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Essays on Sociological Imagination

Sociological imagination essay topic examples, argumentative essays.

Argumentative sociological imagination essays require you to present and defend a viewpoint on a sociological issue or concept. Consider these topic examples:

• 1. Argue for or against the idea that social media has transformed the way we form and maintain relationships, considering its impact on social interactions and personal identity.
• 2. Defend your perspective on the role of economic inequality in shaping opportunities and life outcomes, and discuss potential solutions to address this issue.

Example Introduction Paragraph for an Argumentative Sociological Imagination Essay: The sociological imagination allows us to examine how individual experiences are intertwined with larger societal forces. In this essay, I will argue that the rise of social media has redefined our notions of friendship and identity, fundamentally altering the way we connect and interact with others.

Example Conclusion Paragraph for an Argumentative Sociological Imagination Essay: In conclusion, our sociological examination of the impact of social media on relationships highlights the need for a nuanced understanding of modern social interactions. As we navigate this evolving landscape, we must consider the profound influence of technology on our lives.

Compare and Contrast Essays

Compare and contrast sociological imagination essays involve analyzing the differences and similarities between sociological concepts, theories, or societal phenomena. Consider these topics:

• 1. Compare and contrast the perspectives of functionalism and conflict theory in explaining the role of education in society, emphasizing their views on social inequality and the education system.
• 2. Analyze the differences and similarities between rural and urban communities in terms of social structure, opportunities, and challenges, highlighting the impact of location on individuals' lives.

Example Introduction Paragraph for a Compare and Contrast Sociological Imagination Essay: Sociological theories provide diverse lenses through which we can analyze and understand society. In this essay, we will compare and contrast the perspectives of functionalism and conflict theory in their explanations of the role of education in shaping social inequalities and the education system.

Example Conclusion Paragraph for a Compare and Contrast Sociological Imagination Essay: In conclusion, the comparison and contrast of functionalism and conflict theory underscore the complexity of educational systems and their implications for social inequality. As we delve into these theories, we are reminded of the multifaceted nature of sociological analysis.

Descriptive Essays

The sociological imagination prompts us to explore the complex interactions within society and culture. For those looking to deepen their analysis and needing support to craft thorough and insightful examinations, there are specialized services available. Read about the best websites where you can do your homework with the help of experts, ensuring academic success as you navigate these intricate topics.

Descriptive essays on sociological imagination allow you to provide in-depth accounts and analyses of societal phenomena, social issues, or individual experiences. Here are some topic ideas:

• 1. Describe the impact of globalization on cultural diversity, exploring how it has shaped the cultural landscape and individuals' sense of identity.
• 2. Paint a vivid picture of the challenges faced by immigrant communities in adapting to a new cultural and social environment, emphasizing their experiences and resilience.

Example Introduction Paragraph for a Descriptive Sociological Imagination Essay: The sociological imagination encourages us to delve into the intricate dynamics of society and culture. In this essay, I will immerse you in the transformative effects of globalization on cultural diversity, examining how it has redefined our identities and cultural experiences.

Example Conclusion Paragraph for a Descriptive Sociological Imagination Essay: In conclusion, the descriptive exploration of the impact of globalization on cultural diversity reveals the interconnectedness of our world and the evolving nature of cultural identities. As we navigate this globalized society, we are challenged to embrace diversity and promote intercultural understanding.

Persuasive Essays

Persuasive sociological imagination essays involve convincing your audience of the significance of a sociological issue, theory, or perspective, and advocating for a particular viewpoint or action. Consider these persuasive topics:

• 1. Persuade your readers of the importance of gender equality in the workplace, emphasizing the societal benefits of promoting diversity and inclusion.
• 2. Argue for the integration of sociological education into school curricula, highlighting the value of fostering sociological thinking skills for informed citizenship.

Example Introduction Paragraph for a Persuasive Sociological Imagination Essay: Sociological insights have the power to shape our understanding of pressing issues. In this persuasive essay, I will make a compelling case for the significance of promoting gender equality in the workplace, underscoring its positive effects on society as a whole.

Example Conclusion Paragraph for a Persuasive Sociological Imagination Essay: In conclusion, the persuasive argument for gender equality in the workplace highlights the broader societal benefits of creating inclusive and diverse environments. As we advocate for change, we are reminded of the transformative potential of sociological perspectives in addressing contemporary challenges.

Narrative Essays

Narrative sociological imagination essays allow you to share personal stories, experiences, or observations related to sociological concepts, theories, or societal phenomena. Explore these narrative essay topics:

• 1. Narrate a personal experience of cultural adaptation or encountering cultural diversity, reflecting on how it has shaped your perspectives and understanding of society.
• 2. Share a story of social activism or involvement in a community project aimed at addressing a specific societal issue, highlighting the impact of collective action.

Example Introduction Paragraph for a Narrative Sociological Imagination Essay: The sociological imagination encourages us to explore our personal experiences within the broader context of society. In this narrative essay, I will take you through my personal journey of encountering cultural diversity and reflect on how it has influenced my worldview and understanding of society.

Example Conclusion Paragraph for a Narrative Sociological Imagination Essay: In conclusion, the narrative of my cultural adaptation experience underscores the transformative power of personal encounters with diversity. As we embrace the sociological imagination, we are reminded that our stories contribute to the broader narrative of societal change.

The Sociological Imagination: C. Wright Mills Analysis

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Understanding The Concept of Sociological Imagination by C. Wright Mills

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The concept of sociological imagination involves the ability to step outside of our familiar daily routines and examine them from a fresh and critical perspective. It encourages us to think beyond the confines of our personal experiences and consider the broader social, cultural, and historical factors that shape our lives.

The phrase was introduced by C. Wright Mills, an American sociologist, in his 1959 publication "The Sociological Imagination." Mills used this term to describe the unique perspective and understanding that sociology provides. He emphasized the importance of looking beyond individual experiences and examining the larger social structures and historical contexts that shape our lives.

The roots of sociological imagination can be traced back to earlier sociological thinkers such as Karl Marx, Emile Durkheim, and Max Weber, who emphasized the importance of understanding society as a whole and the impact of social structures on individuals. Throughout the years, sociological imagination has evolved and expanded, with various scholars and researchers contributing to its development. It has become a fundamental tool for sociologists to analyze social issues, explore the intersections of individual lives and societal structures, and understand the complexities of human behavior. Today, sociological imagination continues to be a crucial concept in sociology, empowering individuals to critically analyze the social world and recognize the larger societal forces that shape their lives.

The application of sociological imagination encompasses a wide range of areas and disciplines, allowing us to understand and analyze various social phenomena, such as: Social Problems: Poverty, inequality, crime, and discrimination by understanding their underlying social structures and historical contexts. Public Policy: By analyzing social issues from a sociological perspective, policymakers can develop more informed and effective solutions. It helps in understanding the impact of policies on different social groups and anticipating their consequences. Education: Sociological imagination helps educators understand how social factors influence student experiences and academic outcomes. It highlights the significance of social class, race, gender, and other dimensions of inequality in educational settings, enabling educators to create inclusive and equitable learning environments. Health and Well-being: Applying sociological imagination to health allows us to recognize how social factors such as socioeconomic status, access to healthcare, and cultural norms impact individual and community well-being. Media and Culture: Sociological imagination aids in analyzing media representations, cultural practices, and popular trends. It helps us understand how media influences public opinion, shapes cultural values, and perpetuates or challenges social norms and stereotypes.

Functionalism, Conflict Theory, Symbolic Interactionism, Structuralism, Feminist Theory, Postmodernism.

The topic of sociological imagination holds immense importance as it allows us to go beyond our individual experiences and understand the broader social forces that shape our lives. It encourages critical thinking and helps us make connections between personal troubles and societal issues. By developing sociological imagination, we gain a deeper awareness of the social structures, cultural norms, and historical contexts that influence our thoughts, actions, and relationships. Sociological imagination enables us to challenge taken-for-granted assumptions and recognize the complexities of social life. It fosters empathy by helping us understand diverse perspectives and experiences. Furthermore, it empowers us to analyze social problems and inequalities, contributing to the pursuit of social justice and positive social change. The application of sociological imagination extends beyond academia, as it has practical implications for various fields such as policy-making, social work, and community development. It equips individuals with the skills to critically engage with the world, navigate complex social dynamics, and contribute to building more inclusive and equitable societies.

The topic of sociological imagination is essential for studying various social phenomena and understanding the intricate connections between individuals and society. Incorporating sociological imagination into the study process enhances critical thinking skills, expands analytical perspectives, and encourages a deeper comprehension of the social world. By utilizing sociological imagination, students can transcend individualistic explanations and recognize the broader social forces at play. It enables them to analyze social issues from multiple angles, considering historical, cultural, economic, and political factors that shape human behavior and social structures. This sociological lens challenges preconceived notions and encourages a more nuanced understanding of complex social phenomena. Moreover, the application of sociological imagination in study helps students develop empathy and cultural sensitivity by fostering an appreciation for diverse perspectives and experiences. It promotes a holistic view of society, emphasizing the interconnections between individuals and social institutions. By employing sociological imagination, students can better grasp the mechanisms of power, inequality, and social change, enabling them to contribute to informed decision-making, policy development, and social advocacy.

1. Hughes, E. C. (1963). Race relations and the sociological imagination. American Sociological Review, 879-890. (https://www.jstor.org/stable/2090308) 2. Mudge, S. L., & Chen, A. S. (2014). Political parties and the sociological imagination: Past, present, and future directions. Annual Review of Sociology, 40, 305-330. (https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/abs/10.1146/annurev-soc-071312-145632) 3. Denzin, N. K. (1990). Presidential address on the sociological imagination revisited. Sociological Quarterly, 31(1), 1-22. (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1533-8525.1990.tb00314.x) 4. Holliday, A. (1996). Developing a sociological imagination: Expanding ethnography in international English language education. Applied Linguistics, 17(2), 234-255. (https://academic.oup.com/applij/article-abstract/17/2/234/142850) 5. Durham, D. (2000). Youth and the social imagination in Africa: Introduction to parts 1 and 2. Anthropological quarterly, 73(3), 113-120. (https://muse.jhu.edu/pub/35/article/2059/summary) 6. Benjamin, R. (2016). Racial fictions, biological facts: Expanding the sociological imagination through speculative methods. Catalyst: Feminism, Theory, Technoscience. (https://oar.princeton.edu/handle/88435/pr1kc67) 7. Dannefer, D., Kelley-Moore, J., & Huang, W. (2016). Opening the social: Sociological imagination in life course studies. Handbook of the Life Course: Volume II, 87-110. (https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-319-20880-0_4) 8. Horowitz, I. L. (1962). In Memoriam: The Sociological Imagination of C. Wright Mills. (https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/abs/10.1086/223270?journalCode=ajs)

Relevant topics

• Social Media
• American Identity
• Discourse Community
• Sex, Gender and Sexuality
• Effects of Social Media
• Social Justice
• Cultural Appropriation
• Media Analysis

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Understanding domestic violence: masculinity, culture, traditions

Domestic violence in South Africa is a consequence of the complex interplay of patriarchy, culture, and the negative masculine construct. The patriarchal cultural beliefs and traditions that emphasise on male assertiveness and domination of women influence the constructions of masculinity and reinforce domestic violence. The goal of this article was to highlight a relationship between culture, constructions of masculinity, and domestic violence in South Africa. Through adopting an African feminist lens, this paper unpacks how structures of patriarchy manifest in the traditional African context in which many men in South Africa construct and perform their masculinity and the embodied meaning attached to it. The paper argues that gender hierarchy and normative masculine and feminine roles prevalent in most South African cultures have implications for domestic violence. It argues that the inflexible gender hierarchy, which is enforced through culture and the dominant position of men in the home influence domestic violence. The article concludes that attempts to address domestic violence in South Africa must focus on changing patriarchal cultural norms and promote peaceful masculinity.

Psychology; Social science; Sociology; Domestic violence, Culture; Intimate partner violence; Traditions; Hegemonic masculinity, Gender inequality; Patriarchy; South Africa

1. Introduction

Domestic violence is a persistent worldwide problem that affects many women regardless of their demographic characteristics ( Dobash and Dobash, 2017 ; Mazibuko and Umejesi, 2015 ). Research shows that the problem of domestic violence in South Africa persists despite the current strategies aimed at addressing it ( Jewkes and Morrell, 2018 ). South Africa is ranked as one of the countries with high rates of domestic violence in the world ( Jewkes et al., 2013 ). According to the report by South Africa Demographic and Health Survey (2016) , over a quarter of women in South Africa reported experiencing domestic violence from their intimate partners. This report also suggests that the rate of domestic violence in South Africa may be higher than the recorded figures, given that many cases go unreported. Research shows that many survivors tend not to report abuse from their partners due to factors like, fear that the abuser will retaliate, desire to protect the family, financial dependence on the perpetrator, and fear of ending the marriage ( Mshweshwe, 2018 ).

Feminist research reiterates that domestic violence is a consequence of patriarchy, a system that promotes male dominance by giving men powers to dominate and control women ( Dobash and Dobash, 2017 ; Hamberger et al., 2017 ). Some researchers have attributed domestic violence to a set of interlocking factors, such as patriarchy, cultural beliefs, community norms, unemployment and low levels of education ( Jewkes and Morrell, 2018 ; Mshweshwe, 2018 ). Also, domestic violence is associated with the masculinity ideology, an endorsement of patriarchy related attitudes, beliefs, and behaviours assigned to men during the socialisation ( Graaff and Heinecken, 2017 ; Moolman, 2017 ; Ratele, 2015 ).

Research on the relationship between the constructions of masculinity, culture and domestic violence is limited in the literature of domestic violence in South Africa. To address this gap, the current research explores the link between culture, constructions of masculinity and domestic violence in South Africa. The research attempts to answer the question of, ‘how do constructions of masculinity in the African cultural context influence domestic violence’?

This literature-based research provides a summary of current literature relevant to the research question framing this study; how do constructions of masculinity in the African cultural context influence domestic violence? Focusing on local and international scholarly discourses relevant to explain domestic violence in South Africa, we conducted a review of the main databases in the following fields: sociology, gender studies, women's studies, social work. The databases searched included: Google scholar, Sociological Abstracts, Gender Watch, Women's Studies, SAGE. Search terms were used in this research separated with and, or. The search terms used are as follows; (domestic violence, intimate partner violence, domestic abuse, culture, traditions, masculinity, manhood, South Africa).

This research reviewed articles that were published between year 2010–2020. Due to many results in each search, the search was limited to peer-reviewed, scholarly literature. Articles were limited to those published in the English language. Papers that are not specifically addressing the topic under the investigation were excluded.

3. Theoretic framework to understand domestic violence in South Africa

The feminist approach argues that domestic violence in heterosexual relationships is a consequence of patriarchy, a system of social structures, and practices in which men dominate, oppress, and exploit women ( Dobash and Dobash, 2017 ). Domestic violence is a consequence of men's desire to exercise power and control over their female partners, a behaviour that has been legitimized and justified within the patriarchal system ( Quek, 2019 ). Further, the broader patriarchal structures and institutions contribute to shaping the uneven distribution of power between men and women by reinforcing gender roles associated with domestic violence.

While the concept of patriarchy remains essential in analysing gender relations, however, its critics have pointed out problems in this theory. According to Patil (2013) , the concept of patriarchy fails to capture the historical and cross-cultural variations of gender inequality as well as the heterogeneity in masculinity. Further, Patil argues that recognising the diversity in masculinities is significant because it helps to reveal different ways in which men's violence can be explained. Also, it has been argued that intersectional analysis of the multiple realities of marginalised men who have little stake in the patriarchal dividend is essential for developing explanations of domestic violence in South Africa ( Boonzaier and van Niekerk, 2018 ). Such analysis should recognise how gender intersects with factors like race, class, ethnicity, culture, economic status, and education to oppress men and women alike ( Amadiume, 2015 ; Oyewumi, 2011 ). This recognition of intersectionality is crucial in explaining men's violence in South Africa as it helps to locate the problem of violence in the specific historical context of apartheid which involved the oppression of black people and subjecting them to systematic violence ( Burchardt, 2018 ; Moolman, 2013 ). Further, explaining domestic violence in South Africa requires an approach that recognises how South African life has been woven out of the apartheid narrative.

Masculinity studies have acknowledged the role of apartheid in influencing black men's violence in South Africa ( Clark, 2012 ; Morrell et al., 2012 ; Ratele, 2015 ). According to Morrell et al. (2012) , apartheid was a political and social system which enforced racial discrimination against black people during the era of white minority rule in South Africa. Black men were subjected to ongoing violence which includes being randomly assaulted in the public sphere and within their homes. This systematic violence has resulted in men's adoption of violent behaviour which tends to be transferred from one generation to another ( Ratele, 2015 ). Further, the apartheid system severely disrupted gender relations resulting to high levels of gender-based violence ( Lau and Seedat, 2017 ; Swartz et al., 2012 ). It also created poverty and unemployment in black communities by excluding black people from accessing economic opportunities ( Lau and Seedat, 2017 ). These structural factors have been argued to create a fertile ground for domestic violence to flourish ( Jewkes and Morrell, 2018 ).

This current research takes an African feminist perspective in explaining domestic violence in South Africa. The African feminist theory is one of the postcolonial theories that offer insight into black people's realities which are often not fully reflected in Western feminist discourses. For example, in domestic violence discourses, culture and traditions have not been properly explained in a way that translates to interventions that are necessary to address domestic violence in South Africa. Thus, culture is crucial for building an understanding of how patriarchy manifests in the traditional context.

4. Discussion

A starting point for research to understand men's use of violence in intimate relationships is a theoretical understanding of the South African Society as patriarchal ( Mudau and Obadire, 2017 ). South Africa has a strong patriarchal system of social structures that encourage men to dominate, oppress, and exploit women in the public and private sphere ( Stromquist, 2014 ). According to Sultana (2010) , the concept of patriarchy is useful in explaining the root cause of women's subordination and to describe the power relations between women and men. These power relations are characterised by hierarchical, and material base that serves to promote men's independence and enable them to dominate women. Such patriarchal social arrangements are based on the belief that since men and women are different biologically, therefore, men are entitled to more powers than women ( Sultana, 2010 ). Noteworthy, patriarchy is generally not an explicit ongoing effort by men to dominate women, but a long-standing system that all people are born into and even participate in, unconsciously ( Sultana, 2010 ). Meaning that people of all genders can perpetuate patriarchy, even though it is mostly men that reap its benefits. For example, Mshweshwe (2018) find that domestic violence in the rural traditional context is not perpetrated by men only, mother in laws also contribute by encouraging their sons to demand respect and submissiveness from their wives through violence.

While patriarchy operates in the public and private sphere, however, it is more serious in the private sphere where men subject women to abuse because of their perceived inferiority status ( Mazibuko, 2017 ; Mshweshwe, 2018 ). Further, abusive men tend to take advantage of the family and enforce their perceived power in decision-making, and in establishing the rules and control of the family, especially the wife. Lelaurain et al. (2018) argue that the sexist constructions of romantic heterosexual love and the romance narrative that portrays men as women's rescuers who are strong, and powerful, contributes to domestic violence. Specifically, the marriage institution has been found to support patriarchal ideas about gender role norms by promoting male privilege ( Lelaurain et al., 2018 ).

Research from all over the world shows that domestic violence in heterosexual relationships is a consequence of men's desire to exercise power and control over their female partners ( Dobash and Dobash, 2017 ; Mazibuko, 2017 ). Sikweyiya et al. (2020) , argues that addressing domestic violence has proven challenging because wife beating was historically legitimized through policies that positioned women as minors while allowing men to exercise power over them ( Sikweyiya et al., 2020 ). Women were subjected to cultural and social acceptance of domestic violence with no policies to protect them. Although the protection of women through policies has improved over the years, however, domestic violence continues to be a persistent problem, especially in contexts where culture and traditions are dominant ( Akangbe Tomisin, 2020 ; Mshweshwe, 2018 ). Culture has been found to legitimize patriarchy and preserve male supremacy through embracing and promoting hegemonic masculinity, a configuration of gender practices which guarantees the dominant position of men and the subordination of women ( Tonsing and Tonsing, 2019 ).

Hegemonic masculinity has been defined as a set of values that serves to organize society in gender unequal ways ( Jewkes and Morrell, 2012 ). Further, it involves a hierarchy of masculinities, and unequal access to power, as well as the interplay between men's identity, ideals, and power. Hegemonic masculinity is built on the negative ideology of what it means to be a man, usually imposed upon boys during the socialisation process; it is characterized by physical strength, sexual conquest [of women], and financial success (Ehrmann, 2013). These conditions create the dominant understanding of an ideal man that has influenced and shaped the society for generations. They serve to exclude men who fail to meet the criteria and the standards set by which men compare themselves (Ehrmann, 2013).

The adoption of the concept of hegemonic masculinity within the feminist work helps to locate the problem of men's violence in the broader social inequalities in which some men are marginalized ( Morrell et al., 2013 ). Further, the hegemonic masculinity theory helps to unpack the relationship between domestic violence and the weak position that some men occupy in the society because of unfair distribution of wealth and power ( Connell, 2013 ; Morrell et al., 2013 ). One of the debates within the hegemonic masculinity theory has been the question of whether masculinity of men who are structurally subordinated in society, for example, men from economically disadvantaged groups, could be considered 'hegemonic', as these men do not see themselves to be in power. In this respect, it has been suggested that there can be more than one hegemonic masculinity within a society, which refer to sub-groups ( Jewkes et al., 2015 ). These sub-groups of hegemonic masculinity often develop among marginalised men and emphasise power and force ( Hearn et al., 2012 ). Further, they tend to be violent in nature, reflecting the powerlessness that marginalised men experience because of inability to meet the standard of hegemonic masculinity that is based on power, and income.

Studies show that poorer unemployed men are more likely to perpetrate violence due to powerlessness associated with unemployment and lack of economic resources ( Knabe et al., 2016 ; Sikweyiya et al., 2020 ). Men who have been affected by unemployment have been found to have low self-esteem, insecurities, and higher levels of anger, which are all risk factors to perpetrating domestic violence ( Myers and Demantas, 2016 ; Schneider et al., 2016 ). Also, lack of control over financial matters have been found to influence domestic violence in intimate relationships ( Afkhamzadeh et al., 2019 ; Demantas and Myers, 2015 ; Dery and Diedong, 2014 ). Studies report a high prevalence of domestic violence amongst couples where a man is unemployed ( Bhalotra et al., 2020 ; Dastjerdehei et al., 2020 ).

Domestic violence perpetration by unemployed men has been argued to be a problem especially in traditional contexts where men are expected to adopt the breadwinner role ( Jewkes and Morrell, 2018 ; Knabe et al., 2016 ). The breadwinner model is a paradigm of family centred on the belief that a man must work outside the home and earn income to provide for the family while a woman stays at home and takes care of the household duties and family ( Myers and Demantas, 2016 ; Schneider et al., 2016 ). Since many men secure masculinity identity through breadwinner status, therefore, inability to achieve this status have been found to disempower unemployed men and make them feel that they are not men enough ( Cools and Kotsadam, 2017 ; Knabe et al., 2016 ; Lynch et al., 2016 ). Research shows that men who feel that they have lost their manhood identity tend to use violence as their only way of demonstrating masculinity ( Connell, 2017 ; Jewkes and Morrell, 2018 ; Morrell et al., 2012 ). This is particularly the case in most South African cultures where men and women have distinct traditional gender roles, with emphasis on male breadwinner role ( Mshweshwe, 2018 ; Sikweyiya et al., 2020 ).

Similarly, perpetrating domestic has been argued to be a consequence of cultural values and norms that emphasise on viewing 'proper' masculinity through the lens of men's ability to dominate and have control over a female partner ( Dery, 2019 ; Bassey and Bubu, 2019 ). These ideals of masculinity associated with assertiveness, strength, and sexual conquest (of women) have been linked to domestic violence ( Bassey and Bubu, 2019 ; Breger, 2017 ). They are based on the patriarchal conceptions of masculinity and femininity which encompass characteristics, and behaviours that have traditionally been considered relatively typical of women and men, respectively ( Bassey and Bubu, 2019 ). These constructions of masculinity and femininity continue to be strongly promoted in many African cultural contexts ( Ajayi and Soyinka-Airewele, 2018 ; Akangbe Tomisin, 2020 ). They serve to provide the framing of gender inequality, male entitlements and unequal power relations between husbands and their wives ( Akangbe Tomisin, 2020 ; Sikweyiya et al., 2020 ).

Studies show that in many African cultural contexts' husbands continue to be viewed as leaders of the home who are entitled to exercise power over wives ( Mshweshwe, 2018 ; Sikweyiya et al., 2020 ). For example, the use of violence by men is considered culturally appropriate in situations where a wife has transgressed gender norms since husbands are entitled to lead the family, maintain order, gender hierarchy which is a key characteristic of a functioning marriage ( Akangbe Tomisin, 2020 ; Tonsing and Tonsing, 2019 ). In this sense, men tend to believe that they are entitled to special marriage privileges, for example, unlimited sex, that they can claim by using systematic violence and coercion ( Mshweshwe, 2018 ; Sikweyiya et al., 2020 ). Thus, perpetrating domestic is a demonstration of masculinity and a way of proving that a man is in control of his households ( Adjei, 2016 ; Breger, 2017 ).

Within the traditional context, hegemonic masculinity is enforced during the socialization of boys through ascribing behaviours and attitudes that are ‘perceived’ appropriate for men ( Kachel et al., 2016 ). They tend to be transferred from one generation to another through using specific traditions, for example, rituals like traditional male circumcision, often practised by many tribes in South Africa serve as a vehicle to reproduce masculinities ( Bhana, 2010 ; Mshweshwe, 2020 ). Traditional male circumcision is a custom whereby boys transition to manhood is marked not only by circumcision but also a training period that involves teaching young men the culturally acceptable ways of doing masculinity ( Magodyo, 2013 ; Moolman, 2017 ). These teachings focus on traditional gendered expectations, assertiveness, dominance over women, family leadership, breadwinner role.

The notion of traditional circumcision has been found to contribute to the problem of patriarchal domination that affects women ( Kangethe and Nomngcoyiya, 2016 ; Siweya et al., 2018 ). For example, a qualitative study conducted by De Wet et al. (2016) on the behaviour of male learners who underwent traditional initiation schooling find that high school male leaners who have gone through traditional initiation demonstrate dominance and sexist attitudes towards their female teachers whom they perceive inferior because of their status as women. This study concludes that the sexist attitudes of male learners who have gone through traditional circumcision may be influenced by the traditional teachings that emphasize on superior status of men. Such teachings include the idea that men are superior to women; therefore, they are entitled to respect, as well as the notion that men must reject women's leadership ( Mshweshwe, 2020 ). These teachings demonstrate how dominant masculinity identity is legitimised in traditional discourses which tend to be reconstituted through customs and cultural practices ( Hamlall, 2018 ; Moolman, 2017 ).

Although, some men divert from their earlier notions of cultural masculinity construct, especially when they have other ways through which they can define themselves, for example, education ( Magodyo, 2013 ; Naidoo, 2018 ). Magodyo (2013) noted that formal education has a significant influence in helping men redefine what it means to be a man and adopt positive masculinity. Further, Magodyo argues that formal education plays a crucial role in influencing positive masculinity behaviour by instilling positive values that help men reject cultural stereotypes such as aggression and entitlement to exclusive rights over women. Instead, they adopt the gender equality approach in negotiating family life and in rejecting violence.

The positive attitude towards gender equality has been found to increase based on the level of education, the higher the level of education acquired, the more liberal and favourable men's attitudes are towards gender equality ( Kyoore and Sulemana, 2019 ). These ideas are also expressed in the work of Naidoo (2018) , who draws on the life story of Nelson Rolihlahla Mandela, a prominent former president of South Africa to illustrate the role of education in shaping masculinity. Naidoo argues that although Mandela's initial masculinity socialization was shaped by the notion of Xhosa culture where manhood is inextricable with patriarchy, yet Mandela rejected gender stereotypes and instead adopted gender equality. Despite his socialization into traditional masculinity, which involved traditional teachings, Mandela evolved and became a phenomenal gender activist because of his academic stature. Given this, attempts to address gender inequalities and encourage men to engage in expressions of healthy masculinity must recognize the role of culture in the masculinity construct. The interventions aimed at transforming masculinities need to be culturally relevant.

5. Findings and conclusion

The goal of this article was to highlight a relationship between culture, constructions of masculinity, and domestic violence in South Africa. The African feminist perspective has enabled this research to gather valuable knowledge that can be used as evidence for the development of interventions to address domestic violence. The dominant feminist discourses on domestic violence have often focused on the concept of patriarchy as an explanation for domestic violence, however, this research is different because it recognises the role of cultural norms and the social environment in which domestic violence occurs in South Africa. This research acknowledges the distinct nature of South Africa as a society that has been affected by apartheid, which produced violence that continue to be transferred across generations. Therefore, to address domestic violence this research argue that the cycle of violence needs to be broken through implementation of interventions that promote humanity.

The findings of this study show that domestic violence is not only a consequence of men's desire to demonstrate power over women but also a result of the complex interplay of culture and the masculinity construct centrally to patriarchy. The concept of hegemonic masculinity illuminates how gender power operates at various levels while also offers an overarching framework for understanding ways in which gender inequalities are produced and reproduced. We argue that gender hierarchy and normative masculine and feminine roles prevalent in the South African society have implications for domestic violence. The findings demonstrate an inflexible gender hierarchy, which is enforced through culture and the dominant position of men in the home. The traditional teachings that emphasise assertiveness and domination of women seem to influence domestic violence.

These findings suggest that the patriarchal cultural norms that promote male dominance need to be recognized in attempts to address domestic violence. While this analysis acknowledges the significance and symbolic nature of African cultural systems, but we argue that there is a need to deconstruct traditional practices and to critically engage with its patriarchal tendencies that promote gender inequality and domestic violence. These findings are a significant contribution to the literature of domestic violence as they highlight how some structures of patriarchy inform the constructions of hegemonic masculinity within the cultural context in which many South African men construct and perform their masculinity and the embodied meaning attached to it.

6. Recommendations

The paper recommends that attempts to address domestic violence in South Africa must focus on changing patriarchal cultural norms and promote peaceful masculinity.

Declarations

Author contribution statement.

L. Mshweshwe developed and wrote this article.

Funding statement

This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.

Declaration of interests statement

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Additional information

No additional information is available for this paper.

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Sociological Imagination & Domestic Violence: An Analysis

Life is filled with many difficulties, which affect us all in one way or another. However, we do not all face the same ones. If we are to survive we need to first understand what these difficulties or problems are, in order to learn how to deal with them. One such problem is, is domestic violence. It is necessary to determine whether the problem is personal one or due to society (social problems), so that the individuals involved can learn how to deal with their situation.

The general definition of a personal problem, is one in which it’s causes and solutions lie within the individual. That is, they are caused by an individual’s own feeling about a given situation. For example, someone commits a murder because they are sad or angry. That act was caused by an emotion, and their anger can only be controlled if they learn how to deal with it. A social problem, on the other hand, is one whose causes and solutions lie outside the individual.

Which means, there has to be some external factor that has caused an act to take place. For example, someone commits a murder in self-defense. Here the person was forced into committing the act. They had no control over their actions; it was either kill or be killed. This is where the difference between the two lie, one is due to an individuals feelings where as the other is due to another individual or some external factor.

This is the foundation of the Sociological Imagination Concept.

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According to C. Wright Mills, sociological imagination is developed when we can place personal problems in a social situation or environment such that they are no longer viewed solely as individual or personal problems, but instead as social problems. That is problems that are shared by enough people in society such that their causes and solutions lie outside of the individual who is experiencing them. In other words, this theory is based on how the external factors of society affect individuals and their behavior. One area in which this concept can be seen is with domestic violence. Domestic violence and Emotional abuse can be defined as behaviors used by one person in a relationship to control another. This is both a national and world wide problem. According to a 2000 UNICEF study, up to half the female population of the world becomes the victims of domestic violence. It claims four lives every day in the United States alone. Anyone can be a victim, any age, sex, race, culture, religion, education, employment, marital status or sexual orientation. Women however, are more likely to become victims than men. As for the perpetrator of abuse, they have no typical manifestation. In public the abuser may appear loving and friendly towards their partner and or family. They commonly have low self-esteem, and don’t like to take responsibility for their actions. So they may try to hide the abuse by inflicting injuries that will not require medical attention.

Abuse may be physical, emotional, sexual, and psychological. Abusive persons are usually people who like to be in control of other people. Here this form of control is usually a behavior, which is learnt as a means to getting what they want. Children in homes where there is abuse usually end up either, being abused themselves or being neglected. This is where they generally learn to become abusers themselves. Which makes the home or family, one of the factors that contributes to the perpetuation on domestic violence. Let’s take the case of Joe as an example. He grew up seeing his mother slapped around by his father on a daily basis. He grew up believing that this is normal and acceptable behavior, as this was what he was accustomed to seeing, and was all he knew. In order to avoid this situation, it is necessary for the child to be taken out of that environment and have instilled in them, the fact that abuse is wrong. It is by no means normal or acceptable. Therapy is one way of rectifying this problem. This would help the child to come to terms with what they have experienced, be able to understand what had taken place, and learn how to deal with similar situations. This however is not the only factor that contributes to domestic violence. Culture also plays a role in causing someone to be abusive. If for example, you originate from a country, where it is customary for men to punish their wives by hitting them, as it is in some eastern countries, You will adapt this way of life no matter where you are in the world.

One solution here, and one of the most vital in a situation like this, is knowledge. If people are educated, as to what is right and what is wrong, what is acceptable behavior in certain parts of the world and what is not, then this factor could be drastically reduced if not eliminated. Peer groups can also be very influential. Commonly, people find themselves in situations where they’re made to feel inferior to those around them, if they do not conform to these people’s beliefs. Here very strong pressure is put down and if the individual is not strong-minded they will succumb to the pressure. If for example, a man (Jim) is amongst other men who have very strong traditional ideas about what a man should be and what a woman should be. They believe a woman should stay at home, take care of her husband, and follow his wishes and orders. Jim may become influenced by these men’s points of view, and in so doing he develops an abusive nature. If Jim were taught stress management at some time in his life, he may have been able to withstand the pressure instead of conforming. Educational institutions and work places can be involved here. If sessions of stress management were made mandatory, people would be better able to uphold their beliefs. Peer groups can also influence people to use drugs and alcohol, which affects people’s mental state. There is a strong link between violence and drug and alcohol use. When under the influence of either substance, people’s self-control is lost and so they act on impulse.

The least little thing can cause them to lose their temper, and as they are not in their right frame of mind, they do things they wouldn’t ordinarily do. Become abusive. Steps need to be put in place, to get rid of this substance abuse problem in order to deal with and get rid of the violent behavior. One such step would be going into a rehabilitation program. Here you would learn how to get over your addictions and how to deal with the other spiraled effects of it. This all shows how different things in and around us can influence or cause us to behave in a certain manner. Whether it be, domestic violence or another criminal act. The sociological concept allows for blame to be taken away from some individuals, victims and or perpetrators and have it placed on society. This is a good thing as it allows us to look into ourselves, and see where we can be responsible for some of the evils of the world. It forces us to take some of the blame instead of always pointing fingers on the other person. Though not all criminal behavior follow along with this concept, many do, and it is therefore important for everyone to be familiar with it and be able to put it to use.

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