must also choose suitable materials and resources for use in their classrooms while attending to content complexity, modal affordances and relevance for the audience. While earlier research in the area of slowmation and digital explanation made claims about PST learning through the construction process (Hoban & Nielsen, 2013 ; Nielsen & Hoban, 2015 ), in the current case study, our analysis has shown Stacy’s efforts to build meanings for the intended audience as part of her pedagogic purpose to explain the concept. This seems to work in tension with the underlying desire by science educators to foster PST learning through tasks such as digital explanation and is a possible constraint on how PST develop representational competence (Volkwyn et al., 2020 ). In other words, when PST focus on what the audience needs to know, their own learning (about the topic or concepts) may be limited to that level of understanding. On one level, this may be reasonable given primary school teachers’ need to focus field knowledge at a suitable level of abstraction when teaching children. However, if our aim as science educators is to have PST work with multiple representations so as to learn the science content, we need to find ways to push PST to advance beyond a year 5 or 6 level of understanding.

Finally, we consider the meaning-making process. As has been argued elsewhere, meanings are made through the modes of the ‘cumulative semiotic progression’ (Hoban & Nielsen, 2013 ). Here is where multiple transductions shape field-related meanings both for the creator and for the intended audience. Stacy followed the basic steps outlined by Hoban and Nielsen: ‘background notes’, ‘storyboard’, ‘models’, ‘digital photos’ and ‘narrated animation’, but these are not linear steps and each has different affordances for meaning-making. Coordinating among these different representational systems requires some level of technical skill in working with objects in different modes, but the semiotic work is in transforming them so that the intended meanings are built through the arranged sequence in the overall explanation. Transductions between and across different representations help to build the explanation and involve considering meanings for individual representations, but also across the steps of the sequence and how each of the representations contributes to meanings overall—both disciplinary (field related) and pedagogical (tenor related) (Airey & Linder, 2009 ; Svensson & Eriksson, 2020 ). Making these ‘epistemological commitments’ appears to play an important part in learning, particularly for conceptually demanding ideas. Importantly, the creation of a digital explanation provides a context to consider these meanings. We see this as similar to the notion of ‘representational competence’ described by Volkwyn et al. ( 2020 ) where awareness of the affordances and limitations of different forms of representation are consequential for meaning-making, both for the creator and the imagined audience.

Social semiotics provides a lens to examine meaning-making processes both during construction and in the resulting product when creating a digital explanation. Through the analysis in this paper, we have developed the concept of ‘cumulative semiotic progression’ by showing how a case preservice teacher developed her own field knowledge while translating source images and other online materials in the process of constructing the multimedia artefact. The construction process is not, however, linear because in working with online materials, design choices necessarily involve iterative reasoning about the science concepts being explained, the affordances of different modal forms and ways to build meaning from multiple representations. This is where the process of construction is fruitful for meaning making with multiple representations in science.

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Acknowledgements

We would like to thank the preservice teacher who volunteered to be part of this research. The study was supported by an ARC Discovery Grant (DP160102926) and this support is gratefully acknowledged. We also thank the ADLC and teacher Josef Martha for granting permission to reproduce the image in Figure 3.

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Nielsen, W., Turney, A., Georgiou, H. et al. Meaning Making with Multiple Representations: a Case Study of a Preservice Teacher Creating a Digital Explanation. Res Sci Educ 52 , 871–890 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11165-021-10038-2

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• The case challenges and offers a counter-point to prevailing assumptions? Over time, research on any given topic can fall into a trap of developing assumptions based on outdated studies that are still applied to new or changing conditions or the idea that something should simply be accepted as "common sense," even though the issue has not been thoroughly tested in current practice. A case study analysis may offer an opportunity to gather evidence that challenges prevailing assumptions about a research problem and provide a new set of recommendations applied to practice that have not been tested previously. For example, perhaps there has been a long practice among scholars to apply a particular theory in explaining the relationship between two subjects of analysis. Your case could challenge this assumption by applying an innovative theoretical framework [perhaps borrowed from another discipline] to explore whether this approach offers new ways of understanding the research problem. Taking a contrarian stance is one of the most important ways that new knowledge and understanding develops from existing literature.
• The case provides an opportunity to pursue action leading to the resolution of a problem? Another way to think about choosing a case to study is to consider how the results from investigating a particular case may result in findings that reveal ways in which to resolve an existing or emerging problem. For example, studying the case of an unforeseen incident, such as a fatal accident at a railroad crossing, can reveal hidden issues that could be applied to preventative measures that contribute to reducing the chance of accidents in the future. In this example, a case study investigating the accident could lead to a better understanding of where to strategically locate additional signals at other railroad crossings so as to better warn drivers of an approaching train, particularly when visibility is hindered by heavy rain, fog, or at night.
• The case offers a new direction in future research? A case study can be used as a tool for an exploratory investigation that highlights the need for further research about the problem. A case can be used when there are few studies that help predict an outcome or that establish a clear understanding about how best to proceed in addressing a problem. For example, after conducting a thorough literature review [very important!], you discover that little research exists showing the ways in which women contribute to promoting water conservation in rural communities of east central Africa. A case study of how women contribute to saving water in a rural village of Uganda can lay the foundation for understanding the need for more thorough research that documents how women in their roles as cooks and family caregivers think about water as a valuable resource within their community. This example of a case study could also point to the need for scholars to build new theoretical frameworks around the topic [e.g., applying feminist theories of work and family to the issue of water conservation].

Eisenhardt, Kathleen M. “Building Theories from Case Study Research.” Academy of Management Review 14 (October 1989): 532-550; Emmel, Nick. Sampling and Choosing Cases in Qualitative Research: A Realist Approach . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2013; Gerring, John. “What Is a Case Study and What Is It Good for?” American Political Science Review 98 (May 2004): 341-354; Mills, Albert J. , Gabrielle Durepos, and Eiden Wiebe, editors. Encyclopedia of Case Study Research . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2010; Seawright, Jason and John Gerring. "Case Selection Techniques in Case Study Research." Political Research Quarterly 61 (June 2008): 294-308.

Structure and Writing Style

The purpose of a paper in the social sciences designed around a case study is to thoroughly investigate a subject of analysis in order to reveal a new understanding about the research problem and, in so doing, contributing new knowledge to what is already known from previous studies. In applied social sciences disciplines [e.g., education, social work, public administration, etc.], case studies may also be used to reveal best practices, highlight key programs, or investigate interesting aspects of professional work.

In general, the structure of a case study research paper is not all that different from a standard college-level research paper. However, there are subtle differences you should be aware of. Here are the key elements to organizing and writing a case study research paper.

I.  Introduction

As with any research paper, your introduction should serve as a roadmap for your readers to ascertain the scope and purpose of your study . The introduction to a case study research paper, however, should not only describe the research problem and its significance, but you should also succinctly describe why the case is being used and how it relates to addressing the problem. The two elements should be linked. With this in mind, a good introduction answers these four questions:

• What is being studied? Describe the research problem and describe the subject of analysis [the case] you have chosen to address the problem. Explain how they are linked and what elements of the case will help to expand knowledge and understanding about the problem.
• Why is this topic important to investigate? Describe the significance of the research problem and state why a case study design and the subject of analysis that the paper is designed around is appropriate in addressing the problem.
• What did we know about this topic before I did this study? Provide background that helps lead the reader into the more in-depth literature review to follow. If applicable, summarize prior case study research applied to the research problem and why it fails to adequately address the problem. Describe why your case will be useful. If no prior case studies have been used to address the research problem, explain why you have selected this subject of analysis.
• How will this study advance new knowledge or new ways of understanding? Explain why your case study will be suitable in helping to expand knowledge and understanding about the research problem.

Each of these questions should be addressed in no more than a few paragraphs. Exceptions to this can be when you are addressing a complex research problem or subject of analysis that requires more in-depth background information.

II.  Literature Review

The literature review for a case study research paper is generally structured the same as it is for any college-level research paper. The difference, however, is that the literature review is focused on providing background information and  enabling historical interpretation of the subject of analysis in relation to the research problem the case is intended to address . This includes synthesizing studies that help to:

• Place relevant works in the context of their contribution to understanding the case study being investigated . This would involve summarizing studies that have used a similar subject of analysis to investigate the research problem. If there is literature using the same or a very similar case to study, you need to explain why duplicating past research is important [e.g., conditions have changed; prior studies were conducted long ago, etc.].
• Describe the relationship each work has to the others under consideration that informs the reader why this case is applicable . Your literature review should include a description of any works that support using the case to investigate the research problem and the underlying research questions.
• Identify new ways to interpret prior research using the case study . If applicable, review any research that has examined the research problem using a different research design. Explain how your use of a case study design may reveal new knowledge or a new perspective or that can redirect research in an important new direction.
• Resolve conflicts amongst seemingly contradictory previous studies . This refers to synthesizing any literature that points to unresolved issues of concern about the research problem and describing how the subject of analysis that forms the case study can help resolve these existing contradictions.
• Point the way in fulfilling a need for additional research . Your review should examine any literature that lays a foundation for understanding why your case study design and the subject of analysis around which you have designed your study may reveal a new way of approaching the research problem or offer a perspective that points to the need for additional research.
• Expose any gaps that exist in the literature that the case study could help to fill . Summarize any literature that not only shows how your subject of analysis contributes to understanding the research problem, but how your case contributes to a new way of understanding the problem that prior research has failed to do.
• Locate your own research within the context of existing literature [very important!] . Collectively, your literature review should always place your case study within the larger domain of prior research about the problem. The overarching purpose of reviewing pertinent literature in a case study paper is to demonstrate that you have thoroughly identified and synthesized prior studies in relation to explaining the relevance of the case in addressing the research problem.

III.  Method

In this section, you explain why you selected a particular case [i.e., subject of analysis] and the strategy you used to identify and ultimately decide that your case was appropriate in addressing the research problem. The way you describe the methods used varies depending on the type of subject of analysis that constitutes your case study.

If your subject of analysis is an incident or event . In the social and behavioral sciences, the event or incident that represents the case to be studied is usually bounded by time and place, with a clear beginning and end and with an identifiable location or position relative to its surroundings. The subject of analysis can be a rare or critical event or it can focus on a typical or regular event. The purpose of studying a rare event is to illuminate new ways of thinking about the broader research problem or to test a hypothesis. Critical incident case studies must describe the method by which you identified the event and explain the process by which you determined the validity of this case to inform broader perspectives about the research problem or to reveal new findings. However, the event does not have to be a rare or uniquely significant to support new thinking about the research problem or to challenge an existing hypothesis. For example, Walo, Bull, and Breen conducted a case study to identify and evaluate the direct and indirect economic benefits and costs of a local sports event in the City of Lismore, New South Wales, Australia. The purpose of their study was to provide new insights from measuring the impact of a typical local sports event that prior studies could not measure well because they focused on large "mega-events." Whether the event is rare or not, the methods section should include an explanation of the following characteristics of the event: a) when did it take place; b) what were the underlying circumstances leading to the event; and, c) what were the consequences of the event in relation to the research problem.

If your subject of analysis is a person. Explain why you selected this particular individual to be studied and describe what experiences they have had that provide an opportunity to advance new understandings about the research problem. Mention any background about this person which might help the reader understand the significance of their experiences that make them worthy of study. This includes describing the relationships this person has had with other people, institutions, and/or events that support using them as the subject for a case study research paper. It is particularly important to differentiate the person as the subject of analysis from others and to succinctly explain how the person relates to examining the research problem [e.g., why is one politician in a particular local election used to show an increase in voter turnout from any other candidate running in the election]. Note that these issues apply to a specific group of people used as a case study unit of analysis [e.g., a classroom of students].

If your subject of analysis is a place. In general, a case study that investigates a place suggests a subject of analysis that is unique or special in some way and that this uniqueness can be used to build new understanding or knowledge about the research problem. A case study of a place must not only describe its various attributes relevant to the research problem [e.g., physical, social, historical, cultural, economic, political], but you must state the method by which you determined that this place will illuminate new understandings about the research problem. It is also important to articulate why a particular place as the case for study is being used if similar places also exist [i.e., if you are studying patterns of homeless encampments of veterans in open spaces, explain why you are studying Echo Park in Los Angeles rather than Griffith Park?]. If applicable, describe what type of human activity involving this place makes it a good choice to study [e.g., prior research suggests Echo Park has more homeless veterans].

If your subject of analysis is a phenomenon. A phenomenon refers to a fact, occurrence, or circumstance that can be studied or observed but with the cause or explanation to be in question. In this sense, a phenomenon that forms your subject of analysis can encompass anything that can be observed or presumed to exist but is not fully understood. In the social and behavioral sciences, the case usually focuses on human interaction within a complex physical, social, economic, cultural, or political system. For example, the phenomenon could be the observation that many vehicles used by ISIS fighters are small trucks with English language advertisements on them. The research problem could be that ISIS fighters are difficult to combat because they are highly mobile. The research questions could be how and by what means are these vehicles used by ISIS being supplied to the militants and how might supply lines to these vehicles be cut off? How might knowing the suppliers of these trucks reveal larger networks of collaborators and financial support? A case study of a phenomenon most often encompasses an in-depth analysis of a cause and effect that is grounded in an interactive relationship between people and their environment in some way.

NOTE:   The choice of the case or set of cases to study cannot appear random. Evidence that supports the method by which you identified and chose your subject of analysis should clearly support investigation of the research problem and linked to key findings from your literature review. Be sure to cite any studies that helped you determine that the case you chose was appropriate for examining the problem.

IV.  Discussion

The main elements of your discussion section are generally the same as any research paper, but centered around interpreting and drawing conclusions about the key findings from your analysis of the case study. Note that a general social sciences research paper may contain a separate section to report findings. However, in a paper designed around a case study, it is common to combine a description of the results with the discussion about their implications. The objectives of your discussion section should include the following:

Reiterate the Research Problem/State the Major Findings Briefly reiterate the research problem you are investigating and explain why the subject of analysis around which you designed the case study were used. You should then describe the findings revealed from your study of the case using direct, declarative, and succinct proclamation of the study results. Highlight any findings that were unexpected or especially profound.

Explain the Meaning of the Findings and Why They are Important Systematically explain the meaning of your case study findings and why you believe they are important. Begin this part of the section by repeating what you consider to be your most important or surprising finding first, then systematically review each finding. Be sure to thoroughly extrapolate what your analysis of the case can tell the reader about situations or conditions beyond the actual case that was studied while, at the same time, being careful not to misconstrue or conflate a finding that undermines the external validity of your conclusions.

Relate the Findings to Similar Studies No study in the social sciences is so novel or possesses such a restricted focus that it has absolutely no relation to previously published research. The discussion section should relate your case study results to those found in other studies, particularly if questions raised from prior studies served as the motivation for choosing your subject of analysis. This is important because comparing and contrasting the findings of other studies helps support the overall importance of your results and it highlights how and in what ways your case study design and the subject of analysis differs from prior research about the topic.

Consider Alternative Explanations of the Findings Remember that the purpose of social science research is to discover and not to prove. When writing the discussion section, you should carefully consider all possible explanations revealed by the case study results, rather than just those that fit your hypothesis or prior assumptions and biases. Be alert to what the in-depth analysis of the case may reveal about the research problem, including offering a contrarian perspective to what scholars have stated in prior research if that is how the findings can be interpreted from your case.

Acknowledge the Study's Limitations You can state the study's limitations in the conclusion section of your paper but describing the limitations of your subject of analysis in the discussion section provides an opportunity to identify the limitations and explain why they are not significant. This part of the discussion section should also note any unanswered questions or issues your case study could not address. More detailed information about how to document any limitations to your research can be found here .

Suggest Areas for Further Research Although your case study may offer important insights about the research problem, there are likely additional questions related to the problem that remain unanswered or findings that unexpectedly revealed themselves as a result of your in-depth analysis of the case. Be sure that the recommendations for further research are linked to the research problem and that you explain why your recommendations are valid in other contexts and based on the original assumptions of your study.

V.  Conclusion

As with any research paper, you should summarize your conclusion in clear, simple language; emphasize how the findings from your case study differs from or supports prior research and why. Do not simply reiterate the discussion section. Provide a synthesis of key findings presented in the paper to show how these converge to address the research problem. If you haven't already done so in the discussion section, be sure to document the limitations of your case study and any need for further research.

The function of your paper's conclusion is to: 1) reiterate the main argument supported by the findings from your case study; 2) state clearly the context, background, and necessity of pursuing the research problem using a case study design in relation to an issue, controversy, or a gap found from reviewing the literature; and, 3) provide a place to persuasively and succinctly restate the significance of your research problem, given that the reader has now been presented with in-depth information about the topic.

Consider the following points to help ensure your conclusion is appropriate:

• If the argument or purpose of your paper is complex, you may need to summarize these points for your reader.
• If prior to your conclusion, you have not yet explained the significance of your findings or if you are proceeding inductively, use the conclusion of your paper to describe your main points and explain their significance.
• Move from a detailed to a general level of consideration of the case study's findings that returns the topic to the context provided by the introduction or within a new context that emerges from your case study findings.

Note that, depending on the discipline you are writing in or the preferences of your professor, the concluding paragraph may contain your final reflections on the evidence presented as it applies to practice or on the essay's central research problem. However, the nature of being introspective about the subject of analysis you have investigated will depend on whether you are explicitly asked to express your observations in this way.

Problems to Avoid

Overgeneralization One of the goals of a case study is to lay a foundation for understanding broader trends and issues applied to similar circumstances. However, be careful when drawing conclusions from your case study. They must be evidence-based and grounded in the results of the study; otherwise, it is merely speculation. Looking at a prior example, it would be incorrect to state that a factor in improving girls access to education in Azerbaijan and the policy implications this may have for improving access in other Muslim nations is due to girls access to social media if there is no documentary evidence from your case study to indicate this. There may be anecdotal evidence that retention rates were better for girls who were engaged with social media, but this observation would only point to the need for further research and would not be a definitive finding if this was not a part of your original research agenda.

Failure to Document Limitations No case is going to reveal all that needs to be understood about a research problem. Therefore, just as you have to clearly state the limitations of a general research study , you must describe the specific limitations inherent in the subject of analysis. For example, the case of studying how women conceptualize the need for water conservation in a village in Uganda could have limited application in other cultural contexts or in areas where fresh water from rivers or lakes is plentiful and, therefore, conservation is understood more in terms of managing access rather than preserving access to a scarce resource.

Failure to Extrapolate All Possible Implications Just as you don't want to over-generalize from your case study findings, you also have to be thorough in the consideration of all possible outcomes or recommendations derived from your findings. If you do not, your reader may question the validity of your analysis, particularly if you failed to document an obvious outcome from your case study research. For example, in the case of studying the accident at the railroad crossing to evaluate where and what types of warning signals should be located, you failed to take into consideration speed limit signage as well as warning signals. When designing your case study, be sure you have thoroughly addressed all aspects of the problem and do not leave gaps in your analysis that leave the reader questioning the results.

Case Studies. Writing@CSU. Colorado State University; Gerring, John. Case Study Research: Principles and Practices . New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007; Merriam, Sharan B. Qualitative Research and Case Study Applications in Education . Rev. ed. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, 1998; Miller, Lisa L. “The Use of Case Studies in Law and Social Science Research.” Annual Review of Law and Social Science 14 (2018): TBD; Mills, Albert J., Gabrielle Durepos, and Eiden Wiebe, editors. Encyclopedia of Case Study Research . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2010; Putney, LeAnn Grogan. "Case Study." In Encyclopedia of Research Design , Neil J. Salkind, editor. (Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2010), pp. 116-120; Simons, Helen. Case Study Research in Practice . London: SAGE Publications, 2009;  Kratochwill,  Thomas R. and Joel R. Levin, editors. Single-Case Research Design and Analysis: New Development for Psychology and Education .  Hilldsale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1992; Swanborn, Peter G. Case Study Research: What, Why and How? London : SAGE, 2010; Yin, Robert K. Case Study Research: Design and Methods . 6th edition. Los Angeles, CA, SAGE Publications, 2014; Walo, Maree, Adrian Bull, and Helen Breen. “Achieving Economic Benefits at Local Events: A Case Study of a Local Sports Event.” Festival Management and Event Tourism 4 (1996): 95-106.

Writing Tip

At Least Five Misconceptions about Case Study Research

Social science case studies are often perceived as limited in their ability to create new knowledge because they are not randomly selected and findings cannot be generalized to larger populations. Flyvbjerg examines five misunderstandings about case study research and systematically "corrects" each one. To quote, these are:

Misunderstanding 1 :  General, theoretical [context-independent] knowledge is more valuable than concrete, practical [context-dependent] knowledge. Misunderstanding 2 :  One cannot generalize on the basis of an individual case; therefore, the case study cannot contribute to scientific development. Misunderstanding 3 :  The case study is most useful for generating hypotheses; that is, in the first stage of a total research process, whereas other methods are more suitable for hypotheses testing and theory building. Misunderstanding 4 :  The case study contains a bias toward verification, that is, a tendency to confirm the researcher’s preconceived notions. Misunderstanding 5 :  It is often difficult to summarize and develop general propositions and theories on the basis of specific case studies [p. 221].

While writing your paper, think introspectively about how you addressed these misconceptions because to do so can help you strengthen the validity and reliability of your research by clarifying issues of case selection, the testing and challenging of existing assumptions, the interpretation of key findings, and the summation of case outcomes. Think of a case study research paper as a complete, in-depth narrative about the specific properties and key characteristics of your subject of analysis applied to the research problem.

Flyvbjerg, Bent. “Five Misunderstandings About Case-Study Research.” Qualitative Inquiry 12 (April 2006): 219-245.

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What Is a Case Study?

Weighing the pros and cons of this method of research

Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Cara Lustik is a fact-checker and copywriter.

Verywell / Colleen Tighe

• Pros and Cons

What Types of Case Studies Are Out There?

Where do you find data for a case study, how do i write a psychology case study.

A case study is an in-depth study of one person, group, or event. In a case study, nearly every aspect of the subject's life and history is analyzed to seek patterns and causes of behavior. Case studies can be used in many different fields, including psychology, medicine, education, anthropology, political science, and social work.

The point of a case study is to learn as much as possible about an individual or group so that the information can be generalized to many others. Unfortunately, case studies tend to be highly subjective, and it is sometimes difficult to generalize results to a larger population.

While case studies focus on a single individual or group, they follow a format similar to other types of psychology writing. If you are writing a case study, we got you—here are some rules of APA format to reference.  

At a Glance

A case study, or an in-depth study of a person, group, or event, can be a useful research tool when used wisely. In many cases, case studies are best used in situations where it would be difficult or impossible for you to conduct an experiment. They are helpful for looking at unique situations and allow researchers to gather a lot of˜ information about a specific individual or group of people. However, it's important to be cautious of any bias we draw from them as they are highly subjective.

What Are the Benefits and Limitations of Case Studies?

A case study can have its strengths and weaknesses. Researchers must consider these pros and cons before deciding if this type of study is appropriate for their needs.

One of the greatest advantages of a case study is that it allows researchers to investigate things that are often difficult or impossible to replicate in a lab. Some other benefits of a case study:

• Allows researchers to capture information on the 'how,' 'what,' and 'why,' of something that's implemented
• Gives researchers the chance to collect information on why one strategy might be chosen over another
• Permits researchers to develop hypotheses that can be explored in experimental research

On the other hand, a case study can have some drawbacks:

• It cannot necessarily be generalized to the larger population
• Cannot demonstrate cause and effect
• It may not be scientifically rigorous
• It can lead to bias

Researchers may choose to perform a case study if they want to explore a unique or recently discovered phenomenon. Through their insights, researchers develop additional ideas and study questions that might be explored in future studies.

It's important to remember that the insights from case studies cannot be used to determine cause-and-effect relationships between variables. However, case studies may be used to develop hypotheses that can then be addressed in experimental research.

Case Study Examples

There have been a number of notable case studies in the history of psychology. Much of  Freud's work and theories were developed through individual case studies. Some great examples of case studies in psychology include:

• Anna O : Anna O. was a pseudonym of a woman named Bertha Pappenheim, a patient of a physician named Josef Breuer. While she was never a patient of Freud's, Freud and Breuer discussed her case extensively. The woman was experiencing symptoms of a condition that was then known as hysteria and found that talking about her problems helped relieve her symptoms. Her case played an important part in the development of talk therapy as an approach to mental health treatment.
• Phineas Gage : Phineas Gage was a railroad employee who experienced a terrible accident in which an explosion sent a metal rod through his skull, damaging important portions of his brain. Gage recovered from his accident but was left with serious changes in both personality and behavior.
• Genie : Genie was a young girl subjected to horrific abuse and isolation. The case study of Genie allowed researchers to study whether language learning was possible, even after missing critical periods for language development. Her case also served as an example of how scientific research may interfere with treatment and lead to further abuse of vulnerable individuals.

Such cases demonstrate how case research can be used to study things that researchers could not replicate in experimental settings. In Genie's case, her horrific abuse denied her the opportunity to learn a language at critical points in her development.

This is clearly not something researchers could ethically replicate, but conducting a case study on Genie allowed researchers to study phenomena that are otherwise impossible to reproduce.

There are a few different types of case studies that psychologists and other researchers might use:

• Collective case studies : These involve studying a group of individuals. Researchers might study a group of people in a certain setting or look at an entire community. For example, psychologists might explore how access to resources in a community has affected the collective mental well-being of those who live there.
• Descriptive case studies : These involve starting with a descriptive theory. The subjects are then observed, and the information gathered is compared to the pre-existing theory.
• Explanatory case studies : These   are often used to do causal investigations. In other words, researchers are interested in looking at factors that may have caused certain things to occur.
• Exploratory case studies : These are sometimes used as a prelude to further, more in-depth research. This allows researchers to gather more information before developing their research questions and hypotheses .
• Instrumental case studies : These occur when the individual or group allows researchers to understand more than what is initially obvious to observers.
• Intrinsic case studies : This type of case study is when the researcher has a personal interest in the case. Jean Piaget's observations of his own children are good examples of how an intrinsic case study can contribute to the development of a psychological theory.

The three main case study types often used are intrinsic, instrumental, and collective. Intrinsic case studies are useful for learning about unique cases. Instrumental case studies help look at an individual to learn more about a broader issue. A collective case study can be useful for looking at several cases simultaneously.

The type of case study that psychology researchers use depends on the unique characteristics of the situation and the case itself.

There are a number of different sources and methods that researchers can use to gather information about an individual or group. Six major sources that have been identified by researchers are:

• Archival records : Census records, survey records, and name lists are examples of archival records.
• Direct observation : This strategy involves observing the subject, often in a natural setting . While an individual observer is sometimes used, it is more common to utilize a group of observers.
• Documents : Letters, newspaper articles, administrative records, etc., are the types of documents often used as sources.
• Interviews : Interviews are one of the most important methods for gathering information in case studies. An interview can involve structured survey questions or more open-ended questions.
• Participant observation : When the researcher serves as a participant in events and observes the actions and outcomes, it is called participant observation.
• Physical artifacts : Tools, objects, instruments, and other artifacts are often observed during a direct observation of the subject.

If you have been directed to write a case study for a psychology course, be sure to check with your instructor for any specific guidelines you need to follow. If you are writing your case study for a professional publication, check with the publisher for their specific guidelines for submitting a case study.

Here is a general outline of what should be included in a case study.

Section 1: A Case History

This section will have the following structure and content:

Background information : The first section of your paper will present your client's background. Include factors such as age, gender, work, health status, family mental health history, family and social relationships, drug and alcohol history, life difficulties, goals, and coping skills and weaknesses.

Description of the presenting problem : In the next section of your case study, you will describe the problem or symptoms that the client presented with.

Describe any physical, emotional, or sensory symptoms reported by the client. Thoughts, feelings, and perceptions related to the symptoms should also be noted. Any screening or diagnostic assessments that are used should also be described in detail and all scores reported.

Your diagnosis : Provide your diagnosis and give the appropriate Diagnostic and Statistical Manual code. Explain how you reached your diagnosis, how the client's symptoms fit the diagnostic criteria for the disorder(s), or any possible difficulties in reaching a diagnosis.

Section 2: Treatment Plan

This portion of the paper will address the chosen treatment for the condition. This might also include the theoretical basis for the chosen treatment or any other evidence that might exist to support why this approach was chosen.

• Cognitive behavioral approach : Explain how a cognitive behavioral therapist would approach treatment. Offer background information on cognitive behavioral therapy and describe the treatment sessions, client response, and outcome of this type of treatment. Make note of any difficulties or successes encountered by your client during treatment.
• Humanistic approach : Describe a humanistic approach that could be used to treat your client, such as client-centered therapy . Provide information on the type of treatment you chose, the client's reaction to the treatment, and the end result of this approach. Explain why the treatment was successful or unsuccessful.
• Psychoanalytic approach : Describe how a psychoanalytic therapist would view the client's problem. Provide some background on the psychoanalytic approach and cite relevant references. Explain how psychoanalytic therapy would be used to treat the client, how the client would respond to therapy, and the effectiveness of this treatment approach.
• Pharmacological approach : If treatment primarily involves the use of medications, explain which medications were used and why. Provide background on the effectiveness of these medications and how monotherapy may compare with an approach that combines medications with therapy or other treatments.

This section of a case study should also include information about the treatment goals, process, and outcomes.

When you are writing a case study, you should also include a section where you discuss the case study itself, including the strengths and limitiations of the study. You should note how the findings of your case study might support previous research. 

In your discussion section, you should also describe some of the implications of your case study. What ideas or findings might require further exploration? How might researchers go about exploring some of these questions in additional studies?

Need More Tips?

Here are a few additional pointers to keep in mind when formatting your case study:

• Never refer to the subject of your case study as "the client." Instead, use their name or a pseudonym.
• Read examples of case studies to gain an idea about the style and format.
• Remember to use APA format when citing references .

Crowe S, Cresswell K, Robertson A, Huby G, Avery A, Sheikh A. The case study approach .  BMC Med Res Methodol . 2011;11:100.

Crowe S, Cresswell K, Robertson A, Huby G, Avery A, Sheikh A. The case study approach . BMC Med Res Methodol . 2011 Jun 27;11:100. doi:10.1186/1471-2288-11-100

Gagnon, Yves-Chantal.  The Case Study as Research Method: A Practical Handbook . Canada, Chicago Review Press Incorporated DBA Independent Pub Group, 2010.

Yin, Robert K. Case Study Research and Applications: Design and Methods . United States, SAGE Publications, 2017.

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

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What Is a Case Study and Why You Should Use Them

Case studies can provide more insights into your business while helping you conduct further research with robust qualitative data analysis to learn more.

If you're in charge of running a company, then you're likely always looking for new ways to run your business more efficiently and increase your customer base while streamlining as many processes as possible.

Unfortunately, it can sometimes be difficult to determine how to go about implementing the proper program in order to be successful. This is why many business owners opt to conduct a case study, which can help significantly. Whether you've been struggling with brand consistency or some other problem, the right case study can identify why your problem exists as well as provide a way to rectify it.

A case study is a great tool that many businesses aren't even aware exists, and there are marketing experts like Mailchimp who can provide you with step-by-step assistance with implementing a plan with a case study. Many companies discover that not only do they need to start a blog in order to improve business, but they also need to create specific and relevant blog titles.

If your company already has a blog, then optimizing your blog posts may be helpful. Regardless of the obstacles that are preventing you from achieving all your professional goals, a case study can work wonders in helping you reverse this issue.

What is a case study?

A case study is a comprehensive report of the results of theory testing or examining emerging themes of a business in real life context. Case studies are also often used in the healthcare industry, conducting health services research with primary research interest around routinely collected healthcare data.

However, for businesses, the purpose of a case study is to help small business owners or company leaders identify the issues and conduct further research into what may be preventing success through information collection, client or customer interviews, and in-depth data analysis.

Knowing the case study definition is crucial for any business owner. By identifying the issues that are hindering a company from achieving all its goals, it's easier to make the necessary corrections to promote success through influenced data collection.

Why are case studies important?

Now that we've answered the questions, "what is a case study?" Why are case studies important? Some of the top reasons why case studies are important include:

• Understand complex issues: Even after you conduct a significant amount of market research , you might have a difficult time understanding exactly what it means. While you might have the basics down, conducting a case study can help you see how that information is applied. Then, when you see how the information can make a difference in business decisions, it could make it easier to understand complex issues.
• Collect data: A case study can also help with data tracking . A case study is a data collection method that can help you describe the information that you have available to you. Then, you can present that information in a way the reader can understand.
• Conduct evaluations: As you learn more about how to write a case study, remember that you can also use a case study to conduct evaluations of a specific situation. A case study is a great way to learn more about complex situations, and you can evaluate how various people responded in that situation. By conducting a case study evaluation, you can learn more about what has worked well, what has not, and what you might want to change in the future.
• Identify potential solutions: A case study can also help you identify solutions to potential problems. If you have an issue in your business that you are trying to solve, you may be able to take a look at a case study where someone has dealt with a similar situation in the past. For example, you may uncover data bias in a specific solution that you would like to address when you tackle the issue on your own. If you need help solving a difficult problem, a case study may be able to help you.

Remember that you can also use case studies to target your audience . If you want to show your audience that you have a significant level of expertise in a field, you may want to publish some case studies that you have handled in the past. Then, when your audience sees that you have had success in a specific area, they may be more likely to provide you with their business. In essence, case studies can be looked at as the original method of social proof, showcasing exactly how you can help someone solve their problems.

What are the benefits of writing a business case study?

Although writing a case study can seem like a tedious task, there are many benefits to conducting one through an in depth qualitative research process.

• Industry understanding: First of all, a case study can give you an in-depth understanding of your industry through a particular conceptual framework and help you identify hidden problems that are preventing you from transcending into the business world.
• Develop theories: If you decide to write a business case study, it provides you with an opportunity to develop new theories. You might have a theory about how to solve a specific problem, but you need to write a business case study to see exactly how that theory has unfolded in the past. Then, you can figure out if you want to apply your theory to a similar issue in the future.
• Evaluate interventions: When you write a business case study that focuses on a specific situation you have been through in the past, you can uncover whether that intervention was truly helpful. This can make it easier to figure out whether you want to use the same intervention in a similar situation in the future.
• Identify best practices: If you want to stay on top of the best practices in your field, conducting case studies can help by allowing you to identify patterns and trends and develop a new list of best practices that you can follow in the future.
• Versatility: Writing a case study also provides you with more versatility. If you want to expand your business applications, you need to figure out how you respond to various problems. When you run a business case study, you open the door to new opportunities, new applications, and new techniques that could help you make a difference in your business down the road.
• Solve problems: Writing a great case study can dramatically improve your chances of reversing your problem and improving your business.
• These are just a few of the biggest benefits you might experience if you decide to publish your case studies. They can be an effective tool for learning, showcasing your talents, and teaching some of your other employees. If you want to grow your audience , you may want to consider publishing some case studies.

What are the limitations of case studies?

Case studies can be a wonderful tool for any business of any size to use to gain an in-depth understanding of their clients, products, customers, or services, but there are limitations.

One limitation of case studies is the fact that, unless there are other recently published examples, there is nothing to compare them to since, most of the time, you are conducting a single, not multiple, case studies.

Another limitation is the fact that most case studies can lack scientific evidence.

Types of case studies

There are specific types of case studies to choose from, and each specific type will yield different results. Some case study types even overlap, which is sometimes more favorable, as they provide even more pertinent data.

Here are overviews of the different types of case studies, each with its own theoretical framework, so you can determine which type would be most effective for helping you meet your goals.

Explanatory case studies

Explanatory case studies are pretty straightforward, as they're not difficult to interpret. This type of case study is best if there aren't many variables involved because explanatory case studies can easily answer questions like "how" and "why" through theory development.

Exploratory case studies

An exploratory case study does exactly what its name implies: it goes into specific detail about the topic at hand in a natural, real-life context with qualitative research.

The benefits of exploratory case studies are limitless, with the main one being that it offers a great deal of flexibility. Having flexibility when writing a case study is important because you can't always predict what obstacles might arise during the qualitative research process.

Collective case studies

Collective case studies require you to study many different individuals in order to obtain usable data.

Case studies that involve an investigation of people will involve many different variables, all of which can't be predicted. Despite this fact, there are many benefits of collective case studies, including the fact that it allows an ongoing analysis of the data collected.

Intrinsic case studies

This type of study differs from the others as it focuses on the inquiry of one specific instance among many possibilities.

Many people prefer these types of case studies because it allows them to learn about the particular instance that they wish to investigate further.

Instrumental case studies

An instrumental case study is similar to an intrinsic one, as it focuses on a particular instance, whether it's a person, organization, or something different.

One thing that differentiates instrumental case studies from intrinsic ones is the fact that instrumental case studies aren't chosen merely because a person is interested in learning about a specific instance.

Tips for writing a case study

If you have decided to write case studies for your company, then you may be unsure of where to start or which type to conduct.

However, it doesn't have to be difficult or confusing to begin conducting a case study that will help you identify ways to improve your business.

Here are some helpful tips for writing your case studies:

1. Your case study must be written in the proper format

When writing a case study, the format that you should be similar to this:

Administrative summary

The executive summary is an overview of what your report will contain, written in a concise manner while providing real-life context.

Despite the fact that the executive summary should appear at the beginning of your case studies, it shouldn't be written until you've completed the entire report because if you write it before you finish the report, this summary may not be completely accurate.

Key problem statement

In this section of your case study, you will briefly describe the problem that you hope to solve by conducting the study. You will have the opportunity to elaborate on the problem that you're focusing on as you get into the breadth of the report.

Problem exploration

This part of the case study isn't as brief as the other two, and it goes into more detail about the problem at hand. Your problem exploration must include why the identified problem needs to be solved as well as the urgency of solving it.

Additionally, it must include justification for conducting the problem-solving, as the benefits must outweigh the efforts and costs.

Proposed resolution

This case study section will also be lengthier than the first two. It must include how you propose going about rectifying the problem. The "recommended solution" section must also include potential obstacles that you might experience, as well as how these will be managed.

Furthermore, you will need to list alternative solutions and explain the reason the chosen solution is best. Charts can enhance your report and make it easier to read, and provide as much proof to substantiate your claim as possible.

Overview of monetary consideration

An overview of monetary consideration is essential for all case studies, as it will be used to convince all involved parties why your project should be funded. You must successfully convince them that the cost is worth the investment it will require. It's important that you stress the necessity for this particular case study and explain the expected outcome.

Execution timeline

In the execution times of case studies, you explain how long you predict it will take to implement your study. The shorter the time it will take to implement your plan, the more apt it is to be approved. However, be sure to provide a reasonable timeline, taking into consideration any additional time that might be needed due to obstacles.

Always include a conclusion in your case study. This is where you will briefly wrap up your entire proposal, stressing the benefits of completing the data collection and data analysis in order to rectify your problem.

2. Make it clear and comprehensive

You want to write your case studies with as much clarity as possible so that every aspect of the report is understood. Be sure to double-check your grammar, spelling, punctuation, and more, as you don't want to submit a poorly-written document.

Not only would a poorly-written case study fail to prove that what you are trying to achieve is important, but it would also increase the chances that your report will be tossed aside and not taken seriously.

3. Don't rush through the process

Writing the perfect case study takes time and patience. Rushing could result in your forgetting to include information that is crucial to your entire study. Don't waste your time creating a study that simply isn't ready. Take the necessary time to perform all the research necessary to write the best case study possible.

Depending on the case study, conducting case study research could mean using qualitative methods, quantitative methods, or both. Qualitative research questions focus on non-numerical data, such as how people feel, their beliefs, their experiences, and so on.

Meanwhile, quantitative research questions focus on numerical or statistical data collection to explain causal links or get an in-depth picture.

It is also important to collect insightful and constructive feedback. This will help you better understand the outcome as well as any changes you need to make to future case studies. Consider using formal and informal ways to collect feedback to ensure that you get a range of opinions and perspectives.

4. Be confident in your theory development

While writing your case study or conducting your formal experimental investigation, you should have confidence in yourself and what you're proposing in your report. If you took the time to gather all the pertinent data collected to complete the report, don't second-guess yourself or doubt your abilities. If you believe your report will be amazing, then it likely will be.

5. Case studies and all qualitative research are long

It's expected that multiple case studies are going to be incredibly boring, and there is no way around this. However, it doesn't mean you can choose your language carefully in order to keep your audience as engaged as possible.

If your audience loses interest in your case study at the beginning, for whatever reason, then this increases the likelihood that your case study will not be funded.

Case study examples

If you want to learn more about how to write a case study, it might be beneficial to take a look at a few case study examples. Below are a few interesting case study examples you may want to take a closer look at.

• Phineas Gage by John Martin Marlow : One of the most famous case studies comes from the medical field, and it is about the story of Phineas Gage, a man who had a railroad spike driven through his head in 1848. As he was working on a railroad, an explosive charge went off prematurely, sending a railroad rod through his head. Even though he survived this incident, he lost his left eye. However, Phineas Gage was studied extensively over the years because his experiences had a significant, lasting impact on his personality. This served as a case study because his injury showed different parts of the brain have different functions.
• Kitty Genovese and the bystander effect : This is a tragic case study that discusses the murder of Kitty Genovese, a woman attacked and murdered in Queens, New York City. Shockingly, while numerous neighbors watched the scene, nobody called for help because they assumed someone else would. This case study helped to define the bystander effect, which is when a person fails to intervene during an emergency because other people are around.
• Henry Molaison and the study of memory : Henry Molaison lost his memory and suffered from debilitating amnesia. He suffered from childhood epilepsy, and medical professionals attempted to remove the part of his brain that was causing his seizures. He had a portion of his brain removed, but it completely took away his ability to hold memories. Even though he went on to live until the age of 82, he was always forced to live in the present moment, as he was completely unable to form new memories.

Case study FAQs

When should you do a case study.

There are several scenarios when conducting a case study can be beneficial. Case studies are often used when there's a "why" or "how" question that needs to be answered. Case studies are also beneficial when trying to understand a complex phenomenon, there's limited research on a topic, or when you're looking for practical solutions to a problem.

How can case study results be used to make business decisions?

You can use the results from a case study to make future business decisions if you find yourself in a similar situation. As you assess the results of a case study, you can identify best practices, evaluate the effectiveness of an intervention, generate new and creative ideas, or get a better understanding of customer needs.

How are case studies different from other research methodologies?

When compared to other research methodologies, such as experimental or qualitative research methodology, a case study does not require a representative sample. For example, if you are performing quantitative research, you have a lot of subjects that expand your sample size. If you are performing experimental research, you may have a random sample in front of you. A case study is usually designed to deliberately focus on unusual situations, which allows it to shed new light on a specific business research problem.

Writing multiple case studies for your business

If you're feeling overwhelmed by the idea of writing a case study and it seems completely foreign, then you aren't alone. Writing a case study for a business is a very big deal, but fortunately, there is help available because an example of a case study doesn't always help.

Mailchimp, a well-known marketing company that provides comprehensive marketing support for all sorts of businesses, can assist you with your case study, or you can review one of their own recently published examples.

Mailchimp can assist you with developing the most effective content strategy to increase your chances of being as successful as possible. Mailchimp's content studio is a great tool that can help your business immensely.

Man or bear? Hypothetical question sparks conversation about women's safety

Women explain why they would feel safer encountering a bear in the forest than a man they didn't know. the hypothetical has sparked a broader discussion about why women fear men..

If you were alone in the woods, would you rather encounter a bear or a man? Answers to that hypothetical question have sparked a debate about why the vast majority say they would feel more comfortable choosing a bear.

The topic has been hotly discussed for weeks as men and women chimed in with their thoughts all over social media.

Screenshot HQ , a TikTok account, started the conversation, asking a group of women whether they would rather run into a man they didn't know or a bear in the forest. Out of the seven women interviewed for the piece, only one picked a man.

"Bear. Man is scary," one of the women responds.

A number of women echoed the responses given in the original video, writing in the comments that they, too, would pick a bear over a man. The hypothetical has people split, with some expressing their sadness over the state of the world and others cracking jokes. Some men were flabbergasted.

Here's what we know.

A bear is the safer choice, no doubt about it, many say

There were a lot of responses, more than 65,000, under the original post. Many wrote that they understood why the women would choose a bear.

"No one’s gonna ask me if I led the bear on or give me a pamphlet on bear attack prevention tips," @celestiallystunning wrote.

@Brennduhh wrote: "When I die leave my body in the woods, the wolves will be gentler than any man."

"I know a bear's intentions," another woman wrote. "I don't know a man's intentions. no matter how nice they are."

Other TikTok users took it one step further, posing the hypothetical question to loved ones. Meredith Steele, who goes by @babiesofsteele , asked her husband last week whether he would rather have their daughter encounter a bear or a man in the woods. Her husband said he "didn't like either option" but said he was leaning toward the bear.

"Maybe it's a friendly bear," he says.

Diana, another TikTok user , asked her sister-in-law what she would choose and was left speechless.

"I asked her the question, you know, just for giggles. She was like, 'You know, I would rather it be a bear because if the bear attacks me, and I make it out of the woods, everybody’s gonna believe me and have sympathy for me," she said. "But if a man attacks me and I make it out, I’m gonna spend my whole life trying to get people to believe me and have sympathy for me.'"

Bear vs. man debate stirs the pot, woman and some men at odds

The hypothetical has caused some tension, with some women arguing that men will never truly understand what it's like to be a woman or the inherent dangers at play.

Social media users answered this question for themselves, producing memes, spoken word poetry and skits in the days and weeks since.

So, what would you choose?

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