Respiratory Sensitizer
Reproductive Toxicity
Target Organ Toxicity
Mutagenicity
Aspiration Toxicity
Each hazard classification contains one or more hazard categories indicating the degree of the hazard, with Category 1 being the most hazardous.
MSDSs are the most basic source of chemical hazard information. The MSDS summarizes the chemical’s properties, the health and physical hazards, including the type of toxicity information discussed in the sections below, and related safety information required by emergency responders.
Chemical containers shall be dated on receipt in the laboratory space and on opening. This information provides a history of the chemicals in each container and guides future researchers as to potential quality of the chemicals stored in the laboratory space. Providing container-opening dates is especially important for peroxide-forming chemicals sold or distilled without added autoxidation inhibitors. Solutions shall be labeled and dated when prepared and after each test for peroxides. Chemicals shall be removed from the laboratory space if they are past their expiration date.
The complex relationship between a material and its biological effect in humans involves considerations of dose, duration and frequency of the exposure, route of exposure, and many other factors, including sex, allergic factors, age, previous sensitization, and lifestyle.
The risk management guidelines from the American Chemical Society 13 are organized around the concept of RAMP, an acronym for the four principles of safety:
Chemicals enter the body through the following routes:
Toxic effects can be immediate or delayed, reversible or irreversible, local or systemic.
A thorough discussion of toxicity is beyond the scope of any single publication. Information is available in Safety Data Sheets (SDSs) and other reference materials that are available at Research Safety on each campus. Toxicity is the measure of a poisonous material’s adverse effect on the human body or its ability to damage or interfere with the metabolism of living tissue. Generally, toxicity is divided into two types, acute and chronic. Many chemicals may cause both types of toxicity, depending on the pattern of use.
Acute toxicity is an adverse effect with symptoms of high severity coming quickly to a crisis. Acute effects are normally the result of short-term exposures and are of short duration. Examples of acutely toxic chemicals are hydrogen cyanide and ammonia.
Chronic toxicity is an adverse effect with symptoms that develop slowly over a long period of time as a result of frequent exposure. The dose during each exposure period may frequently be small enough that no effects are noticed at the time of exposure. Chronic effects are the result of long-term exposure and are of long duration, for example exposure to carcinogens as well as many metals and their derivatives. Cumulative poisons are chemicals that tend to build up in the body as a result of numerous chronic exposures, leading to chronic toxicity. The effects are not seen until a critical body burden is reached. Examples of cumulative poisons are lead and mercury.
With substances in combination, such as exposure to two or more hazardous materials at the same time, the resulting effect can be greater than the combined effect of the individual substances. This is called a synergistic or potentiating effect. One example is concurrent exposure to alcohol and chlorinated solvents.
The published toxicity information for a given substance is general—human data may not be available—and the actual effects can vary greatly from one person to another. Do not underestimate the risk of toxicity. All substances of unknown toxicity should be handled as if they are toxic, with the understanding that any mixture may be more toxic than its most toxic component.
Solvent Exposure Chart
A carcinogen is a chemical that causes malignant (cancerous) tumors.
See the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) for more information.
Chemicals can affect both adult male and female reproductive systems. Chemicals may also affect a developing fertilized ovum, embryo, or fetus through maternal exposure (teratogenic effects). Reproductive hazards affect people in a number of ways, including mental disorders, loss of sexual drive, impotence, infertility, sterility, mutagenic effects on cells, teratogenic effects on the fetus, and transplacental carcinogenesis. Exposure to lead or to anticancer drugs, such as methotrexate, or to ionizing radiation can cause infertility, miscarriage, birth defects, and low birth weight. Certain ethylene glycol ethers such as 2-ethoxyethanol and 2-methoxyethanol can cause miscarriages. Carbon disulfide can cause menstrual cycle changes. One cannot assume that any given substance is safe if no data on gestational exposure are available.
Specific hazards of chemical exposure are associated with the male reproductive system, including suppression of sperm production and survival, alteration in sperm shape and motility, and changes in sexual drive and performance. Various reproductive hazards have been noted in males following exposure to halogenated hydrocarbons, nitro aromatics, arylamines, ethylene glycol derivatives, mercury, bromine, carbon disulfide, and other chemical reagents.
Consult the SDS for information on known reproductive hazards. The following are additional resources on reproductive toxins and carginogens:
Work involving selected carcinogens, reproductive toxins, and substances of high acute toxicity shall be conducted in a “designated area.” This is a requirement of the OSHA Laboratory Standard. This area shall be so posted, and all employees working within the area shall be informed of the hazardous substances used there. The designated area may be a chemical fume hood, a part of a laboratory, or the entire laboratory space.
OSHA has established permissible exposure limits (PELs) for airborne concentrations of selected materials. The PEL is defined as a time-weighted average (TWA) concentration of a particular substance for a normal 8-hour workday and a 40-hour workweek, a concentration to which nearly all workers may be exposed, day after day, without adverse effect.
Corollaries to the 8-hour PEL are the short-term exposure limit (STEL) and the ceiling exposure limit. The STEL is the time-weighted average concentration of a compound to which a worker may be exposed over a period of 15 minutes without expecting symptoms of irritation, chronic or irreversible tissue damage, or narcosis. The ceiling is the concentration of a substance that should not be exceeded during any part of the working exposure. When instantaneous monitoring is not feasible, the ceiling limit is measured over a period of 10 to 15 minutes.
As the PELs were designed to protect workers in industrial settings, it is unlikely that these limits will be exceeded during the performance of laboratory procedures. Laboratory workers generally do not handle the same quantities of hazardous materials as do manufacturing and production employees.
Nonetheless, exposure to airborne chemicals shall not exceed PELs. If there is reason to believe that airborne concentrations may exceed PELs, contact Research Safety for consultation on the need for air monitoring. PELs are listed on Safety Data Sheets, or may be found on the OSHA PEL web page . Please note that PELs have not been developed for all the compounds to which laboratory workers may be exposed. In all circumstances, caution shall be used in handling hazardous chemicals.
In addition to PELs, OSHA has set action levels for specific compounds, such as formaldehyde, cadmium, and lead, for which individual standards have been promulgated. OSHA has classified these compounds as potential carcinogens.
If monitoring of airborne concentrations reveals that levels are above the OSHA action level, then levels shall either be immediately reduced by a procedural change or equipment modification or the department head and PI shall comply with the requirements of the OSHA standard for the chemical. OSHA regulations govern periodic monitoring and termination of monitoring, as well as employee notification. Medical surveillance may be a requirement.
For chemicals without regulated action levels, the general rule is that half the PEL may be considered a de facto action level. Engineering controls shall be instituted to reduce exposure to the hazardous substance in question.
The chemical handling guidelines described in this document are founded on several basic principles:
Since many chemicals used in research are hazardous to some degree, it is prudent to minimize exposure to research chemicals as a general rule, rather than implementing safety protocols only for specific compounds. Avoid skin contact with chemicals as much as possible. Assume that mixtures are more toxic than their components and that all substances of unknown toxicity are toxic. Do not work with a volatile or aerosolizing material without adequate ventilation from chemical fume hoods or other protective devices. Remember: Wise up, suit up, clean up!
The following guidelines are applicable to nearly all uses of chemicals in laboratory spaces. They apply to most hazardous chemicals, such as acids, bases, and flammable liquids. They are also applicable to chemicals that display low carcinogenic potency in animals and are not considered carcinogens.
The general guidelines are not, by themselves, adequate for chemicals with high acute toxicity or high chronic toxicity such as heavy metals, chemical carcinogens, or reproductive toxins.
Chemicals of acute toxicity are defined by OSHA as those that cause rapid effects as a result of a short-term exposure—generally sudden and severe, as in the case of a leak from equipment. Acute toxic effects include irritation, corrosion, sensitization, and narcosis.
Alkyl mercury compounds require prior approval from Research Safety before purchase or use.
To illustrate, hydrofluoric acid (HF) is a chemical of high acute toxicity because of its destructive effect on skin and bone tissue. Arsine and other hydrides may be lethal at low concentrations because of red blood cell hemolysis. Inhalation of high concentrations of carbon monoxide can cause immediate poisoning and possible death, as the gas directly interferes with oxygen transport in the body by preferentially binding to hemoglobin. Hydrogen cyanide inhalation inhibits enzyme systems vital to cellular uptake of oxygen.
When working with significant quantities of such chemicals, the aim is to minimize exposure to the material. Special care should be taken in the selection of protective clothing to ensure it is appropriate for the hazard. Personal hygiene and work practices should also be carefully evaluated to minimize exposure. The following guidelines should be practiced in addition to the general guidelines for handling chemicals.
In addition to the general guidelines for handling chemicals, use the following guidelines for handling chemicals with high chronic toxicity, which include most heavy metals, chemicals displaying moderate to high carcinogenic potency in animals, and reproductive toxins.
6.6.1 procedures for spills of volatile, toxic, or flammable materials.
Small spills can be absorbed with paper towels or other absorbents. However, these materials can increase the surface area and evaporation rate, increasing the potential fire hazard if the material is flammable and airborne concentration reaches the flammability level.
Pregnant women shall not be assigned to clean hazardous materials spills.
Contact with cryogenic liquids may cause crystals to form in tissues under the spill area, either superficially or more deeply in the fluids and underlying soft tissues. The first aid procedure for contact with cryogenic liquids is identical to that for frostbite. Re-warm the affected area as quickly as possible by immersing it in warm, but not hot, water (between 102° and 105° F). Do not rub the affected tissues. Do not apply heat lamps or hot water and do not break blisters. Cover the affected area with a sterile covering and seek assistance as you would for burns.
Be prepared. Keep appropriate spill-containment material on hand for emergencies. Consult with Research Safety to determine which materials are suitable in a particular laboratory space.
Laboratory members must receive training to distinguish between the types of spills they can handle on their own and those spills that are classified as “MAJOR.” Major spills dictate the need for outside help.
Laboratory members are qualified to clean-up spills that are “incidental.” OSHA defines an incidental spill as a spill that does not pose a significant safety or health hazard to employees in the immediate vicinity nor does it have the potential to become an emergency within a short time frame. The period that constitutes a short time is not defined. Laboratory members can handle incidental spills because they are expected to be familiar with the hazards of the chemicals they routinely handle during an “average” workday. If the spill exceeds the scope of the laboratory workers’ experience, training or willingness to respond, the workers must be able to determine that the spill cannot be dealt with internally.
Emergency assistance is provided by Research Safety or an outside agency. Spills requiring the involvement of individuals outside the laboratory space are those exceeding the exposure one would expect during the normal course of work. Spills in this category are emergency situations. Responders need additional training and personal protective equipment.
Factors that clearly indicate a major spill are:
The following steps shall be followed for incidental spills :
Note: Consult the SDS.
CHEMICAL SPILLED | CLEANUP |
---|---|
Acids, organic | Apply sodium bicarbonate. Absorb with spill pillow or vermiculite. |
Acids, inorganic | Apply sodium bicarbonate/calcium oxide or sodium carbonate/calcium oxide. Absorb with spill pillow or vermiculite. Note: Hydrofluoric acid is an exception to this general practice; see below. |
Acid chlorides | Do not use water. Absorb with sand or sodium bicarbonate. |
Aldehydes | Absorb with spill pillow or vermiculite. |
Aliphatic amines | Apply sodium bisulfite. Absorb with spill pillow or vermiculite. |
Aromatic amines | Absorb with spill pillow or vermiculite. Avoid skin contact or inhalation. |
Aromatic halogenated amines | Absorb with spill pillow or vermiculite. Avoid skin contact or inhalation. |
Azides (potential explosives) | Absorb with spill pillow or vermiculite. Decontaminate with 10% ceric ammonium nitrate solution. |
Bases (caustic alkalis) | Neutralize with acid or commercial chemical neutralizers and absorb with spill pillow or vermiculite. |
Carbon disulfide (flammable and toxic) | Absorb with spill pillow or vermiculite. |
Chlorohydrins | Absorb with spill pillow or vermiculite. Avoid skin contact or inhalation. |
Cyanides | Wet or mist solids before sweeping, or use a HEPA filter vacuum to collect the solids. Absorb liquids with spill pillow or vermiculite. |
Halides, organic or inorganic | Apply sodium bicarbonate. |
Halogenated hydrocarbons | Absorb with spill pillow or vermiculite. |
Hydrazine | Absorb with spill pillow or vermiculite. Avoid organic matter. |
Hydrofluoric acid | Absorb with calcium carbonate (or calcium oxide) rather than sodium bicarbonate. The use of sodium bicarbonate will lead to the formation of sodium fluoride, which is considerably more toxic than calcium fluoride. Be careful in the choice of spill pillows used to absorb the acid. Certain pillows contain silicates that are incompatible with hydrofluoric acid. |
Inorganic salt solutions | Apply soda ash. |
Mercaptans/organic sulfides | Neutralize with calcium hypochlorite solution. Absorb with spill pillow or vermiculite. |
Nitriles | Sweep up solids. Absorb liquids with spill pillow or vermiculite. |
Nitro compounds, organic nitros | Absorb with spill pillow or vermiculite. Avoid skin contact or inhalation. |
Oxidizing agents | Apply sodium bisulfite. |
Peroxides | Absorb with spill pillow or vermiculite. |
Phosphates, organic and related | Absorb with spill pillow or vermiculite. |
Reducing substance | Apply soda ash or sodium bicarbonate. |
Use of mercury containing devices is discouraged. Thermometers, manometers and switches that contain mercury should be labeled. Mercury is a high-density, low-viscosity liquid at room temperature. During a spill, mercury can form tiny droplets that adhere to surfaces and enter cracks and crevices. Research Safety has a mercury vapor analyzer available to assist with large or difficult-to-clean mercury spills. In the case of small mercury spills (e.g., mercury-containing thermometers), laboratory personnel should be able to handle the cleanup. Cleanup kits are available from Research Safety.
To minimize the spill hazard, place a splash plate beneath all mercury-containing equipment.
Procedures for small mercury spills:
Equipment needed – Mercury Spill Kit from Research Safety
Medical surveillance is the systematic assessment of employees exposed or potentially exposed to occupational hazards. This assessment monitors individuals for adverse health effects and determines the effectiveness of exposure prevention strategies. A medical surveillance program includes the analysis of both individual and aggregate surveillance data over time, with the goal of reducing and ultimately preventing occupational illness and injury. Medical consultation or surveillance may be required whenever lab members experience sign or symptoms or expected or unexpected high exposure levels to hazardous chemicals.
Medical consultation is provided by a licensed health care provider without cost to the employee or student, without loss of pay, and at a reasonable time and place. For employees, medical consultation or examinations shall be provided through the Workers’ Compensation Program . For students, the medical program is administered through the University Health Service facilities.
The PI or laboratory supervisor shall ensure that the following information is provided to the physician: the identity of the chemical involved in the exposure, a description of conditions relating to the exposure, any quantitative data available regarding the exposure, and a description of signs and symptoms experienced by the affected person.
Medical consultation and examination is also required for lab members assigned to wear a respirator. See the University’s Respiratory Protection Program for additional information.
Routine medical surveillance may be warranted for individuals working with chemicals of high chronic toxicity, including carcinogens. Specific examples 15 include , nickel carbonyl, benzo-a-pyrene, N-nitrosodiethylamine and allyl mercury compounds .
Candidates for work with carcinogens shall be informed of the possibility of increased risk. Job tasks for certain members using chemicals of high chronic toxicity should be evaluated to determine whether these members should be temporarily excluded from work or reassigned to less hazardous activities. This is particularly appropriate for pregnant women or persons receiving immunosuppressive drugs or therapy.
Practices that encourage the appropriate labeling and storage of chemicals can reduce the risks of mixing of incompatible chemicals and assist with regulatory compliance 16 .
Highly hazardous chemicals must be stored in a well-ventilated secure area that is designated for this purpose. Cyanides must be stored in a tightly closed container that is securely locked in a cool dry cabinet to which access is restricted. Protect cyanide containers against physical damage and separate them from incompatibles.
Flammable liquids should be stored in approved flammable-liquid containers and storage cabinets. Observe National Fire Protection Association, International Building Code, International Fire Code, and other local code requirements that limit the quantity of flammables per cabinet, laboratory space, and building.
In the Chicago campus research spaces, a single container capacity for NFPA Class I flammable liquids is limited to 4 liters. The Laboratory Unit Fire Hazard Class 17 is limited to Class C – low fire hazard. This means that the maximum quantity of Class I flammable liquids, in fire rated storage cabinets, is limited to 15 liters per 9.3 m 2 (100sf) of research space.
Store odiferous materials in ventilated cabinets. Use of corrosion-resistant storage trays as secondary containment for spills, leaks, drips, or weeping is a good idea. Polypropylene trays are suitable for most purposes. Store oxidizers, reducing agents, and fuels separately to prevent contact in the event of an accident.
See also Compressed or Liquefied Gases in Laboratories .
Keep incompatibles separate during transport, storage, use, and disposal 18 . Chemicals in containers having a capacity of more than 2 kg or 2 liters shall be stored only with other compatible chemicals. 19 Consult SDS for chemical compatibility information. Further information can be found in Bretherick’s Handbook of Reactive Chemical Hazards (Urben & Pitt, 2017), an extensive compendium that is the basis for lists of incompatible chemicals included in other reference works.
It is most important to separate compatible pyrophoric and water-reactive chemicals and chemicals that are incompatible with all other storage groups. These two groups merit their own storage cabinets. Always store fuels away from oxidizers.
Concentrated oxidizing agents are incompatible with concentrated reducing agents. Nitric acid and organic compounds together present a dangerous fire risk. Carcinogenic chemicals can be stored with others of a similar grouping based on their properties.
Take care not to mix incompatible waste. This is a special concern with commingled waste solvents, which must be chemically compatible to ensure that heat generation, gas evolution, or another reaction does not occur.
Compatible Organic Bases
Compatible Pyrophoric & Water-Reactive Materials
Compatible Inorganic Bases
Compatible Organic Acids
Compatible Oxidizers Including Peroxides
Compatible Inorganic Acids not Including Oxidizers or Combustibles
Poisonous Compressed Gases
Compatible Explosives or Other Highly Unstable Materials
Nonreactive Flammables and Combustibles, Including Solvents
Incompatible with ALL Other Storage Groups
Storage Area Inspections
Chemical storage areas shall be inventoried and inspected at least annually and any unwanted or expired chemicals shall be removed. During this inspection, the list of chemicals present in the laboratory shall be updated or verified and the date and name of the inspector recorded.
Container Inspections
Although the deterioration in storage of a specific compound cannot be predicted in detail, generalizations can often be made about the reaction characteristics of groups of compounds. Some general conclusions about the stability of classes of chemicals can be reached, and corresponding storage time spans can be identified. Visual inspection of stored chemicals is important in the disposal decision.
Chemicals showing any of the indications listed below shall be turned over to Research Safety for safe disposal:
Flammable liquids shall not be stored in ordinary domestic refrigerators. Refrigerator temperatures are almost universally higher than the flash points of flammable liquids, and ignition sources are readily available inside the storage compartment. Furthermore, the compressor and its circuits are typically located at the bottom of the units, where vapors (from flammable liquid spills or leaks, for example) may easily accumulate.
Laboratories requiring refrigerator storage for flammable liquids shall purchase explosion-safe models that require no modification. Under no circumstances should lab members attempt to perform modification themselves.
Please note that “explosion-safe” refrigerators are not “explosion-proof.” “Explosion-proof” refers to refrigeration equipment that has been designed to protect against ignition of flammable vapors both inside and outside the storage compartment.
If refrigerators are not “explosion-safe” or “explosion-proof,” they shall be labeled “Caution. Not approved for flammable liquid storage.” Flammable liquids shall not be stored in cold rooms. Such storage facilities pose explosion hazards because the various control switches and defroster heaters can spark and ignite flammable vapors.
Chemicals stored in refrigerators or cold rooms shall be sealed and labeled with the name of the person who stored the material, in addition to the labeling requirements. Old chemicals shall be disposed of after a specified storage period.
Food shall not be stored in a refrigerator used for chemical storage. The refrigerator shall be labeled “Food Must Not Be Stored in This Refrigerator” or equivalent. Refrigerators used for food shall be marked “Food Only” or equivalent and shall not be in the work area.
Operations that may generate airborne contaminants or that use flammable liquids or toxic, reactive, or odoriferous materials shall be conducted in a chemical fume hood or other appropriate containment enclosure. Whenever hazardous gases or fumes are likely to evolve, an appropriate trap, condenser, or scrubber shall be used to minimize release of material to the environment.
Apparatus should be set up well back from the edge of the work area, be it a bench or a hood. When assembled in a hood, apparatus should not obstruct the area. To avoid overflow, choose apparatus with at least 20 percent more capacity than would normally accommodate the volume of chemical planned for the operation. All parts of the apparatus shall be firmly balanced and supported. Tubing shall be fastened with wire or appropriate clamps.
Stirrer motors and vessels shall be positioned and secured to ensure proper alignment. Magnetic stirring is preferable, and non-sparking motors or air motors shall be used in any laboratory that might contain flammable vapors.
Funnels and other apparatus with stopcocks shall be firmly supported and oriented so that gravity will not loosen the stopcock plug. Use a retainer on the stopcock plug and lubricate glass stopcocks. Do not lubricate Teflon stopcocks.
Include a vent in apparatus for chemicals that are to be heated and place boiling stones in unstirred vessels. A pan under a reaction vessel or container will confine spilled liquids in the event of glass breakage.
The safety factor (bursting pressure/maximum operating pressure) for water hoses with a maximum working pressure of 10 bar shall be 3:1. The safety factor for gas hoses and tubing shall be 4:1. Wherever unsafe pressures can build up within an apparatus section or system leg, an over-pressure relief has to be built in.
If experiments run while a researcher is not present, an Overnight Experiment Notice containing information about the experiment and the name of a contact person for emergencies shall be posted on the laboratory door. Forms are available from Research Safety.
Reactions that are left unattended for long periods of time or overnight are prime sources of fires, floods, and explosions. When equipment such as power stirrers, hot plates, heating mantles, and water condensers are run unattended or overnight only fail-safe designs must be used. Hotplates and ovens must be equipped with safe temperature limits set within 25C of the maximum experiment temperature. Other examples are flow monitors that will shut down equipment in case of water supply failure or fail-safe hose connectors.
At night, emergency personnel are entirely dependent on accurate instructions and information available at the laboratory space. Unplug heating mantles, hotplates and other heating devices that are not in use to avoid accidental heating of combustibles and flammables.
Extractions can present a hazard because of the potential buildup of pressure from a volatile solvent and an immiscible aqueous phase. Glass separator funnels used in laboratory operations are particularly susceptible to problems because their stoppers or stopcocks can be forced out, resulting in a spill of the contained liquid. It is even possible for pressure to burst the vessel.
To use a separator funnel correctly, do not attempt to extract a solution until it is cooler than the boiling point of the extractant. When a volatile solvent is used, the un-stoppered separator funnel should first be swirled to allow some solvent to vaporize and expel some air. Close the funnel and invert it with the stopper held in place and immediately open the stopcock to release more air plus vapor. Do this with the hand extended around the barrel to keep the stopcock plug securely seated.
Point the barrel of the separator funnel away from yourself and others and vent it to the hood. Do not vent the funnel near a flame or other ignition source. Close the stopcock, shake with a swirl, and immediately open the stopcock with the funnel in the inverted position to vent the vapors again. If it is necessary to use a separator funnel larger than one liter for an extraction with a volatile solvent, the force on the stopper may be too great, causing the stopper to be expelled. Consider performing the extraction in several smaller batches.
Distillation processes can sometimes be avoided by purchasing smaller quantities and high-purity solvents.
Perform distillations in a chemical hood. Distillation of flammable and combustible solvents is dangerous due to the presence of heat, flammable vapors and the build up of peroxides to explosive levels. Distillations should be maintained under inert atmosphere. At the completion of vacuum distillations, backfill the apparatus with inert gas. Stills in use should be attended at all times and should have an automatic high-temperature shutoff.
Certain common laboratory chemicals form peroxides on exposure to oxygen in air. Over time, some chemicals continue to build peroxides to potentially dangerous levels, whereas others accumulate a relatively low equilibrium concentration of peroxide, which becomes dangerous only after being concentrated by evaporation or distillation. Because distillation of a stabilized solvent removes the stabilizer, the distillate must be stored with care and monitored for peroxide formation.
The chemicals below are a peroxide hazard on concentration (distillation/evaporation). A test for peroxide should be performed if concentration is intended or suspected.
Acetal | Dioxane ( -dioxane) |
Cumene | Ethylene glycol dimethyl ether (glyme) |
Cyclohexene | Furan |
Cyclooctene | Methyl acetylene |
Cyclopentene | Methyl cyclopentane |
Diaacetylene | Methyl-isobutyl ketone |
Dicyclopentadiene | Tetrahydrofuran |
Diethylene glycol dimethyl ether (diglyme) | Tetrahydronaphthalene |
Diethyl ether | Vinyl ethers |
Column Purification Systems or “Push Stills”
Column purification systems offer a safer, more environmentally friendly process for providing dry, oxygen-free, high-purity solvents as compared with thermal distillation. The level of impurity (water, oxygen, peroxides) is comparable to thermal distillation. The system is usually composed of refillable stainless steel “kegs” that hold high-purity solvent and act as a solvent reservoir. Inert gas (nitrogen, argon) is used to maintain an inert atmosphere as well as to force solvent through the packed columns that contain activated alumina (for water scavenging) and copper catalyst (for oxygen scavenging). For those solvents that are incompatible with copper (e.g., tetrahydrofuran, methylene chloride, acetonitrile), a second column of alumna is used along with a dry nitrogen or argon purge to facilitate oxygen removal. The solvent product is dispensed from the columns into a variety of specialized containers for use in the laboratory (glass, stainless steel, etc.).
Column purification systems present much less of a fire risk compared with thermal distillation, because they do not employ heating devices or reactive metals. Because glass containers are not needed, the potential for injury or spill related to breakage is also eliminated.
There is no need for heating mantles when solvent is present, and the intrinsically safe properties of the system allow it to be set up virtually anywhere in the laboratory, thus eliminating the need to place the apparatus in a chemical hood. As a result, there is a significant savings in electricity usage, although heating jackets may be required for installations where the water and oxygen scavengers are activated or regenerated. When using a column purification system, it is important not to draw down the column completely empty. Bubbling or splattering as the product is drawn from the column is an indication of breakthrough of argon. For the column to be functional again, a lengthy priming operation may be needed.
Peroxide-forming solvents such as tetrahydrofuran and diethyl ether that are processed and dispensed via a purification system shall be regularly tested for peroxide concentrations. A purification system that will not be used in the foreseeable future or that will be placed into storage should be emptied of its solvent contents.
Solvent Stills
Most high-purity solvents are commercially available in specialized kegs or may be obtained from column purification systems; thus, thermal distillation processes should be a last resort. There have been numerous fires attributed to solvent stills, some resulting in serious injuries and extensive damage to the laboratory spaces. [See, e.g., Yarnell (2002).]
Solvent stills are used to produce dry, high-purity solvents. The process involves reflux and distillation of organic solvents (many of which are flammable liquids) over drying materials, under nitrogen or argon gas. The most commonly used drying agents involve potentially pyrophoric metals: sodium metal/benzophenone and magnesium metal/iodine. The stills must be periodically quenched to prepare the still bottoms for disposal. This usually involves adding solvent to consume the scavenging agents. The process itself poses a risk of reactive metal adhering to the bottom of the flask, with the potential for exposure to air causing a spontaneous fire. Most thermal stills rely on electric heating mantles to heat the flammable solvents upward of 82 °C (180 °F), presenting a fire risk and potential ignition source.
Always set up stills in a chemical hood. Although many procedures suggest allowing the process to run overnight, it is prudent to ensure that it is not left completely unattended. Start the process at the beginning of the day and let it run as long as laboratory members are present. Place shields around the still to protect members in the event of a serious accident. Deactivate the stills under argon or nitrogen, never air. Do not add fresh solvent, drying agent, or indicator while the still is hot. Ensure that water cooling lines are in good condition. Do not allow material to accumulate at the bottom of the still; quench the still at the end of every procedure and clean thoroughly. Use caution when collecting the reactive materials as waste.
Since the rates of most reactions accelerate as the temperature increases, highly exothermic reactions can become violent without adequate cooling. Viscous liquids transfer heat poorly and require special precautions. Apparatus shall be assembled so that either heating or cooling can be applied or withdrawn readily.
21 Whenever an electrical heating device is used, either a temperature controller or a temperaturesensing device must be used that will turn off the electric power if the temperature of the heating device exceeds some preset limit. Similar control devices are available that will turn off the electric power if the flow of cooling water through a condenser is stopped owing to the loss of water pressure or loosening of the water supply hose to a condenser. Independent temperature sensors must be used for the temperature controller and shutoff devices. Fail-safe devices, which can be either purchased or fabricated, can prevent the more serious problems of fires or explosions that may arise if the temperature of a reaction increases significantly because of a change in line voltage, the accidental loss of reaction solvent, or loss of cooling. Use fail-safe devices for stills purifying reaction solvents, because such stills are often left unattended for significant periods of time. Temperature-sensing devices absolutely must be securely clamped or firmly fixed in place, maintaining contact with the object or medium being heated at all times. If the temperature sensor for the controller is not properly located or has fallen out of place, the controller will continue to supply power until the sensor reaches the temperature setting, creating an extremely hazardous situation.
Insert a thermometer in heated liquids if dangerous exothermic decomposition is possible. This will provide a warning and may allow time to remove the heat and apply external cooling.
A more thorough hazard review should be done when reaction temperatures (> 150 °C; < -30 °C), the pressure within a reaction vessel can be expected to exceed 10 bar, or reagents are fed at >2 bar of pressure. 22
Heat blocks, specifically sized for round bottom flasks, can be placed directly on a stirring hotplate. Heat blocks are a good replacement for oil baths or heating mantles.
Improper use of a hot oil or sand bath may create serious hazards such as an overturned bath, spatter from water falling into the bath, smoke caused by decomposition of the oil or organic materials in the oil, and fire from overheating the oil. Baths shall not be left unattended without a high-temperature shutoff. The oil shall be properly labeled, including information on its safe working temperature. Fresh silicone oils have higher auto ignition temperatures and are recommended over the use of paraffin oil. Contact with oxygen and long exposure to temperature at the upper end of their application range accelerates the degradation of silicone oils and will lower the auto ignition temperature. Replace the silicone oil in openly heated oil baths at least annually.
23 Contain heated oil in either a metal pan or a heavy-walled porcelain dish; a Pyrex dish or beaker can break and spill hot oil if struck accidentally with a hard object. Mount the oil bath carefully on a stable horizontal support such as a laboratory jack that can be raised or lowered easily without danger of the bath tipping over. Always clamp equipment high enough above a hot plate or oil bath that if the reaction begins to overheat, the heater can be lowered immediately and replaced with a cooling bath without having to readjust the clamps holding the equipment setup. Never support a bath on an iron ring because of the greater likelihood of accidentally tipping the bath over. Provide secondary containment in the event of a spill of hot oil. Wear proper protective gloves when handling a hot bath. Where only stirring of combustible or flammable liquids is use a stirrer instead of a stirring hotplate to avoid accidental heating.
The preferred liquids for dry-ice cooling baths are isopropyl alcohol or glycols; add dry ice slowly to the liquid portion of the cooling bath to avoid foaming. Avoid the common practice of using acetone– dry ice as a coolant; the alternatives are less flammable, less prone to foaming and splattering with dry ice, and less likely to damage some trap components (O-rings, plastic). Dry ice and liquefied gases used in refrigerant baths should always be open to the atmosphere. Never use them in closed systems, where they may develop uncontrolled and dangerously high pressures.
Exercise extreme caution in using liquid nitrogen as a coolant for a cold trap.
If such a system is opened while the cooling bath is still in contact with the trap, oxygen may condense from the atmosphere. The oxygen could then combine with any organic material in the trap to create a highly explosive mixture. Therefore, do not open a system that is connected to a liquid nitrogen trap to the atmosphere until the liquid nitrogen Dewar flask or container has been removed. A liquid nitrogen– cooled trap must never be left under static vacuum. Also, if the system is closed after even a brief exposure to the atmosphere, some oxygen may have already condensed. Then, when the liquid nitrogen bath is removed or when it evaporates, the condensed gases will vaporize, producing a pressure buildup and the potential for explosion. The same explosion hazard can be created if liquid nitrogen is used to cool a flammable mixture that is exposed to air. Caution must be applied when using argon, for instance as an inert gas for Schlenk or vacuum lines, because it condenses as a colorless solid at liquid nitrogen temperature. A trap containing frozen argon is indistinguishable from one containing condensed solvent or other volatiles and presents an explosion hazard if allowed to warm without venting.
Laboratory reactor pressure vessels may also be referred to as sample preparation bombs, acid digestion bombs, hydrothermal reactors or chemical digestion autoclaves. 25
Heating chemicals inside a closed vessel can result in some of the highest gas or super critical fluid pressures encountered in a laboratory space.
Novice users must be directly supervised in experimental design, vessel assembly and heating mode selection until they exhibit full understanding and proficiency.
As part of a laboratory reactor pressure vessel safety program, write detailed standard operating procedures, including intended operating pressures and temperatures, and upload to the Lumen Profile. Contact Research Safety for experiments that are intended to build up pressure above 500psia (34 bar). 26
If you use laboratory reactor pressure vessels in your experiments, it’s important to understand what conditions increase the hazards associated with use so you can prevent dangerous ruptures or explosions from occurring. All laboratory reactor pressure vessels shall be equipped with a form of overpressure relief to protect the vessel from the hazards of unexpected or dangerously high internal pressures. Appropriate over pressure relief through a safety rupture disk or safety relief valve must be part of the laboratory reactor pressure vessel design.
Some chemicals and mixtures are prohibited in laboratory reactor pressure vessels.
Overloading of a pressure vessel is a significant hazard. Where available, identify the charging limits for each chemical and vessel size in the manufacturer’s literature. Always evaluate the stoichiometry and chemistry that you are trying to achieve with special considerations for catalysts and gaseous by-products that may affect pressure build up inside the vessel. Assess any intermediates, side-products and products that may form and their behavior within the vessel, including their corrosive nature and their tendency to violently decompose at elevated temperature and pressure. Determine maximum temperature and pressure limits expected, taking into account the energetics of the reaction being conducted and any pathways that might cause the reaction to run out of control. A formal written risk assessment is strongly encouraged.
Defective temperature controls or operator inattention can be the cause of dangerous overheating. In order to prevent dangerous overheating, the best practice is to:
Some pressure vessels are equipped with a polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) cup and lid liner. Due to PTFE flow, once a PTFE cup and lid is pressurized it becomes a uniquely matching pair. Using unmatched pairs of cups and lids will cause leaks. Store all the parts of a pressure vessel together to avoid mismatches. Periodically conduct a leak check in accordance with the manufacturer’s literature.
Not all pressure vessels use a PTFE insert. Internal wetted parts of a pressure vessel have to be constructed resistant to corrosive materials at the expected operating pressure. Each alloy has its own physical strength and temperature characteristics as well as its own unique resistance to certain corrosive materials. All of these factors must be considered when making a selection. Dedicate pressure vessels for either acid or base service. Do not interchange the use of acids and bases in the same pressure vessel.
Register research activity involving the use of laboratory reactor pressure vessels in the Lumen Profile. Principal investigators must assure user competency. Use Lumen to assign lab member training for basic knowledge competency. For further information and guidance contact Research Safety.
Research Safety reserves the right to take possession of any pressure vessel deemed unsafe due to noncompliance with the safety guidelines highlighted above.
Protect vacuum desiccators by covering them with cloth-backed friction or duct tape, elastic mesh netting or shielding them for protection in case of implosion. Vacuum lines shall be trapped and shielding used whenever apparatus is under reduced pressure. Only chemicals being dehydrated should be stored in a desiccator. Before opening a desiccator that is under reduced pressure, make sure that atmospheric pressure has been restored.
Water aspirators for reduced pressure are used mainly for filtration purposes, and only equipment that is approved for this purpose should be used. Never apply reduced pressure to a flat-bottomed flask unless it is a heavy-walled filter flask designed for that purpose. Place a trap and a check valve between the aspirator and the apparatus so that water cannot be sucked back into the system if the water pressure falls unexpectedly during filtering. This also applies to rotary evaporation equipment that use water aspirators for reduced pressure.
If vacuum pumps are used, place a cold trap between the apparatus and the vacuum pump so that volatiles from a reaction or distillation do not get into the pump oil or out into the atmosphere. Exhausts from pumps shall be vented to a hood or ventilation system. Pumps with belt drives must be equipped with belt guards to prevent hands, hair, or loose clothing from being caught in the belt pulley.
Desiccators 27
If a glass vacuum desiccator is used, it should be made of Pyrex or similar glass, completely enclosed in a shield, encased in mesh netting, or wrapped with friction tape in a grid pattern that leaves the contents visible and at the same time guards against flying glass if the vessel implodes. Plastic (e.g., polycarbonate) desiccators reduce the risk of implosion and may be preferable but should also be shielded while evacuated. Solid desiccants are preferred. Never carry or move an evacuated desiccator. Take care opening the valve to avoid spraying the desiccator contents from the sudden inrush of gas.
Rotary Evaporators 28
Glass components of the rotary evaporator should be made of Pyrex or similar glass. Glass components such as the reservoir and condenser/cooling finger should either be coated with a layer of safety plastic resin or protected with plastic mesh netting to contain glass debris in case of implosion. Completely enclose in a shield to guard against flying glass should the components implode. Gradually increase rotation speed and application of vacuum to the flask whose solvent is to be evaporated.
Cryogenic liquids are materials with boiling points of less than −73 °C (−100 °F). Liquid nitrogen, argon, and slush mixtures of dry ice with isopropyl alcohol are the materials most commonly used in cold traps to condense volatile vapors from a gas or vapor stream. Cold traps used in reduced pressure systems should be placed in stainless steel cryogen dewar flasks . If this option is not possible, the cold traps should be coated with plastic resin or wrapped with cloth-backed friction or duct tape. In the event of an implosion, the coating will reduce the amount of flying glass.
Users of cold traps should be aware of the boiling points of the components and the possible materials that can condense in the reduced-pressure system. After completion of an operation in which a cold trap has been used, isolate the trap from the source, remove from the coolant, and vent to atmospheric pressure in a safe and environmentally acceptable way. Otherwise, pressure could build up, creating a possible explosion or sucking pump oil into a vacuum system. Dry ice and liquefied gases used in refrigerant baths should always be open to the atmosphere. Never use them in closed systems, where they may develop uncontrolled and dangerously high pressures.
Exercise extreme caution in using liquid nitrogen as a coolant for a cold trap. If such a system is opened while the cooling bath is still in contact with the trap, oxygen may condense from the atmosphere. Caution must be applied when using argon, for instance as an inert gas for Schlenk or vacuum lines, because it condenses as a colorless solid at liquid nitrogen temperature. A trap containing frozen argon is indistinguishable from one containing condensed solvent or other volatiles and presents an explosion hazard if allowed to warm without venting.
The precautions that should be followed to protect colleagues, non-laboratory personnel, and facilities when you transport chemicals in University buildings are listed below.
Chemical owners who use or store hazardous chemicals at Northwestern University are required by OSHA and fire regulation to maintain a chemical inventory for compliance with various safety and environmental regulations, and to provide critical information to responders during an emergency.
Northwestern laboratory personnel are responsible for maintaining an accurate chemical inventory for their laboratory. Each research laboratory has a corresponding ChemTracker inventory linked to its Lumen Profile. All laboratories that store chemicals are strongly encouraged to use ChemTracker to manage their inventory. Laboratories may use other chemical inventory programs or systems, however electronic copies of these inventories should be uploaded to their Lumen Profile.
Order only the amounts of stock necessary to support the research. Excess should not be purchased because it increases hazardous waste volume and raises the risk of significant spills.
Minimal stock also protects the safety of emergency responders. The greater the volume of chemicals on hand, the greater the risk that breakage of containers could lead to mixing of incompatible chemicals or release of reactive compounds.
The regulations for the Evanston Campus differ from the regulations on the Chicago Campus. The Northwestern University buildings on the Evanston Campus generally have to comply with the limits established in the International Building Code (IBC) and the International Fire Code (IFC). Research laboratories generally are in buildings classified as business occupancy (B). Groups of research laboratories within a building may be subdivided into fire control areas. For more specific information regarding laboratory design and building fire control specifications contact Facilities.
The chemical control zones maximum allowable quantities (MAQ) for corrosives are several hundred liters. Laboratory scale work is not expected to exceed these quantities. One exception is the MAQ for highly concentrated nitric acid. Consult Research Safety before acquisition of more than 4 liters of nitric acid in excess of 68%.
Chicago Campus
Contact Research Safety for further information on the storage of corrosives if you intend to store more than 40 liters or a single container size exceeding 4 liters.
Table 6.10.2 Evanston Campus
International Fire Code (IFC) 2018 – Maximum Allowable Quantities (MAQ) in Storage per Sprinklered Fire Control Areas Unless Constructed to High Hazard Group (H-2 or H-3) Specifications (in pounds)
HAZARDOUS MATERIAL | NFPA CLASS | GROUND FLOOR-3RD FLOOR (100% MAQ) | BASEMENT AND 4TH-6TH LEVEL ABOVE GRADE (75% MAQ) | SUBBASEMENT AND 7TH LEVEL ABOVE GRADE (50% MAQ) |
---|---|---|---|---|
Highly Toxic | 20 | 15 | 10 | |
Toxic | 1,000 | 750 | 500 | |
Organic Peroxide | UD (Highest Hazard Class) | 2 | 1.5 | 1 |
Organic Peroxide | I | 10 | 7.5 | 5 |
Organic Peroxide | II | 100 | 75 | 50 |
Organic Peroxide | III | 250 | 185 | 125 |
Oxidizer | 4 | 2 | 1.5 | 1.0 |
Oxidizer | 3 | 20 | 15 | 10 |
Oxidizer | 2 | 500 | 375 | 250 |
Unstable reactive | 4 | 2 | 1.5 | 1 |
Unstable reactive | 3 | 10 | 7.5 | 5 |
Unstable reactive | 2 | 100 | 75 | 50 |
Water reactive | 3 | 10 | 7.5 | 5 |
Water reactive | 2 | 100 | 75 | 50 |
Explosives | Consult with Research Safety before ordering | |||
b. Quantities shall be increased 100% when stored in approved cabinets, gas cabinets, exhausted enclosures, or safety cans as specified by the International Fire Code. |
All research buildings on the Northwestern University Chicago Campus are equipped with automatic sprinkler systems. The McGaw/Olson building is classified as institutional occupancy NOT business occupancy, which limits the storage quantities in accordance with NFPA 99. Contact Research Safety for further information on the storage of highly reactive chemicals.
Evanston Campus
The regulations for the Evanston Campus differ from the regulations on the Chicago Campus. Generally, the quantity limits are higher in buildings equipped with automatic fire sprinklers. The research buildings on the Northwestern University Evanston Campus equipped with automatic sprinkler systems are:
TABLE 6.10.3a
BUILDING | ADDRESS |
---|---|
Pancoe-NUH Life Sciences Pavilion | 2200 Campus Drive |
Cook Hall | 2220 Campus Drive |
Ryan Hall | 2190 Campus Drive |
Technological Institute | 2145 Sheridan Rd |
Ford Motor Company Engineering Design | 2133 Sheridan Rd |
Frances Searle Building | 2240 Campus Drive |
Mudd Hall | 2233 Tech Drive |
Silverman Hall | 2170 Campus Drive |
1801 Maple Avenue | 1801 Maple Avenue |
Note, that the Hogan building is not fully equipped with automatic sprinkler systems.
The Northwestern University building occupants on the Evanston Campus generally have to comply with the limits established in the International Building Code (IBC) and the International Fire Code (IFC). Research labs generally are in buildings classified as business occupancy (B). Groups of research laboratories within a building may be subdivided into fire control areas. For more specific information regarding laboratory design and building fire control specifications contact Facilities.
The total quantities of flammable or combustible liquids allowed in a fire control area are limited by the floor level above grade and other construction and use specifications. Typical research laboratories are not constructed to high hazard group specifications.
The following table shows the maximum allowable quantities that can be stored in a single fire control area per floor.
TABLE 6.10.3b
International Fire Code (IFC) 2018 – Maximum Allowable Quantities in Storage per Sprinklered Fire Control Area Unless Constructed to High Hazard Group (H-2 or H-3) Specifications (in Gallons)
HAZARDOUS MATERIAL | NFPA CLASS | GROUND FLOOR TO 3RD FLOOR (100% MAQ) | BASEMENT AND 6TH FLOOR ABOVE GRADE (75% MAQ) | SUBBASEMENT AND 7TH FLOOR ABOVE GRADE (50% MAQ) |
---|---|---|---|---|
Flammable Liquid | IA IB IC | 60 120 180 | 40 90 135 | 30 60 90 |
Combination of Flammable Liquids | IA+IB+IC | 240 ,c,d | 180 ,c,d | 120 ,c,d |
Combustible Liquid | II IIIA IIIB | 240 660 26,400 | 180 495 19,800 | 120 330 13,200 |
Pyrophoric | Not applicable | 48 pounds | 6 pounds | 4 pounds |
b. Quantities shall be increased 100% when stored in approved cabinets, gas cabinets, exhausted enclosures, or safety cans as specified by the International Fire Code. Where note d applies, the increase for both shall be applied accumulatively. c. Except for IFC “Spill control for hazardous material liquids. Rooms, buildings or areas used for the storage of hazardous material liquids in individual vessels having a capacity of more than 55 gallons, or in which the aggregate capacity of multiple vessels exceeds 1,000 gallons shall be provided with spill control to prevent the flow of liquids into adjoining areas.” d. Allowed only in buildings equipped throughout with an approved automatic sprinkler system in accordance with IFC 2003 Section 903.3.1.1. Note, that the Hogan and Catalysis buildings are not equipped with automatic sprinkler systems. e. Allowed only in buildings equipped throughout with an approved automatic sprinkler system in accordance with IFC. |
Quantity limits on the Chicago Campus 32
The regulations for the Chicago campus differ from the regulations on the Evanston campus. All research buildings on the Chicago campus are equipped with automatic sprinkler systems. With the exception of flammable liquids storage rooms by the loading docks of the Tarry and Lurie buildings, there are currently no rooms designed to the specifications of a dedicated flammable liquids storage room.
In the Chicago campus research spaces, a single container capacity for NFPA Class I flammable liquids is limited to 4 liters. The Laboratory Unit Fire Hazard Class is limited to Class C – low fire hazard. This means that the maximum quantity of Class I flammable liquids, in fire rated storage cabinets, is limited to 15 liters per 9.3 m 2 (100 sf) of research space. Consult with Research Safety if Class II combustible liquids exceed 240 liters or Class III combustible liquids exceed 480 liters.
Whenever the amount of flammable liquids stored in a building exceeds the maximum aggregate amount, the excess flammable liquid shall be stored in a special room for flammable liquids.
Note, the McGaw/Olson building is classified as institutional occupancy NOT business occupancy, which limits the storage quantities in accordance with NFPA 99 Flammable and Combustible Liquids 11.7.2.3.1
In the McGaw/Olson laboratories, a maximum of 4 liters of combinations of Class I, II, and IIIA flammable liquids per 100 sq.ft. of laboratory space are allowed outside of a flammable liquids cabinet. Combinations of Class I, II, and IIIA may not exceed 8 liters per 100 sq ft in storage.
7.1 corrosives: acids and bases.
Under hazardous waste regulation a pH <2 or >12.5 indicates corrosive characteristics. Corrosive acids and bases attack the skin and can cause permanent damage to the eyes. Therefore, exercise great care in attempting neutralization.
All the hydrogen halide acids are serious respiratory irritants. Hydrofluoric (HF) acid poses a special danger; both its gas and solutions are toxic, and it is rapidly absorbed through the skin, penetrating deeply into the body tissues. Contact with dilute solutions of hydrofluoric acid may cause no pain for several hours but result in serious burns. In all cases, immediate and thorough flushing with water for 5 minutes, followed by calcium gluconate antidote gel application and prompt attention by a physician are necessary.
Oxyacids such as sulfuric and nitric acid have widely differing properties. Sulfuric acid is a very strong dehydrating agent. When preparing solutions, always add the acid to water and remember that the heat of solution may produce a large increase in temperature. Nitric acid is a strong oxidizing agent that acts rapidly and turns exposed skin yellow to brown as a denaturing reaction occurs. Paper that has been used to wipe up nitric acid spills can ignite spontaneously when dry and should not be thrown into a wastebasket until first rinsed with water and neutralized.
Chromic acid is generally prepared as a cleaning solution; Research Safety recommends the use of replacement cleaners without chromium, which is carcinogenic. All chromic acid waste shall be collected and disposed of through Research Safety. For information regarding chromic acid substitutes, contact Research Safety.
Perchloric acid is a powerful oxidizing agent that may react explosively with organic compounds and other reducing agents. Small quantities of perchloric acid <72% at room temp or below can be used in a regular chemical hood. Any work with perchloric acid heated above ambient temperature requires Research Safety approval. If heated, it shall be used only in a perchloric-acid hood of noncombustible construction. Special hood wash-down features may be required. Perchloric acid should be handled with extreme care and kept from organic matter to prevent a serious explosion. Beakers of fuming perchloric acid >86% shall be handled with tongs rather than rubber gloves. Perchloric acid hoods shall be washed down after every perchloric acid digestion.
Perchloric acid containers shall be stored in glass outer containers and shall not be stored on wood shelving, as drips or leaks may render the wood shock-sensitive. Keep perchloric acid bottles on glass or ceramic trays that are large enough to hold all the acid if the bottle breaks. Storage of perchloric acid containers should not exceed one year. Digest organic matter with nitric acid before addition of perchloric acid. Never heat perchloric acid with sulfuric acid because dehydration may produce anhydrous perchloric acid, which is explosive.
Perchlorate esters have the same shattering effect as nitroglycerine. Transition metal perchlorates are capable of exploding. Perchlorates shall not be used without prior consultation with Research Safety.
Concentrated Bases
The most common bases found in laboratory spaces include the alkali metal hydroxides and aqueous solutions of ammonia. Sodium and potassium hydroxides are extremely destructive to both skin and eye tissues. When concentrated solutions are prepared, the heat of solution can raise the temperature to dangerous levels. Because ammonia solution vapors are such strong irritants, they should be used only in a chemical fume hood.
Procedure for Inorganic Acid Neutralization (Does not apply to chromic acid)
APPLICABLE ACIDS | Hydrochloric, sulfuric |
---|---|
EQUIPMENT | |
CAUTION | |
1. Prepare a large amount of an ice-water-and-base solution of one of the following: 2. Slowly stir acid (which has been diluted to about 5%) into the base solution until the pH reaches about 5 to 10. | |
Note: The pH of hydrochloric and sulfuric solutions poured down the drain shall be between 5 and 10 to avoid violating local, state, or federal regulations. Submit all other neutralized acids for hazardous waste disposal |
Definitions
According to most fire codes and regulations, including those for laboratory spaces, a flammable liquid is a liquid with a flash point below 100°F and a vapor pressure not exceeding 40 psi (absolute) at 100°F; it is called a Class I liquid. A liquid with a flash point at or above 100°F is classified as a combustible liquid and may be referred to as a Class II or Class III liquid. See also OSHA Flammable and Combustible Liquids .
The U.S. Department of Transportation (DOT) and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) use a different definition. These agencies define flammable liquids as those with a flash point of 140°F or lower and combustible liquids as those with a flash point greater than 140°F but less than 200°F. DOT and EPA definitions apply primarily to chemicals in transit and hazardous waste.
Flash point is the minimum temperature at which the liquid gives off vapors in sufficient concentration to form an ignitable mixture with air. The classes of liquids are further divided into subclasses, depending on the flash points and boiling points of the liquids (Table 7.2A). The classifications are important because regulations governing storage and use of a liquid are largely based on the liquid’s flash point.
Flammable liquids shall be handled only in areas with no ignition sources and shall not be heated with open flames. If flammable liquids in metal containers or equipment are transferred, the equipment and containers shall be bonded to avoid static-generated sparks.
A more thorough hazard review should be done when flammable reagents are used where the flash point is <10°C, the lower flammable limit is <10%, the auto ignition temperature is <200°C, or the minimum ignition energy is <0.5mJ. 33
Flammable liquids shall not be stored in ordinary refrigerators or cold rooms. If it is necessary to refrigerate flammable materials, “explosion-proof,” “explosion-safe” or flammablestorage refrigerators shall be used. Combustible liquids are less of a fire hazard, although a rise in temperature increases their evaporation rate and the potential for ignition. If the quantity of flammable liquids in storage exceeds 40 liters (including liquid waste), flammable-liquid storage cabinets shall be used.
Allowable Quantities
The maximum allowable size of containers and portable tanks for flammable and combustible liquids is shown in Table 7.2B. Although the table indicates that the maximum allowable size of glass containers for Class IA and Class IB are 500 ml and one liter respectively, the liquids may be stored in glass containers of not more than 4 liter capacity if the required liquid purity (such as ACS analytical reagent grade or higher) would be affected by storage in metal containers or if the liquid would cause excessive corrosion of the metal container.
Bonding and Grounding
When a flammable liquid is poured into or withdrawn from a metal drum, the drum and the secondary container shall be electrically bonded to each other and to the ground to avoid the possible buildup of a static charge. Quantities no larger than 4 liters 34 can be transferred to a glass container. If the liquid is transferred from a metal container to glass, the metal container should be grounded. Greater than 20 liter drums of flammable liquids are not permitted in laboratory spaces unless the quantity is necessary for daily use and is approved by Research Safety. In Evanston, transfer of a flammable liquid by gravity from a drum or carboy is permitted only through a self-closing valve or faucet. Chicago Fire Code for Flammable Liquids prohibits gravity transfer and requires that the liquid be transferred by pumping from an opening in the top of the container.
TABLE 7.2 A – Flammable Liquid Classification
CLASS | FLASH POINT (°F) | BOILING POINT (°F) |
---|---|---|
IA | Below 73 | Below 100 |
IB | Below 73 | At or above 100 |
IC | At or above 73, below 100 | NA |
II | At or above 100, below 140 | NA |
IIIA | At or above 140, below 200 | NA |
IIIB | At or above 200 | NA |
TABLE 7.2 B – Maximum Allowable Size of Flammable and Combustible Liquid Containers in Laboratory Spaces
FLAMMABLE LIQUIDS | COMBUSTIBLE LIQUIDS | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
CONTAINER | CLASS IA | CLASS IB | CLASS IC | CLASS II | CLASS IIIA |
Glass | 500 ml | 1 liter | 4 liters | 4 liters | 20 liters |
Metal (other than DOT drums) or Approved Plastic | 4 liters | 20 liters | 20 liters | 20 liters | 20 liters |
Safety Cans | 8 liters | 20 liters | 20 liters | 20 liters | 20 liters |
Metal Drum (DOT Spec.) | Not allowed | 20 liters | 20 liters | 240 liters | 240 liters |
Polyethylene | 4 liters | 20 liters | 20 liters | 240 liters | 240 liters |
a. Glass containers of not more than 4 liters capacity are acceptable if the required purity would be adversely affected by storage in metal or if excessive corrosion would result from storage in metal. b. In instructional laboratory work areas, no container for Class I or II liquids shall exceed a capacity of 4 liters, other than safety cans which may be of 8 liters capacity. |
Reference: NFPA 45, Fire Protection for Laboratories Using Chemicals, National Fire Protection Association, 1996
Highly reactive and explosive materials used in the laboratory require appropriate procedures. 35
Organic peroxides are among the most hazardous chemicals normally handled in laboratory spaces. In addition to reading the SDS, consult the Bretherick’s Handbook of Reactive Chemical Hazards for more in depth information on reactive hazards and associated incidents. As a group, organic peroxides are flammable, low-power explosives and powerful oxidizers that are sensitive to shock, heat, sparks, friction, impact, and light. Many of them are much more shock-sensitive than typical explosives such as TNT.
Purchase and use of peroxides shall be kept to a minimum. Unused peroxides shall not be returned to the container. Glass containers with screw caps or glass stoppers shall not be used. Polyethylene bottles with screw caps are acceptable. Store liquid organic peroxides at the lowest possible temperature consistent with the solubility or freezing point. Liquid peroxides are particularly sensitive during phase changes. Follow the manufacturer’s guidelines.
Reduce the sensitivity of most peroxides to shock and heat by dilution with inert solvents, such as aliphatic hydrocarbons. However, do not use aromatics (such as toluene), which are known to induce the decomposition of diacyl peroxides.
Do not use solutions of peroxides in volatile solvents under conditions in which the solvent might vaporize because this will increase the peroxide concentration in the solution. See also Section 6.9.4 Distillations.
Do not use metal spatulas to handle peroxides because contamination by metals can lead to explosive decomposition. Magnetic stirring bars can unintentionally introduce iron, which can initiate an explosive reaction of peroxides. Ceramic, Teflon, or wooden spatulas and stirring blades may be used if it is known that the material is not shock sensitive.
Certain common laboratory chemicals form peroxides on exposure to oxygen in air. Essentially all compounds containing C—H bonds pose the risk of peroxide formation if contaminated with various radical initiators, photosensitizers, or catalysts. Over time, some chemicals continue to build peroxides to potentially dangerous levels, whereas others accumulate a relatively low equilibrium concentration of peroxide, which becomes dangerous only after being concentrated by evaporation or distillation. The peroxide becomes concentrated because it is less volatile than the parent chemical.
A related class of compounds includes inhibitor-free monomers prone to free radical polymerization that on exposure to air can form peroxides or other free radical sources capable of initiating violent polymerization. Note that care must be taken when storing and using these monomers—most of the inhibitors used to stabilize these compounds require the presence of oxygen to function properly, as described below. Always refer to the SDS and supplier instructions for proper use and storage of polymerizable monomers.
Excluding oxygen by storing potential peroxide formers under an inert atmosphere (N2 or argon) greatly increases the safe storage lifetime. Purchasing the chemical stored under nitrogen in septum capped bottles is also possible. In some cases, stabilizers or inhibitors (free-radical scavengers that terminate the chain reaction) are added to the liquid to extend its storage lifetime. Because distillation of the stabilized liquid removes the stabilizer, the distillate must be stored with care and monitored for peroxide formation. Furthermore, high-performance liquid chromatography–grade solvents generally contain no stabilizer, and the same considerations apply to their handling.
Types of Compounds Known to Autoxidize to Form Peroxides
Procedures for Peroxide Testing
Peroxide test strips are available without charge from Research Safety. Use the key below to determine the concentration of peroxides (if any):
Peroxide Table
GROUP I MATERIALS | ||
---|---|---|
Diethyl Ketene | Isopropyl ether | Sodium Amide |
Divinyl acetylene | Potassium Amide | Vinylidene Chloride |
Divinyl Ether | Potassium Metal |
GROUP II MATERIALS | ||
---|---|---|
Acetal | Dicyclopentadiene | Methyl actylene |
Acetaldehyde | Diethylene glycol dimethyl ether | Methyl cyclopentane |
Cumene | Dioxane | Methyl-isobutyl ketone |
Cyclohexene | Ethyl ether | Tetrahydrofuran |
Cyclopentene | Ethylene glycol dimethyl ether | Tetrahydronapthalene |
Decalin | Furan |
GROUP III MATERIALS | ||
---|---|---|
1,3 butadiene | Chlorotrifluoroethylene | Vinyl acetate |
Acrylic Acid | Methyl Methacrylate | Vinyl acetylene |
Acrylonitrile | Styrene | Vinyl chloride |
Chlorobutadiene | Tetrafluoroethylene | Vinyl pyridine |
Reactions and subsequent operations involving peracids and peroxy compounds should be run behind a safety shield. For relatively fast reactions, the rate of addition of the peroxy compound should be slow enough so that it reacts rapidly and no significant unreacted excess is allowed to build up. The reaction mixture should be stirred efficiently while the peroxy compound is being added, and cooling should generally be provided since many reactions of peroxy compounds are exothermic. New or unfamiliar reactions, particularly those run at elevated temperatures, should be run first on a small scale. Reaction products should never be recovered from the final reaction mixture by distillation until all residual active oxygen compounds (including unreacted peroxy compounds) have been destroyed. Decomposition of active oxygen compounds may be accomplished by the procedure described in Korach, M.; Nielsen, D. R.; Rideout, W. H. Org. Synth. 1962, 42, 50 (Org. Synth. 1973, Coll. Vol. 5, 414).
Many polynitroaromatic compounds are shock-sensitive, as are some aliphatic compounds containing more than one nitro group. Many of these compounds are sold and stored with 10 to 20 percent water, which desensitizes their reaction to shock, although they are still flammable solids. In addition to reading the SDS consult the Bretherick’s Handbook of Reactive Chemical Hazards for more in depth information on reactive hazards and associated incidents.
Polynitro compounds shall be stored separately from most chemicals and labeled so they will be easily identified as reactive. They shall not be placed in long-term storage without special posting indicating their presence and removal date. Long-term storage without checking for proper water content may allow the compounds to dehydrate sufficiently to make them highly reactive.
Surplus and waste polynitro compounds shall be given to Research Safety promptly for proper disposal or recycling and not left on a shelf to be forgotten.
If old containers of polynitro compounds are found, including picric acid or dinitrophenyl hydrazine, do not move them without consulting Research Safety. If they are moved, handle them only by the bottom of the container and never by the cap or lid, as friction may cause a violent explosion.
Picric Acid
Dry picric acid is highly explosive and should be brought into a laboratory space only when specifically required. Users should have a thorough understanding of its hazards. Although not explosive when wetted, picric acid solutions may evaporate to leave the hazardous solid. Picric acid should be stored away from combustible materials and should not be kept for extended periods. Old containers of picric acid shall be handled only by Research Safety.
Methyl nitronitrosoguanidine
Methyl nitronitrosoguanidine is a carcinogenic agent that is also shock-sensitive. It shall be stored in a separate area, preferably locked. Waste paper, plastic, and glass contaminated with this material shall be given to Research Safety for proper disposal.
Catalysts such as raney nickel or palladium on carbon shall be filtered from catalytic hydrogenation reaction mixtures with care. The catalyst has usually become saturated with hydrogen and will produce flames spontaneously on exposure to air. The filter cake should not be allowed to become dry. The funnel containing the still-moist catalyst filter cake should be put into a water bath immediately after completion of the filtration. Use a purge gas (nitrogen or argon) for hydrogenation procedures so that the catalyst can be filtered and handled under an inert atmosphere.
Sodium azide is a toxic, highly reactive, heat-sensitive, and potentially shock-sensitive material. Because it reacts with metals, Teflon or other nonmetal spatulas shall be used. It shall be stored in a locked cabinet and used with appropriate personal protective gear.
Sodium azide should only be purchased in small quantities, ideally the minimum amount needed in the laboratory space. Consult Research Safety for a list of vendors who supply 10-gram containers of sodium azide. Storage of solid sodium azide is strongly discouraged.
Solid sodium azide, in quantities above 25 g, shall be dissolved when it arrives in the laboratory space. Solutions of sodium azide do not pose the danger of shock-sensitivity associated with the solid form; however, the hydrazoic acid generated when the azide is dissolved is extremely toxic. Therefore, the solution shall always be prepared inside a chemical fume hood.
Consult with Research Safety if planning for a reaction with greater than 5 grams of sodium azide.
Organometallics are organic compounds comprised of a metal or nonmetal attached directly to carbon (RM). Examples are Grignard compounds and metallic alkyls such as alkyl lithiums, triethylaluminum, and trimethylindium. Many organometallics are highly toxic or flammable. Many are also waterreactive and spontaneously combustible in air. Trialkyltins are the most toxic as a group. Most are highly reactive chemically. Special firefighting equipment (e.g., dry chemical powder fire extinguisher) may be needed where organometallics are handled.
Hydrides are inorganic compounds composed of hydrogen and another element, often a metal. Examples include arsine (AsH3), phosphine (PH3), diborane (B2H6), germane (GeH4), stibine (SbH3), and silane (SiH4). The listed hydrides are highly toxic and flammable. They react violently with water and oxidizing agents and pose a dangerous fire risk. Phosphine, diborane, and silane are spontaneously flammable (pyrophiric 39 ) in air.
Certain hydride gases, notably arsine and phosphine, are commonly used as dopants in semiconductor research applications. Arsine is one of the most toxic gases known. It is a potent hemolytic agent (symptoms: red discoloration of the urine and sclera). Phosphine is extremely toxic to organs of high oxygen flow and demand. Thorough emergency planning for accidental releases shall be in place when such gases are to be used in the laboratory space. Provision of air-supply respiratory protection may be called for as well as continuous system monitoring for releases.
When waste gas streams of hydride gases are concentrated they shall be treated (e.g., scrubbing or thermal decomposition) before release into an exhaust duct. Inform Research Safety of the treatment procedures to be applied.
The preparation of these solutions requires the development of standard operating procedures. Disposal issues are addressed in the Hazardous Waste Disposal Guide .
Select agents/toxins are agents that the Department of Health and Human Service (HHS) considers to have the potential to pose a severe threat to human health. A list of these agents is found in the select agent regulation (42 CFR 73). A few of the Select Agents are highly toxic chemicals.
High Consequence Livestock Pathogens and Toxins are agents that the Department of Agriculture (USDA) considers to have the potential to pose a severe threat to animal or plant health, or to animal or plant products.
The plant pathogens listed by USDA have been deemed a threat to plant health or products. Agents that post a severe threat to animal health, animal products and also public health are referred to as “Overlap Agents.” These agents appear on both the HHS and USDA list of agents and toxins.
All regulatory and safety issues related to the use of select agents at NU are governed by the Institutional Biosafety Committee.
7.5.1 definitions.
Engineered nanoparticle 40 means intentionally created (in contrast with natural or incidentally formed) particle with one or more dimensions greater than 1 nanomater and less than 100 nanometers. The following types of nanoparticles are beyond the scope of this definition:
Unbound engineered nanoparticle (UNP) 41 means those engineered nanoparticles that, under reasonably foreseeable conditions encountered in the work, are not contained within a matrix that would be expected to prevent the nanoparticles from being separately mobile and a potential source of exposure. An engineered nanoparticle dispersed and fixed within a polymer matrix, incapable, as a practical matter, of becoming airborne, would be “bound,” while such a particle suspended as an aerosol or in a liquid would be “unbound.”
Universal Precautions 42 is an approach to infection control that assumes human biological materials are potentially infectious. Under this approach, Personal Protective clothing and Equipment (PPE), work practices, and engineering controls are always used.
Engineered very small particles exhibit properties different from larger particles of the same chemical composition, making them of interest to researchers and of potential benefit to society. Only limited information is currently available on the toxicity of engineered nanomaterials such as carbon or metal nanotubes, nanowires and sheets, fullerenes, quantum dots, carbon and metalorganic frameworks, metal or silica nanoparticles and other compounds. It is believed that exposure to some unbound engineered nanomaterials may result in health effects. Solid or liquid materials that are comprised (in part) of engineered nanomaterials may be sources of airborne nanoparticles, for example, as a result of abrasion or cutting of solid materials, drying, or agitation of liquid suspensions.
Laboratory research commonly involves handling nanomaterials in liquid suspensions or other forms that do not become easily airborne, and even UNP tend to agglomerate to a larger size. When research involves work with engineered nanoparticles for which toxicity is not yet known, it is prudent to assume the engineered nanoparticles may be toxic, and to handle the engineered nanoparticles using exposure controls that limit inhalation, skin absorption, ingestion and injection.
See also the NIOSH Poster “ Controlling Health Hazards when Working with Nanomaterials: Questions to Ask Before you Start “.
Hazard Communication
Principal Investigators purchasing, growing, or otherwise generating engineered nanomaterials in their laboratory spaces should include these materials on their chemical inventories, note their presence in the Lumen Profile and communicate required precautions and exposure controls to their laboratory members and others potentially exposed.
Engineering Controls
Work Practices
The practices for safely working with engineered nanomaterials are essentially the same as one would use when working with any research chemical of unknown toxicity. Consideration should be taken to:
NIOSH – Approaches to Safe Nanotechnology: Managing the Health and Safety Concerns Associated with Engineered Nanomaterials
National Nanotechnology Initiative
US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
Hazards can result from improper handling of gas cylinders and high-pressure equipment. A leaking cylinder can produce an atmosphere that is toxic, anesthetic, asphyxiating, or explosive; and in the event of a rapid escape, a cylinder can become a randomly directed missile. The main purpose of properly handling compressed gases is, therefore, to prevent uncontrolled escape of the gas.
A non-flammable inert compressed gas is defined by the Department of Transportation (DOT) as "any material or mixture which exerts in the packaging an absolute pressure of 280 kPa (40.6 psia) or greater at 20C (68F)".
At Northwestern University most laboratory gases are ordered through Procurement.
There are three major groups of compressed gases stored in cylinders.
Some gases, such as carbon dioxide, are commonly used in both a liquid and gas form. Cylinders designed for liquid phase dispensing have a siphon, or "dip", tube.
Secure the cylinder above its center of gravity (~2/3 up the cylinder). If the chain or belt is too low or too high, it will not hold the cylinder securely. Keep the cylinder valve-protection cap on when not in use. Secure cylinders by metal channels, nylon bench straps, or chains.
In addition to standard precautions, the following special rules apply to work with lecture bottles in the laboratory:
Maximum allowable storage quantities vary depending on campus, building, floor, control area, fire rated design and type of gas. Only cylinders that are in use shall be kept in the laboratory. When the cylinder is not in use, close the main cylinder valve tightly and add the protective valve-protection cap.
Promptly remove the regulator from an empty cylinder, replace the valve-protective cap, and label the cylinder by using an “empty” tag or writing on the side of the cylinder with chalk. Never bleed cylinders completely empty; leave a slight pressure to keep contaminants out. Empty cylinders shall be promptly removed.
Transport using a wheeled cylinder cart with the capped cylinder strapped to the cart. Do not move a gas cylinder that may have been exposed to fire or excessive heat. Notify Research Safety or Procurement.
Threads on cylinder-valve outlet connections have been standardized by the Compressed Gas Association for specific gas types.
This prevents accidental mixing of incompatible gases from an interchange of connections.
Left hand fittings for fuel gases have a cut mark through the nut. Do not use cheaters or adapters that circumvent the CGA fittings.
Compression fittings require no pipe sealants. Follow the Pipe Sealants Guide. Never lubricate, modify, force, or tamper with cylinder valves. Especially do not put oil or grease on the high-pressure side of a cylinder containing oxygen, chlorine, fluorine or another oxidizing agent. An auto ignition or explosion could result. Unlike larger cylinders, lecture bottles all have identical valve threads, irrespective of the gas contained within.
Table 8.2.1 Common Laboratory Gases and CGA Regulator Fittings
Common Laboratory Gases | Standard CGA Fitting |
---|---|
Acetylene (except small cylinders) | 510 |
Air (non-medical grade, zero air) | 590 |
Argon | 580 |
Carbon dioxide (fitting requires flat washer) | 320 |
Hydrogen | 350 |
Hydrogen chloride | 330 |
Hydrogen sulfide | 330 |
Methane | 350 |
Oxygen | 540 |
Propane | 510 |
Regulators and fittings are gas-type specific which limits interchange and adds safety. Special installation processes, not mentioned here, are used for toxic or high purity gases. Always make sure that the regulator and valve fittings are compatible. To select the appropriate regulator:
Check cylinder outlet and regulator inlet connections for debris or contamination before connecting. Some gases, such as carbon dioxide, require a gasket/washer. Ensure that a required gasket is in place before assembling the regulator onto the cylinder.
All compressed gas regulators should, at a minimum, be checked for external leakage and internal leakage (creep or crawl) regularly. Regulators should be removed from service at least every five years (more frequent in some cases) and returned to the manufacturer, or a competent agent to be inspected and/or refurbished as necessary. Regulators should also be tagged or labeled to identify the last date of inspection. Users should consult the manufacturer for specific procedures on how to check for external and internal leakage as well as the recommended frequency of the tests. Regulators are continuously exposed to high stresses due to cylinder pressures. In addition to that, the materials of construction are attacked internally by both mildly and severely corrosive gases. External corrosive environments can cause gauges and springs to corrode. Argon, helium and nitrogen regulators (CGA 580) will, under a given set of conditions, have a longer service life than regulators used for hydrogen chloride and hydrogen sulfide (CGA 330) simply because the gas service is more severe (corrosive). The most common type of regulator failure is the internal leak, sometimes called creep or crawl. This can occur when the seat becomes damaged or displaced due to a foreign particle such as a metal chip or other material. When the seat cannot close completely, delivery pressure will not be maintained, and regulator pressure cannot reach a state of equilibrium. Downstream or delivery pressure will continue to climb until the safety relief mechanism on the regulator is activated (usually a relief valve or a diaphragm burst disk). Checking for this type of failure is relatively easy if the device has a gauge that reads regulated pressure. The gauge pressure will start to rise above the set point and continue upward. This creates a potentially hazardous condition where any downstream equipment would be subjected to pressures beyond the rated limit. Regulators should be visually checked for this type of failure. Excessive flexing of metal regulator diaphragms can cause a radial crack, which allows gas to escape to the atmosphere through the vent hole in the bonnet.
Piping, tubing, valves and fittings conveying hazardous materials shall be designed and installed in accordance with ASME B31 43 .
The system’s weakest component determines the overall pressure limit.
Purchase of diluted toxic gas, if feasible below a concentration known to be dangerous, will serve to reduce exposure risk.
Transport toxic gas cylinders with the valve-protection cap and the valve outlet cap on. Toxic-gas cylinders shall be stored in continuously mechanically ventilated enclosures with an extinguishing system 44 . If the net toxic gas content exceeds one pound per cylinder no more than three cylinders of toxic gas are allowed per enclosure (gas cabinet). Flow-restricting orifices are recommended on cylinders of toxic gases. All portable tanks and cylinders must be marked to indicate the orifice (inches) on the certification tags and the vessel themselves. Any new laboratory construction shall require vented gas cabinets for storage of highly toxic gases. Gas cylinder cabinets for toxic gases must have a fire extinguishing system 45 .
Waste toxic gases shall be treated by absorption, wet or dry scrubbing, combustion, or condensation via refrigeration, before being vented to chemical fume hoods or other local exhaust arrangements. The safe venting of pressure-relief devices should be considered 46 .
If the physiological warning properties for the toxic or highly toxic gas(es) are above the permissible exposure level (PEL), an emergency alarm system is required 47 ; consult with Research Safety regarding this determination. Consult the emergency plan for the given lab area to determine the action expected during a leak situation. Contact Research Safety for information on selection, fit testing and training if respirators or Sel- Contained Breathing Apparatus (SCBA) have been provided. No one may use respirators on the job without prior medical approval, fit testing and training.
The visual alarm of a continuous leak detection system shall be blue at malfunction, yellow at the warning level and red at the danger level. A required leak detection system shall send all alarm signals to University Police.
The purchase of diluted flammable gas, if feasible below the explosive range, will serve to reduce an explosion risk. Quantities of flammable gases allowable in Business Occupancy generally do not require installation of leak detection and emergency shutoff or excess flow control 48 . Where leak detection is installed, the visual alarm of a continuous flammable gas detection system shall be yellow at the warning level and red at the danger level. A required continuous atmosphere detection system shall send all alarm signals to University Police as part of a mutually agreed upon emergency response plan. Oxygen/fuel gas system for welding, brazing or glass blowing shall follow OSHA CFR 1910.153. This requires the use of Grade T welding hose color coded red/green for all oxy-gas welding applications and the installation of flash arresters on hydrogen and acetylene cylinders. Flammable gas cylinders must be stored 20 feet away from oxidizers and oxygen gas cylinders or separated by a fire rated wall. When in use in an oxy/fuel system, no special separation is required.
The in-house transfer, handling, storage and utilization of acetylene in cylinders shall be in accordance with Compressed Gas Association Pamphlet G-1-2015.
Acetylene cylinders have a porous filler material filled with acetone and dissolved acetylene. The cylinder must only be used in the upright position. If a cylinder has been handled in a non-upright position, do not use it until it has sat upright for at least 30 minutes. Do not use tubing materials, such as copper and lead solder, as they form explosive acetylides. Never exceed the delivery pressure limit of 15psig indicated by the warning red line of an acetylene pressure gauge. The use of an excess flow control valve is not recommended. Install a flash arrestor downstream from the regulator and check valves wherever backflow needs to be prevented.
Individual hydrogen gas cylinders should contain less than 400 scf. Larger hydrogen gas vessels may require a laboratory designed with explosion control and other safety measures. The installation of a flash arrestor is required, and the installation of an excess flow control valve is recommended. Stainless steel (316L grade) piping and tubing is generally used for hydrogen delivery.
Gas vessels with more than 0.5 scf (14L) of silane content above 1.37% by volume are regulated by CGA G-13. The required engineering controls for silane are much more extensive than required for flammable gases. Silane design experts should be consulted. To determine allowable quantities, binary gas mixtures containing silane concentrations between 1.37%-4.5% by volume are considered flammable. Gas mixtures with silane gas above 4.5% by volume are considered pyrophoric.
The hazards of cryogenic liquids include fire or explosion, pressure buildup, embrittlement of structural materials, asphyxiation and destruction of living tissue on contact. Liquid helium, argon or nitrogen may displace air and create an atmosphere without sufficient oxygen. Portable cylinders of cryogens must only be stored in well ventilated areas. Storage of cryogenic liquids (i.e. liquid nitrogen) or liquefied gases (i.e., carbon dioxide) in cold rooms or other rooms without external ventilation is prohibited. Fire or explosion may occur when the liquid form of flammable gases, such as hydrogen, is used without proper management of the gaseous phase. Liquid oxygen may produce an enriched oxygen atmosphere, which increases the flammability of ordinary combustible materials. Enriched oxygen levels may also cause some nonflammable materials, such as carbon steel, to burn readily. Contact with cryogenic liquids generally causes tissue freezing and frostbite. Even brief contacts may be intense and painful. Prolonged contact may result in blood clots. Appropriate protective clothing, gloves, and eye protection — preferably a face shield — shall be worn when cryogenic liquids are handled. Choice of personal protective equipment (PPE) should be carefully evaluated, as gloves not designed for use with cryogenic liquids can saturate and cause more extensive cold damage to the skin.
Use a phase separator or special filling funnel to prevent splashing and spilling when transferring liquid nitrogen into or from a dewar. The top of the funnel should be partly covered to reduce splashing. Use only small, easily handled dewars for pouring liquid. For the larger, heavier containers, use a cryogenic liquid withdrawal device to transfer liquid from one container to another. Be sure to follow instructions supplied with the withdrawal device. The receiving vessel must be raised so the delivery tube is immediately above the mouth of the vessel (i.e., the cryogenic liquid should never be allowed to fall through air to reach the receiving vessel). When a warm tube is inserted into liquid nitrogen, liquid will spout from the bottom of the tube due to gasification and rapid expansion of liquid inside the tube. Wooden or solid metal dipsticks are recommended; avoid using plastics that may become very brittle at cryogenic temperatures.
Indoor areas where bulk inert gas systems are newly installed shall be continuously monitored with an atmosphere monitoring system. The system shall provide an audible and visual alarm (red light) when the oxygen level drops to 19.5%. The audible and visual alarm shall be located inside the area and immediately outside of all entrances to the indoor area. A blue indicator light shall indicate a detection system malfunction. A required atmosphere monitoring system shall send all alarm signals to University Police.
Natural or mechanical ventilation shall be provided when bulk inert gas systems are installed in buildings, rooms, or any indoor confined area. Ventilation shall be provided throughout the space at the rate of not less than 1.0 cubic foot per minute per square foot of floor area determined by the area enclosed. (Reference: IFC2012 – 5004.3.1)
Investigators must order Restricted Commodity using a NUFinancials requisition. The selected requisition category must be LAB-HAZARDOUS GASES RESTRICTED. Investigators must ensure that each person placing orders, whether department office staff or laboratory staff, understands these requirements. Research Safety must review and approve all requisitions for Restricted Commodity. Research Safety will not approve purchase orders for LAB-HAZARDOUS GASES RESTRICTED intended for use outside of authorized University facilities.
The Principal Investigator (PI) or laboratory supervisor shall ensure that the laboratory workers using compressed or liquefied gases and cryogenic liquids are informed of the hazards of chemicals present in their work area. Specifically, the PI or laboratory supervisor shall:
Gaseous Chemicals | CAS# | Concentration of Consequence in % | Quantity Threshold of Consequence in Pounds |
---|---|---|---|
Arsine | 7784-42-1 | >0.6 | 15 |
Boron trichloride | 10294-34-5 | >84.7 | 45 |
Boron trifluoride | 7637-07-2 | >26.87 | 45 |
Bromine chloride | 13863-41-7 | >9.67 | 45 |
Carbonyl fluoride | 353-50-4 | >12 | 45 |
Carbonyl sulfide | 463-58-1 | >56.67 | 500 |
Chlorine | 7782-50-5 | >9.77 | 500 |
Chlorine dioxide | 10049-04-4 | ACG | any amount |
Chlorine pentafluoride | 13637-63-3 | > 4.07 | 15 |
Chlorine trifluoride | 7790-91-2 | >9.97 | 45 |
Cyanogen | 460-19-5 | > 11.67 | 45 |
Cyanogen chloride | 506-77-4 | >2.67 | 15 |
Diborane | 19287-45-7 | >2.67 | 15 |
Dichlorosilane | 4109-96-0 | >10.47 | 45 |
Dinitrogen tetroxide | 10544-72-6 | >3.80 | 15 |
Fluorine | 7782-41-4 | >6.71 | 15 |
Germane | 7782-65-2 | >20.73 | 45 |
Germanium tetrafluoride | 7783-58-6 | >2.11 | 15 |
Hexafluoroacetone | 684-16-2 | >15.67 | 45 |
Hydrogen bromide (anhydrous) | 10035-10-6 | >95.33 | 500 |
Hydrogen chloride (anhydrous) | 7647-01-0 | ACG* | 500 |
Hydrogen cyanide | 74-90-8 | >4.67 | 15 |
Hydrogen fluoride (anhydrous) | 7664-39-3 | >42.53 | 45 |
Hydrogen iodide, (anhydrous) | 10034-85-2 | >95.33 | 500 |
Hydrogen selenide | 7783-07-5 | >0.07 | 15 |
Hydrogen sulfide | 7783-06-4 | >23.73 | 45 |
Methylchlorosilane | 993-00-0 | >20 | 45 |
Methyl mercaptan | 74-93-1 | >45 | 500 |
Nitric Oxide | 10102-43-9 | >3.83 | 15 |
Nitrogen trioxide | 10544-73-7 | >3.83 | 15 |
Nitrosyl chloride | 2696-92-6 | >1.17 | 15 |
Oxygen difluoride | 7783-41-7 | >0.09 | 15 |
Perchloryl fluoride | 7616-94-6 | >25.67 | 45 |
Phosgene | 75-44-5 | >0.17 | 15 |
Phosphine | 7803-51-2 | >0.67 | 15 |
Selenium hexafluoride | 7783-79-1 | >1.67 | 15 |
Silane | 7803-62-5 | >1.37 | any amount |
Silicon tetrafluoride | 7783-61-1 | >15 | 45 |
Stibine | 7803-52-3 | > 0.67 | 15 |
Sulfur dioxide (anhydrous) | 7446-09-5 | >84 | 500 |
Sulfur tetrafluoride | 7783-60-0 | > 1.33 | 15 |
Tellurium hexafluoride | 7783-80-4 | > 0.83 | 15 |
Trifluoroacetyl chloride | 354-32-5 | >6.93 | 45 |
Trifluorochloroethylene | 79-38-9 | > 66.67 | 500 |
*ACG = Any commercial grade Quantities in each building must be managed below the Threshold of Consequence or MAQ, whichever threshold is lower.
The scope of this section generally applies to areas constructed for business occupancy (B). For quantity limits for all other occupancies, especially High Hazard Group (H) contact Research Safety.
The regulations for the Evanston Campus differ from the regulations on the Chicago Campus.
The building users on the Evanston Campus generally have to comply with the limits according to the International Building Code (IBC) and the International Fire Code (IFC). Groups of research laboratories within a building may be subdivided into fire control areas. For more specific information regarding laboratory design and fire control specification contact Facilities Management.
The total quantities of flammable or combustible liquids allowed in a fire control area (laboratory or suite of laboratories) are limited by the location in the building and the construction specifications.
Hazardous Material | 1 floor below grade-2nd floor above grade | 3rd floor | 4th to 6th floor level |
---|---|---|---|
Cryogenic flammable | 90 gal | 67 gal | 45 gal |
Cryogenic oxidizing | 90 gal | 67 gal | 45 gal |
Flammable gas (gaseous) | 2,000 cubic feet | 1,500 cubic feet | 1,000 cubic feet |
Flammable gas (liquefied) | 150 pounds | 112 pounds | 75 pounds |
Oxidizing gas (gaseous) | 3,000 cubic feet | 2,250 cubic feet | 1,500 cubic feet |
Oxidizing gas (liquefied) | 150 pounds | 112 pounds | 75 pounds |
Pyrophoric (needs approval) | 50 cubic feet | 37 cubic feet | 25 cubic feet |
Corrosive | 1,620 cubic feet | 1,215 cubic feet | 810 cubic feet |
Highly toxic (needs approval | 20 cubic feet | 15 cubic feet | 10 cubic feet |
Toxic | 1,620 cubic feet | 1,215 cubic feet | 810 cubic feet |
a. Quantities shall be increased 100% when stored in approved cabinets, gas cabinets, or exhausted enclosures as specified by the International Fire Code. b. Allowed only when stored in approved exhausted gas cabinets or exhausted enclosures. |
Reference: International Fire Code (IFC) 2021 Excerpt from Tables 3806.2.1 and 5003.1.1(2)
Note that the McGaw/Olson building is classified as institutional occupancy NOT business occupancy, which limits the storage quantities in accordance with NFPA 99. Contact Research Safety for further information.
Maximum Size and Quantity Limitations for Compressed or Liquefied Gas Cylinders in Laboratories Located in Buildings Classified Business Occupancy
Flammable Gases and Oxygen | Liquefied Flammable Gases | Gases with High Health Hazard Rating | |
---|---|---|---|
Maximum Cylinder Size (approximate) | 10 x 50 inches | 9 x 30 inches | 4 x 15 inches |
In sprinklered areas | 6 | 3 | 3 |
a. Cylinders of all toxic gases shall be kept in a continuously mechanically ventilated hood or other continuously mechanically vented enclosure, with no more than 3 cylinders per enclosure. b. In instructional laboratory work areas, the total number of cylinders shall be reduced to 3 maximumsized cylinders. Ten approximately 2″ × 12″ cylinders (lecture bottles) are allowed. In other than instructional laboratories, 25 lecture bottles are permitted. |
Reference: 2019 NFPA 45
Bulk systems
Control area
Cylinder parts
Cylinder dimensions
Excess flow control
Maximum Allowable Quantity (MAQ)
Oxygen deficient atmosphere
Permissible exposure limit (PEL)
Standard cubic foot (scf)
Restricted commodity
Toxic gas and highly toxic gas
Airgas Pipe Fitting Sealants, 2018
Matheson, Safe Handling of Compressed Gases in the Laboratory and Plant
Design and Safety Handbook for Specialty Gas Delivery Systems, Air Liquide America Specialty Gases
Airgas Product Catalog
CGA P-1 – 2008 Safe Handling of Compressed Gases in Containers
CGA P-9 – 1992 The Inert Gases Argon, Nitrogen and Helium
CGA P-12 – 2009 Safe Handling of Cryogenic Liquids
CGA P-18 – 2006 Standard for Bulk Inert Gas Systems
CGA P-20 – 2009 Standard for classification of toxic gas mixtures
CGA G-1_13 – 2015 – Acetylene
CGA G-13 – 2016 Storage and Handling of Silane and Silane Mixtures
NFPA 45, Protection for Laboratories Using Chemicals, National Fire Protection Association, 1996.
International Fire Code – 2021
Proper handling of reaction byproducts, surplus and waste chemicals, and contaminated materials is an important part of laboratory safety procedures. Each laboratory member is responsible for ensuring that wastes are handled in a manner that minimizes personal exposure and the potential for environmental contamination.
Follow all procedures of the Hazardous Waste Disposal Guide .
10.1 laboratory ventilation.
Laboratory spaces shall be provided with general ventilation adequate for employee comfort and sufficient to supply air for chemical fume hoods and other local ventilation devices. Because the general air supply is not adequate for manipulating hazardous materials on an open lab bench, volatile or toxic chemicals shall be handled in a chemical fume hood or other appropriate containment device.
Laboratory ventilation should change the air at least six times per hour. Higher air exchange rates may be required depending on the nature of the laboratory work. Except in special circumstances approved by Research Safety, air in laboratories shall be at a negative pressure with respect to the rest of the building. Air diffusers or grilles shall be so designed and located as to direct the air over the laboratory personnel and sweep the contaminated air away from their breathing zone. To promote uniform distribution and mixing of air in large laboratories, the supply registers shall deliver the air in all directions, at a typical velocity of 20 linear feet per minute.
Problems with general ventilation shall be reported promptly to Facilities. Adjustments or alterations to the general ventilation equipment of a laboratory space shall be performed only under the supervision of Facilities.
On occasion, Facilities will issue notices of intent to perform maintenance work on the ventilation system. These notices shall be heeded and chemical fume hoods shall not be used when Facilities is involved in repairing or adjusting the ventilation system. The supervisor of the laboratory is responsible for ensuring that the Facilities crew is informed of the hazards in the area. The chemical fume hood shall be cleared of toxic materials and properly decontaminated before such work begins. Facilities may request Research Safety to inspect the chemical fume hood prior to maintenance or repair work. Be prepared to supply a detailed history of chemical and biological agent use in the chemical fume hood for safety evaluation purposes.
A chemical fume hood is an important engineering control for preventing exposure to hazardous materials. In conjunction with sound laboratory techniques, a chemical fume hood serves as an effective means for capturing toxic, carcinogenic, offensive, or flammable vapors or other airborne contaminants that would otherwise enter the general laboratory atmosphere. With the sash lowered, the chemical fume hood also forms a physical barrier to protect workers from hazards such as chemical splashes or sprays, fires, and minor explosions. Chemical fume hoods may also provide effective containment for accidental spills of chemicals, although this is not their primary purpose. Due to the unknown nature of chemical vapor and gas emissions in research operations, the use of ductless hoods is prohibited. For the same reason ductless biosafety cabinets shall not be used to control hazardous chemical emissions.
Many chemical fume hood controllers are equipped with emergency purge buttons. These should be activated during an incident or if the design of an experiment fails. The button will temporarily increase total exhaust flow from the laboratory space and help remove toxic vapors or dusts from the entire space. The deliberate release and venting of chemicals (i.e., evaporation) in chemical fume hoods shall never be used as a means of disposal.
Turbulence can lead to backspill of contaminants out of the chemical fume hood. An operator has significant control over the factors that cause turbulence and, consequently, the chemical fume hood’s capture efficiency.
For example, chemical fume hoods with active experiments are not meant for storage of chemicals at the same time. Storing chemical containers and equipment in a chemical fume hood impairs its performance. The containers and equipment create turbulence as airflow is diverted around them. Volatile and odorous chemicals and highly toxic gases shall be stored in ventilated cabinets.
If chemical containers or bulky devices must be maintained in the chemical fume hood during an experiment, they should be elevated 2 to 3 inches above the interior work surface using jacks, apparatus scaffolding, support stands, ring stands, metal bars or stilts, etc. Materials remaining directly on the work surface block the incoming air and propel it back toward the chemical fume hood face. The elevation of materials in the chemical fume hood allows air to pass unimpeded to the bottom exhaust opening at the chemical fume hood’s back wall.
Turbulence is also created at the face of the chemical fume hood when obstacles to airflow such as containers and equipment are too close to the sash. Containers and equipment should always be moved 6 inches back from the inner edge of the air sill.
Even the movement of one’s hands can interrupt airflow patterns and disturb proper circulation of exhaust air. When reaching into the chemical fume hood, take care to move hands slowly with smooth gestures. If working at a chemical fume hood with a horizontal sash, use one of the panes as a barrier to splashes. Position the pane directly in front of you and move your hands on opposite sides of the pane.
Apparatus in chemical fume hoods shall be fitted with traps, condensers, or scrubbers to remove toxic fumes, gases, vapors, or dusts before venting to the atmosphere. Chemical fume hood performance is also dependent on the room’s air flow pattern, including airflow generated by drafts and persons walking by. Minimize traffic and opening and closing of doors near the chemical fume hood. When the chemical fume hood is in use, the sashes should be pulled down as far as workable for minimal external airflow interference and maximum barrier protection.
Chemical fume hoods used for hazardous chemicals shall have an average face velocity of 80 to 100 feet per minute at a minimum sash height of 12 inches. Face velocity shall not exceed 120 fpm at the working sash height.
Compounds such as perchloric acid or aqua regia are likely to cause chemical fume hood corrosion.
Chemical fume hoods shall be evaluated for performance upon installation and following any alterations. Research Safety monitors chemical fume hoods annually. The fans and duct systems are maintained and inspected by Facilities. Any problems with hood ventilation or air flow should be reported to Research Safety or Facilities for inspection and evaluation.
Refer to the Chemical Fumehood Handbook for further information regarding optimum hood operation and an understanding of ventilation principles.
Safety showers shall be installed in areas where low chemical hazard operational limits are exceeded.
As a general rule, new shower installations shall adhere to the recommendations for shower location and minimum performance requirements established in American National Standard Z-358.1 (2009). Showers shall be placed as close to the hazard as possible, but in no case more than 10 seconds’ travel time from the hazard. Department heads shall ensure that safety showers are installed in the department locations where needed.
Every laboratory employee shall be instructed in the location(s) and use of a safety shower. Ideally, a person should be able to find the shower with his or her eyes closed. Safety showers shall provide a minimum of 20 gallons of water per minute.
Ideally, the water temperature of the shower should be tepid to prevent pain or shock to a person standing under it for 15 minutes. Safety showers shall have quick-opening valves requiring manual closing so that a person does not have to hold the valve open while trying to undress or wash off. The pull handle shall be a delta bar or large ring within easy reach but not so low as to be in the way.
Because not all laboratories have safety showers, a “Safety Shower” sign shall be placed outside each room that has a shower. Flammable-liquid cabinets or other hazardous equipment or material shall not be placed near a safety shower, and access to the shower or the activating handle shall not be impeded. The floor shall be clear in a 34-inch-diameter area under the shower.
Safety showers shall be tested and inspected at least annually. Inspection includes a visual check of visible plumbing and verification of proper operation. Facilities Management conducts the annual tests and maintains related records. Contact Facilities to schedule safety-shower testing if the shower you intend to use in an emergency has not been tested in the last 12 months.
An eyewash providing a continuous, low-pressure stream of aerated water shall be provided in each laboratory suite in which chemical or biological agents are used or stored and in laboratory spaces where nonhuman primates are handled. The designated eyewashes shall be labeled and easily accessible from any part of the laboratory space.
New eyewash installations shall adhere to the recommendations for minimum performance requirements established in ANSI/ISEA Z-358.1 (2009). Eyewash fountains shall supply 0.4 gallons of water per minute for 15 minutes.
Contact Research Safety for information on the standard eyewashes to be used at Northwestern University.
Bottle-type portable eyewashes are not acceptable in laboratory spaces.
PIs are responsible for ensuring that the labeled eyewash fountains in their labs are flushed weekly. Operate the valve, visually observe availability of the aerated water stream, and flush the pipes or hose of sediment that may have collected. Issue a work order to Facilities if an eyewash station does not provide a clean water stream of sufficient pressure and attach an Out-of-order sign as documentation for your maintenance action.
Every laboratory space using chemical, radioactive or biological agents shall have at least one sink, preferably located near the room exit, available for hand washing. The sink shall be cleaned regularly to eliminate contamination, and soap shall be supplied for hand washing.
Drain traps in sinks, floors, and other places will dry out if they are not used regularly, allowing odors and contamination to back up into the room. Drain traps shall be kept filled with liquid to maintain an airlock. Also keep an airlock in drain traps of cup sinks on benches and in chemical fume hoods.
Electrical currents of very low amperage and voltage may result in fatal shock under certain circumstances. Voltages as low as 24 volts AC can be dangerous and present a threat. Low voltage DC circuits do not normally present a hazard to human life, although severe burns are possible. The duration of contact with a live circuit affects the degree of damage, especially with regard to burns.
All electrical switches shall be labeled, including circuit breakers in the service panels, and all laboratory personnel shall know where these controls are and how to shut off circuits or equipment in case of fire or other accident. Any electrical equipment that is not operating properly or seems to be overheating shall be turned off immediately and inspected by a qualified technician.
Electrical equipment should be inspected periodically to confirm that the cords and plugs are in safe condition. Circuit diagrams, operating instructions, descriptions of hazards, and safety devices are usually provided by the manufacturer and should be kept on file for reference.
Only three-wire grounded, double insulated, or isolated wiring and equipment shall be used in 110V- 115V AC applications. All wiring and equipment shall comply with the National Electrical Code. Surge suppressor power strips in laboratory spaces shall comply with UL-1449.
In specifically designated laboratories, cold rooms, or storage rooms or other locations where concentrations of flammable vapor-air mixtures are likely to occur, certified explosion-proof wiring and equipment, including light fixtures, switches, refrigerators, and telephones, shall be used.
Series-wound motors with carbon brushes, typically found in household appliances such as blenders and mixers, are not spark-free and shall not be used in laboratory spaces where flammable vapors accumulate. Equipment manufactured for use in laboratory spaces generally contains induction motors.
Electrical extension cords should be avoided, where practical, by installing additional electrical outlets. Only electricians from Facilities are permitted to make electrical modifications in University properties. When extension cords are used, the current carrying capacity shall be larger than the current requirement of the equipment connected to it. Electrical cords on equipment shall be discarded or repaired if frayed or damaged. Cords should be kept as short as practical to avoid tripping hazards and tangles. Cable floor covers protect power cords and electrical cables from damage due to pedestrian traffic and help prevent tripping hazards. In wet locations ground fault circuit interrupters (GFCI) should be used. Power strips in laboratories must be of industrial-grade design with exception to those that solely power computers or equipment requiring special strip design or surge protection. Power strips must not be used for equipment that could require higher power loads such as furnaces, ovens, or incubators; these must be plugged directly into an appropriate electrical outlet
Place electrical equipment so as to minimize the possibility that water or chemicals could spill on it or that water could condense and enter the motor or controls. In particular, place such equipment away from safety showers. In cold rooms, condensation can be minimized by mounting electrical equipment on walls or vertical panels.
Only qualified individuals are permitted to make electrical repairs to any kind of electrical equipment. All electrical equipment shall be de-energized and tagged or locked out according to OSHA requirements before repairs are made. If adjustments or other contact are to be made with energized electrical equipment, a second person shall be present. Be sure you are not on a damp surface or touching a potential grounding surface. Use insulated tools, keep your hands dry, and wear safety glasses to prevent injury from sparks.
If a worker receives an electrical shock and is in contact with the energized device, use nonconductive gloves or a non-conducting device to pull or push the victim free from the electrical source. Help victims only if you are certain that you will not endanger your own safety. Turn off or disconnect the power source if possible. Call UP at 456. If a trained person is available, start CPR if necessary. Get medical assistance at once.
Fire extinguishers are provided by the University in corridors, public areas, laboratory spaces, and other locations where required by building and life safety code. Facilities provides fire extinguishers in new and renovated laboratory spaces during the construction phase upon laboratory users’ requests. The standard extinguisher size for minimal and low fire hazard laboratories 50 is 10 pounds – either BC or ABC. Consult with Research Safety about hazard requiring special extinguishers, e.g. metal fires.
Missing extinguishers should be reported to Facilities Management . Extinguishers in individual labs are ordered through Facilities at no cost to the PI. Call 1- 5201 to issue a work order for installation. Facilities will inspect and maintain all fire extinguishers and fire suppression systems.
Fire sprinkler heads in laboratories can be expected to release if they are exposed to temperatures above 155F. Keep high heat sources away from sprinkler heads.
11.1 toxic substances control act (tsca).
51 A laboratory security system is put in place to mitigate a number of risks and is complementary to existing laboratory security policies. In very broad terms, laboratory safety keeps people safe from chemicals, and laboratory security keeps chemicals safe from people.
There are many systems available for physical and electronic laboratory security. The choice and implementation depend on the level of security needed and resources available.
There are four integrated domains to consider when improving security of a facility:
These domains are complementary, and each should be considered when devising security protocols.
Laboratories that possess Chemicals of Interest (COI) and are covered by the Chemical Facilities AntiTerrorism Standards (CFATS) are subject to U.S. Department of Homeland Security (DHS) requirements. The Chemical Facility Anti-Terrorism Standards are concerned with the following types of chemicals:
The PI shall record all acquisitions of Chemicals of Interest within 30 days.
For most laboratories, there are a few general security requirements; however, most security measures are based on an assessment of the vulnerabilities and needs of an individual laboratory or institution. For some materials or operations, regulations or strict guidance documents specify the type or level of security. Special security requirements exist for regulated select agents, including toxins, and controlled substances. Radioactive materials and cyanides or other highly toxic chemicals must be secured when left unattended.
Within a laboratory, perhaps the most obvious form of physical security is the door lock. There are many choices available. Users should be trained to not hold doors open for others, and that everyone needs to use their key to pass through an access point. Unauthorized personnel should not be allowed to enter the laboratory, and if there is any question, laboratory personnel should be instructed to call University Police for guidance.
For assistance with security vulnerability assessments and security plans contact University Police.
In order to obtain controlled substances for research, an investigator needs both an Illinois controlled substance license and a federal controlled substance license. Contact the regulatory agencies directly for further information and applications. Properly licensed persons are permitted to possess Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) controlled substances for research purposes. Controlled substances must be kept locked up within a laboratory space. For further information on prohibited activities see the University’s Policy on Drugs and Alcohol .
Access to gaseous anesthetics and the operation of anesthesia machines shall be limited to authorized users. Authorized users, in this context, shall have completed safety awareness training and be in compliance with the licensing requirements.
The Occupational Health and Safety Administration (OSHA) does not have a recommended exposure limit for isoflurane and defers to the American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH) and National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH). ACGIH has established the isoflurane threshold limit value (TLV) as 75 ppm (566 mg/m3). NIOSH recommends that workers not be exposed to halogenated anesthetics at concentrations higher than 2 ppm. The University opts to comply with the more stringent NIOSH recommended exposure limit of 2 ppm to ensure the safety of researchers.
If monitoring of gaseous anesthetics reveals that levels are above the NIOSH recommended limits, then levels shall be either immediately reduced by a procedural change or equipment modification. The department head and PI shall comply with the requirements of the NIOSH TLV recommendations for the anesthetic. Periodic monitoring and termination of monitoring, as well as employee notification are required until all exposure levels are below the TLV limits. Medical surveillance may be a requirement as well.
If you are pregnant or planning to become pregnant, contact Research Safety so we can provide guidance in minimizing anesthetic exposure risk.
In addition, the DEA controls chemicals that can be used to manufacture controlled substances under the Domestic Chemical Diversion Control Act of 1993. Before selling DEA regulated chemicals, a supplier must verify the identity of the ordering party at Northwestern University. To accomplish this, suppliers require completion of an authorization form prior to shipment. Principal investigators and department administrators may authorize delivery of such chemicals for research purposes only. Contact Research Safety if you intend to ship such listed chemicals off campus.
Most personal safety aspects for field research activities including training, insurance, safety advisories, trip registry, immunizations, and emergency planning checklist are addressed by Global Safety and Security. There are restrictions about transporting hazardous materials domestically and internationally. Services for shipping of hazardous chemicals, radioactive materials and other restricted commodity off campus require some preplanning for compliance. Bringing potentially infectious research materials from field research activities onto campus also requires preplanning.
Removing restricted commodity and Class 4 lasers from campus without notification of [email protected] is prohibited. Northwestern University employees officially sponsored to perform hazardous field research activities off campus should notify [email protected] .
The Export Compliance & International Compliance (ECIC) team assist in navigating the regulations on export controls. Heed federal export restrictions that regulate the distribution of technology, services and information.
1. Excerpts from Prudent Practices in the Laboratory, National Research Council 2011, pg. 267
2. Excerpts from Prudent Practices in the Laboratory, National Research Council 2011, pgs 270-272
3. OSHA Laboratory Standard
4. Excerpts from Prudent Practices in the Laboratory, National Research Council 2011 pgs. 40-41
5. Excerpts from Prudent Practices in the Laboratory, National Research Council 2011, pg. 34, 149
6. Exerpts from Prudent Practices in the Laboratory, National Research Council 2010, pgs. 137-138
7. Excerpts from Prudent Practices in the Laboratory, National Research Council 2011 pgs. 111-112
8. Excerpted from Prudent Practices in the Laboratory, National Research Council 2011, pgs. 74, 133, 140, 153, 174-175
9. Labware Chemical Resistance Table , Thermo Scientific
10. Excerpted from Prudent Practices in the Laboratory, National Research Council 2011, pg. 75, 109
11. Excerpted from Prudent Practices in the Laboratory, National Research Council 2011, pgs. 75, 76, 159
12. Excerpted from Prudent Practices in the Laboratory, National Research Council 2011, pgs. 75, 76, 159
13. American Chemical Society, “Creating Safety Cultures in Academic Institutions” (2012) and “Identifying and Evaluating Hazards in Research Laboratories” (2015)
14. Reagent Chemicals, MCB Manufacturing Chemists, Inc., 1981, pp. 359-402.
15. OSHA Laboratory Standard
16. Excerpts from Prudent Practices in the Laboratory, National Research Council 2011, pg. 97
17. NFPA 45 – Standard for Laboratories Using Chemicals – Chapter 10 Flammable and Combustible Liquids
18. Excerpts from Prudent Practices in the Laboratory, National Research Council 2011, pg. 70, 140, 191
19. 2012 International Fire Code 5003.9.8
20. Excerpted from Prudent Practices in the Laboratory, National Research Council 2011, pgs. 72, 159-161
21. Excerpt from Prudent Practices in the Laboratory, National Research Council 2011, pg. 156
22. Chemical Reactivity Assessments in R&D, David Leggett, PhD, CChem, MRSC
23. Excerpt from Prudent Practices in the Laboratory, National Research Council 2011, pg. 158
24. Excerpt from Prudent Practices in the Laboratory, National Research Council 2011, pgs. 173-174
25. Parr No.230M Safety in the Operation of Laboratory Reactors and Pressure Vessels
26. Pressure Classification of Reactions, NFPA 45 Standard on Fire Protection for Laboratories Using Chemicals (2011 Edition) Annex C 45-39
27. Excerpt from Prudent Practices in the Laboratory, National Research Council 2011, pgs. 175
28. Excerpt from Prudent Practices in the Laboratory, National Research Council 2011, pgs. 175
29. Source: The Rotary Evaporator
30. Excerpts from Prudent Practices in the Laboratory, National Research Council 2011, pgs. 172-173
31. 2012 International Fire Code 5003.9.8
32. Reference: 15-24-310 Municipal Code of Chicago – Flammable Liquids ARTICLE III. CLOSED CONTAINER STORAGE General requirements
33. Chemical Reactivity Assessments in R&D, David Leggett, PhD, CChem, MRSC
34. 2011 NFPA 45 10.3.3
35. The DOW Chemical Company, Lab Safety Academy 2014
36. Excerpts from Prudent Practices in the Laboratory, National Research Council 2011, pg. 72
37. Excerpts from Prudent Practices in the Laboratory, National Research Council 2011, pgs. 72, 100, 133
38. From note in Organic Syntheses, 2011
39. A chemical that will ignite spontaneously in air at a temperature of 130F (54.4C) or below.
40. The definition is adopted from the US Department of Energy Notice N456.1 – THE SAFE HANDLING OF UNBOUND ENGINEERED NANOPARTICLES, Approved 01/05/09
41. The definition is adopted from the US Department of Energy Notice N456.1 – THE SAFE HANDLING OF UNBOUND ENGINEERED NANOPARTICLES, Approved 01/05/09
42. The definition is adapted from the Centers for Disease Prevention and Control (CDC) universal precautions designed to prevent transmission of bloodborne pathogens in the work place.
43.IFC 2012-5003.2.2
44. IFC 2012-Section 6004.1.2
45. IFC 2012-6004.1.2
46. IFC 2012-Section 6003.1.3 Treatment Systems
47. IFC 2012-6004.2.2.10
48. IFC 2012-5003.1.4
49. Not a CFATS regulated gas
50. 2015 NFPA 45 Table 9.1.1
51. Excerpt from Prudent Practices in the Laboratory, National Research Council 2011, pgs. 256ff
Research Policy Handbook
Policy authority.
University Committee on Health and Safety
Operations Council
University Cabinet
Now in Policy Details
This manual provides information about policies, procedures, and guidelines related to health and safety at Stanford. Topics covered include responsibilities, services provided by the Department of Environmental Health and Safety (EH&S), a variety of topics related to workplace safety (e.g. asbestos, ergonomics), the management of hazardous materials, and how to prevent and handle emergencies.
Safety is a core value at Stanford and the University is committed to continued advancement of an institutional safety culture with strong programs of personal safety, accident and injury prevention, wellness promotion, and compliance with applicable environmental and health and safety laws and regulations.
Stanford University makes all reasonable efforts to:
Adherence to good health and safety practices and compliance with applicable health and safety regulations are a responsibility of all faculty, staff, and students. Line responsibility for good health and safety practice begins with the supervisor in the workplace, laboratory or classroom and proceeds upward through the levels of management. For detailed guidance on individual safety responsibilities under Cal/OSHA, refer to the University’s Illness and Injury Prevention Program (IIPP) .
In academic areas, supervisors include faculty/principal investigators, laboratory directors, class instructors, or others having direct supervisory and/or oversight authority. Academic levels of management are the department chairperson or Independent Lab director, dean, the Dean of Research, and the Provost. Administrative levels of management include managers, directors, and vice presidents. Final responsibility for health and safety policy and programs rests with the President of the University.
The Associate Vice Provost for EH&S and the University Committee on Health and Safety are responsible for recommending University-wide health and safety policies to the President.
The Associate Vice Provost for EH&S is responsible for ensuring overall institutional compliance with applicable policies, statutes, and regulations; monitoring the effectiveness of the safety programs; and providing central health and safety services and support to all areas of the University.
University supervisors, including faculty supervisors and Principal Investigators (PIs), are responsible for protecting the health and safety of employees, students and visitors working under their direction or supervision. This responsibility entails:
University managers, academic and administrative, are responsible for ensuring that:
Environmental Health and Safety (EH&S) is responsible for:
While EH&S is responsible for developing and recommending relevant health and safety policies, institutional policy approval rests with other University authorities,(e.g., President, Provost, Vice Provost and Dean of Research, Faculty Senate, University Cabinet, University Committee on Health and Safety, Committee on Research, Administrative Panels for Research Oversight, etc.) depending on the content of the proposed policies.
Faculty, staff and students are responsible for:
Each individual at Stanford is expected to perform all work safely. Managers and supervisors shall establish and maintain a system of positive reinforcement and escalated discipline to support good health and safety practices. Safety performance shall be a part of every individual’s role and responsibility as well as performance expectation and evaluation.
Stanford's program for providing a safe workplace for faculty, staff and students includes: facility design; hazard identification, workplace inspection and corrective action; shutdown of dangerous activities; medical surveillance: and emergency preparedness. In addition to this general institutional health and safety policy, additional hazard specific policies and requirements may apply to different work and learning environments at Stanford and will be found in the Research Policy Handbook and at the EH&S Website.
Facilities will be designed in a manner consistent with health and safety regulations and standards of good design. Those University departments charged with primary responsibility for the design, construction, and/or renovation of facilities, together with EH&S shall ensure that there is appropriate health and safety review of facility concepts, designs, and plans.
In case of disagreement between EH&S and the cognizant facilities department, the conflict shall be resolved by the Vice Provost and Dean of Research in consultation with the cognizant vice president or dean and the Provost (or designate). The determination of the Vice Provost and Dean of Research may be stayed by the Associate Vice Provost for EH&S pending a prompt appeal to the President.
Stanford University encourages employees and students to report health and safety hazards to their supervisors, managers, or EH&S. Employees and students shall not be discriminated against in any manner for bona fide reporting of health and safety hazards to Stanford or to appropriate governmental agencies. Supervisors shall inform students and employees of this policy and encourage reporting of workplace hazards.
Supervisors, both faculty and staff, shall assure that regular, periodic inspections of workplaces are conducted to identify and evaluate workplace hazards and unsafe work practices.
The Associate Vice Provost for EH&S has the authority to curtail or shut down any University activity considered to constitute a clear and imminent danger to health or safety. In the event of such curtailment or shutdown, the cognizant dean, director or vice president and the Provost (or designate) shall be immediately notified.
In cases of dispute, an order to curtail or shutdown will remain in effect until the Provost or the Vice Provost and Dean of Research (or their respective designates) determine in writing that the danger has passed or been mitigated or that the order should be rescinded for other reasons.
Should the Associate Vice Provost for EH&S disagree with a determination to restore a curtailed or shutdown activity, the Associate Vice Provost for EH&S may promptly appeal the matter to the President. In the event of an appeal, the order to curtail or shutdown shall be in effect until the President determines otherwise.
Stanford University shall evaluate and monitor, through a program of medical surveillance, the health of Stanford University faculty, staff and students who are exposed to certain hazardous materials and situations as defined by law or University policy. Each supervisor is responsible for ensuring that employees and students under their supervision participate in the medical surveillance program as required by University policy. EH&S will monitor medical surveillance program participation. Each University department/school shall administer the program for faculty, staff and students covered by University policy.
EH&S coordinates overall emergency response planning for the institution and provides guidelines for departmental emergency response plans. Every department shall have an individual emergency response plan and shall develop business continuity and contingency plans and implement appropriate mitigation programs to reduce the impact of emergency events.
Schools and departments shall maintain local departmental emergency operations centers and communications capabilities according to guidelines in the campus emergency plan. Multiple departments located within individual buildings will jointly develop comprehensive building-based life safety response plans.
Emergency plans shall include evacuation and assembly procedures, posted evacuation maps, reporting and communication practices, training, and drills.
Safety and compliance required training shall be communicated in a manner readily understandable to faculty, staff and students, in accordance with the communication policy outlined below.
Managers and supervisors, both faculty and staff, shall establish, implement and maintain a system for communicating with employees and students about health and safety matters. Information should be presented in a manner readily understood by the affected employees and students. Due attention must be paid to levels of literacy and language barriers. Verbal communications should be supplemented with written materials or postings if appropriate. Whenever appropriate, statutes and policies affecting employees and students shall be available in the workplaces.
Faculty, staff, and students who may come in contact with hazardous substances or practices either in the workplace or in laboratories shall be provided information concerning the particular hazards which may be posed, and the methods by which they may deal with such hazards in a safe and healthful manner. In areas where hazardous chemicals or physical agents are used, handled, or stored, communication about these hazards shall conform to the Research Policy Handbook EH&S Requirements for laboratory facilities and the Hazard Communication Program for all other campus workplaces.
Supervisors, including faculty, shall be experienced, trained or knowledgeable in the safety and health hazards to which employees and students under their immediate direction and control may be exposed, and shall be knowledgeable of current practices and safety requirements in their field.
Faculty, staff and students shall have or be provided the knowledge to protect themselves from hazards in their working and learning environment. Supervisors, both faculty and staff, shall ensure that employees and students have received appropriate training and information regarding:
Training shall occur when:
Faculty, staff and students should, periodically, be retrained or demonstrate an understanding of current standard safety practices and requirements for their areas.
Documentation and records as required by regulation shall be kept to demonstrate compliance with applicable statutes, regulations and policies. Requirements and procedures for such recordkeeping can be found in the Research Policy Handbook and at the EH&S website.
Current Version: 10.01.12
Original Version: 04.01.91
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The first ever interdisciplinary handbook in the field, this vital resource offers wide-ranging analysis of health research regulation. The chapters confront gaps between documented law and research in practice, and draw on legal, ethical and social theories about what counts as robust research regulation to make recommendations for future directions. The Handbook provides an account and analysis of current regulatory tools - such as consent to participation in research and the anonymization of data to protection participants' privacy - as well as commentary on the roles of the actors and stakeholders who are involved in human health research and its regulation. Drawing on a range of international examples of research using patient data, tissue and other human materials, the collective contribution of the volume is to explore current challenges in delivering good medical research for the public good and to provide insights on how to design better regulatory approaches. This title is also available as Open Access on Cambridge Core.
‘This is an excellent book … I learned a great deal by reading it, gained much food for thought and know that I will return to it often, and hence I can highly recommend it.’
Lyn Horn Source: Bioethics
‘a rigorously edited, multidisciplinary handbook that has it all: from a solid conceptual framework that comprehends the axiological foundations of health research to the corresponding regulatory and procedural safeguards for the subjects involved … This volume in the "Cambridge Handbook" series is the perfect tool for students of health research regulation; biomedical investigators, industry regulators, or those seeking justice before a court of law; and professionals charged with administering justice … Highly recommended.’
P. Rodriguez del Pozo Source: Choice Connect
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The cambridge handbook of health research regulation - title page pp iii-iii, copyright page pp iv-iv, dedication pp v-vi, contents pp vii-x, figures pp xi-xii, tables pp xiii-xiv, contributors pp xv-xviii, acknowledgements pp xix-xx, introduction pp 1-10.
Section ia - concepts pp 13-98.
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Blog February 28, 2024
Department of Justice (DOJ) officials have made it clear in the last few years that investigation and enforcement of clinical research misconduct is an increasing priority. Investigations can occur in a variety of areas, from misuse of funds to the falsification of data and failure to disclose ties to foreign governments.
Recent DOJ enforcement indictments and charges include:
Clearly, there are a multitude of regulations that impact clinical research, and it’s vital to stay up to date on the latest industry developments.
To get the latest information and insights on a broad spectrum of topics, Health Care Compliance Association® (HCCA®) invites you to join us for our 28th Annual Compliance Institute , April 14–17. This year’s Compliance Institute features more than 100 educational sessions across 14 unique learning tracks, as well as the valuable opportunity to connect with an expected 1,500 healthcare professionals from a wide variety of organizations and roles, with whom you can share knowledge, experiences, and insights.
General sessions at this year’s Compliance Institute will cover many emerging and important healthcare compliance topics:
Health and Human Services-Office of the Inspector General Enforcement and Compliance Update Robert K. DeConti , Chief Counsel to the Inspector General, HHS-OIG
An Update on the Office for Civil Rights’ 2024 Priorities Melanie Fontes Rainer , Director of The Office for Civil Rights, Department of Health and Human Services
AI in Healthcare Brett Short , Chief Compliance Officer, University of Kentucky Christine Moundas , Partner, Co-Lead – Digital Health Initiative, Ropes & Gray John Nash , Associate Professor, Educational Leadership Studies, University of Kentucky Sherrine Eid , Global Head of Real-World Evidence and Epidemiology, SAS
The Art of Collaboration Charles Esten , Singer/Songwriter and Actor
Educational sessions are categorized into 14 topic tracks:
For a look at the full selection of educational sessions, view the agenda .
The city of Nashville, Tenn., will provide a vibrant backdrop for the 2024 Compliance Institute, and we’re excited to not only provide you with first-class education and networking, but also encourage you to take full advantage of the in-person conference experience and discover Nashville’s charm.
For those unable to travel, a virtual attendance option is available April 15–17, with access to more than 50 live-streamed sessions. Those who attend the virtual conference option can network with an anticipated 1,000 virtual attendees. Save your spot today – Learn more and sign up.
Established in 1996, Health Care Compliance Association® (HCCA®) supports healthcare compliance professionals as part of the overarching mission of SCCE & HCCA, a member-based professional association with more than 19,000 members in more than 100 countries.
SCCE & HCCA is dedicated to enabling the lasting success and integrity of organizations worldwide by promoting high standards in compliance and ethics programs, nurturing a community of compliance and ethics practitioners, and offering knowledge-rich educational opportunities. Additionally, we offer professional certification through the Compliance Certification Board (CCB®), an independent body which recognizes individuals with competence in the practice of compliance and ethics.
Learn more about HCCA
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A Discussion Paper, Streamlining Regulatory Oversight of Respirators Used in Health Care Settings will Improve Worker Protection , was recently published in the National Academy of Medicine’s NAM Perspectives journal by respiratory experts outside of the federal government. This paper highlights continued confusion amongst interested parties including health care organizations and manufacturers seeking approval regarding federal regulations and guidance on the use of air-purifying respirators (APRs) in health care settings. This confusion results from multiple regulatory oversight processes and is creating barriers to the use of certain NIOSH Approved® respirators, raising the cost of effective respiratory protection, and placing the safety of health care workers (HCWs), support staff, and patients at risk. The authors propose retiring the “Surgical” N95® (SN95) filtering facepiece respirator (FFR) designation, given that all NIOSH Approved APRs meet Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) requirements, are widely used across diverse industries, and have been shown to adequately protect HCWs and patients.
The NAM Perspectives paper emphasizes that a broad range of NIOSH Approved respirators—including FFRs, elastomeric half mask respirators (EHMRs), and powered air-purifying respirators (PAPRs)—are appropriate for use in health care to protect users from airborne infectious diseases and do not compromise patient or worker safety. It also highlights potential steps to address confusion about which respirators can be used in health care settings.
Currently there remains a lack of regulatory alignment among OSHA, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), and the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) regarding respirator approval for use in health care. Specifically, FDA requires that the devices used are appropriate for the hazards present. In surgical settings, the HCW may be exposed to blood spurts at arterial pressure or flames from surgical instruments and protecting the patient means only exposing them to biocompatible materials. Thus, respirators tested to fluid resistance, flammability, and biocompatability standards are to be used. This has led to NIOSH Approved respirators labeled and marketed for use in health care as “Surgical N95 FFRs” (also known as SN95 FFRs). These additional tests are relevant to surgical setting hazards and have no bearing on respiratory protection, which is instead assured by NIOSH’s comprehensive respiratory protective device regulations (i.e., 42 Code of Federal Regulations, Part 84) that are required by OSHA for respirators used in occupational settings. OSHA does not require the SN95 product. If the HCW is exposed to particulate hazards and hazards requiring fluid resistance protection, OSHA requires that the appropriate combinations of respirators, goggles, and/or face shields, or full facepiece respirators be selected according to the task’s need.
Shirley et al. described that the SN95 designation that has no bearing on the level of respiratory protection provided has led to respirator overregulation and contributed to supply chains that are increasingly expensive, complicated, and vulnerable to shortages during surges (Shirley et al., 2017). Confusion around regulatory requirements of multiple agencies can lead respirator manufacturers to submit their devices to extensive, expensive, and sometimes, redundant evaluation processes. This is a particular challenge for smaller manufacturers with fewer resources. The additional burden is also likely to discourage manufacturers from marketing their devices to health care organizations, which has implications for respirator supply and respiratory protection options for HCWs.
The SN95 designation may also lead HCWs, purchasers, and others to mistakenly believe that only SN95 FFRs can be used in health care settings. However, it is worth noting again, there is no indication that the FDA-required flammability testing or resistance to fluid penetration at high pressure is relevant or necessary for the majority of health care settings and work tasks. That being said, there is even evidence to show that these other respirator types are capable of providing these non-respiratory protections. Studies have investigated the ability of other respirator types [e.g., NIOSH Approved N95 FFRs, EHMRs and PAPRs] to meet the FDA requirements. Portnoff et al. tested five models of N95 FFRs and PAPRs with hoods against the ASTM F1862 synthetic blood penetration test. Three out of five N95 FFR models showed resistance to synthetic blood penetration at 450 cm/sec, similar to SN95 FFRs. All five PAPR hood models resisted liquid penetration at 450 cm/sec and four models at 635 cm/sec (Portnoff et al., 2021). Rengasamy et al. also used the ASTM 1862 method to test six N95 FFRs. They found four of the six would likely meet the FDA fluid resistance requirement. The two that did not meet the requirement did have some fluid resistance (Rengasamy et al., 2015). In 2018, Rengasamy et al. evaluated 11 N95 FFRs and 5 models of PAPR hoods for flammability using the Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC) CS-191-53 flammability (16 CFR 1610) method. All N95 FFRs and PAPR hoods met the Class 1 or normal flammability requirements (Rengasamy et al., 2018). In 2021, Rengasamy et al. retested the 11 models from their 2018 study for flammability using the CPSC 16 CFR 1610 method. Again, all models met the Class 1 requirements. In addition, six of these 11 models were tested for fluid resistance in the 2015 study (Rengasamy et al., 2015). An additional five models were tested for fluid resistance (using ASTM 1862 standard test method) in this study. Seven models met the requirements for fluid resistance, five models had high-level resistance and the other two had either low or medium level resistance (Rengasamy et al., 2021). The results of these studies showed that at least some commercially available NIOSH Approved N95 FFR models and PAPRs with hoods would pass FDA clearance for fluid resistance and flammability.
During the COVID-19 pandemic, there was a shortage of N95 FFRs. Because of this shortage, hospitals began to issue EMHRs as well as PAPRs to their employees as alternative respiratory protection. A study which evaluated a mass deployment of PAPRs (approximately 5500 units) in a Southampton, United Kingdom hospital found the use of PAPRs to be feasible. A PAPR was preferred by HCWs over other products for its comfort, for the feeling of safety, and overall experience as well as by patients since the HCWs’ faces were visible. Economic analysis indicated PAPRs were a highly cost-effective and alternative solution (Munro et al., 2021). Other studies have shown EMHRs are another feasible alternative to N95 FFRs. A study conducted in Allegheny Health Network hospitals found implementing an EHMR program was not only feasible but less expensive than N95 FFR programs relying on reuse and disinfection (Chalikonda et al., 2020). Other studies have also found the implementation of EHMRs to be feasible and in some cases with HCWs feeling more protected (Maleczek et al., 2022; Hines et al., 2019; McMahon et al., 2021; Frund et al., 2022; Haas et al., 2024; Haas et al. 2024; Haas et al., 2023; Hines et al., 2023; Ramsdell et al., 2023).
There is a current misconception that SN95 FFRs provide an increased level of respiratory protection over NIOSH Approved N95 FFRs. However, both N95 FFRs and SN95 FFRs meet the same NIOSH 42CFR84 regulations. NIOSH Approved EHMRs and PAPRs are reusable alternatives to the FFR when respiratory protection is needed in a health care setting. These current and potential misconceptions could contribute to respirator supply and access issues in periods of surge if HCWs and their hospital systems believe they can only use SN95 FFRs, placing HCWs at increased respiratory hazard exposure risk. The Hospital Respiratory Protection Program Toolkit co-authored by NIOSH and OSHA explains that a face shield with a FFR or a SN95 respirator be used when protection from fluids is needed. A face shield is preferred as it offers splash protection to the entire face. Similarly, if flammability was a concern, there are better environmental and personal protective protections.
The agencies recognize there is a need to reimagine how HCWs can best be protected and served. Efforts will continue across agencies to achieve more clarity on these issues and address the confusion in the marketplace. The following resources are available to help improve clarity:
N95 and NIOSH Approved are certification marks of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) registered in the United States and several international jurisdictions.
Christopher Coffey, PhD, is a former Associate Director for Science of the NIOSH National Personal Protective Technology Laboratory (NPPTL) and an ATL Contractor in the NIOSH NPPTL.
Maryann D’Alessandro, PhD, is the Director of the NIOSH National Personal Protective Technology Laboratory.
John Howard, MD, is the Director of NIOSH.
Meghan Kiederer, BA, is a Health Communication Specialist in the NIOSH National Personal Protective Technology Laboratory.
Susan Moore, PhD, is the Associate Director for Science of the NIOSH National Personal Protective Technology Laboratory.
Chalikonda S, Waltenbaugh H, Angelilli S, Dumont T, Kvasager C, Sauber T, Servello N, Singh A, Diaz-Garcia R. 2020. Implementation of an Elastomeric Mask Program as a Strategy to Eliminate Disposable N95 Mask Use and Resterilization: Results from a Large Academic Medical Center. J Am Coll Surg. 231(3):333-338. https://journals.lww.com/journalacs/abstract/2020/09000/implementation_of_an_elastomeric_mask_program_as_a.5.aspx .
Frund, Z.Z., Oh, S.H., Chalikonda, S., Angelilli S., and Waltenbaugh, H. 2022. Filtration performance and breathing resistance of elastomeric half mask respirator P100 filter cartridges after repeated and extended use in healthcare settings, Journal of Occupational and Environmental Hygiene, 19:4, 223-233, https://doi.org/10.1080/15459624.2022.2041649 .
Haas, E.J., Edirisooriva, M., Furek, A. & Casey, M. (2024, May). Reusable respirators: The impact on safety climate across health settings. Professional Safety, 69(5): 20-26.
Haas, E.J., Furek, A., & Greenawald, L.A. 2024. Identifying leadership practices to support the uptake of reusable elastomeric half mask respirators in health delivery settings, Healthcare Management Forum, 0(0): 1-7, https://doi.org/10.1177/08404704241226698 .
Haas, E.J., Yoon, K., McClain, C., Sietsema, M., Hornbeck, A., Hines, S., Chalikonda, S., Angelilli, S., Waltenbaugh, H., Thurman, P., Napoli, M. & Fernando, R. 2023. Examining the Impact of Elastomeric Half Mask Respirator Knowledge and User Barriers on Safety Climate Perceptions in Health Care Settings. Workplace Health & Safety, 71(7): 337-346.
Hines S.E., C. Brown, M. Oliver, P, Gucer, M. French, R. Hogan, T. Roth, J. Chang, M. McDiarmid. 2019. User acceptance of reusable respirators in health care. Am J Infect Control . 2019;47:648–55. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajic.2018.11.021 .
Hines, S.E., Thurman, P., Zhuang, E., Chen, H., McDiarmid, M., Chalikonda, S., Angelilli, S., Waltenbaugh, H., Napoli, M., Haas, E.J., McClain, C., Sietsema, M. & Fernando, R. 2023. Elastomeric half-mask respirator disinfection practices among healthcare personnel. American Journal of Industrial Medicine, 66(10): 1056-1068, https://doi.org/ 10.1002/ajim.23538 .
Maleczek, M., F. Toemboel, M. Van Erp, F. Thalhammer, and B. Rössler. 2022. Reusable respirators as personal protective equipment in clinical practice: User experience in times of a pandemic. Wiener Klinische Wochenschrif 134(13-14):522–528. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00508-022-02022-1 .
McMahon, K., D. Jeanmonod, R. Check, L. Rivard, V.Balakrishnan, B. Kelly, J. Pester, and R. Jeanmonod. 2021. The pragmatic use of industrial elastomeric facemasks in health care practice during the COVID-19 pandemic. American Journal of Emergency M edicine 48:273–275. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajem.2021.05.025 .
Munro, A., J. Prieto, E. Mentzakis, M. Dibas, N. Mahobia, P. Baker, S. Herbert, T. Smith, M. Hine, J. Hall, A. McClarren, M. Davidson, J. Brooks, J. Fisher, D. Griffiths, H. Morgan, C. Giulietti, S. N. Faust, and P. Elkington. 2021. Powered respirators are effective, sustainable, and cost-effective personal protective equipment for SARS-CoV-2. Frontiers in Medical Technology. 3:729658 https://doi.org/10.3389/fmedt.2021.729658 .
Portnoff, L., S. Rengasamy, G. Niezgoda, D. Sbarra, A. Pissano, and J. Furlong. 2021. Effects of volume, velocity, and composition on the resistance to synthetic blood penetration of N95 filtering facepiece respirators and other head/facial personal protective equipment. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Hygiene 18(2):84–89. https://doi.org/10.1080/15459624.2020.1854457 .
Ramsdell, K., Haas, E.J. & Furek, A. 2023. The Role of Reusable Respirator Protection Among Ambulance Companies: Lessons Learned During the EHMR Demonstration Project. Journal of Emergency Medical Services
Rengasamy, S., G. Niezgoda, and R. Shaffer. 2018. Flammability of respirators and other head and facial personal protective equipment. Journal of The International Society for Respiratory Protection 35(1):1–13.Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6198820/ (accessed June 7, 2024).
Rengasamy, S., D. Sbarra, and M. Horvatin. 2021. Do industrial N95 respirators meet the requirements to be used in healthcare? – A possible solution to respirator shortages during the next pandemic. American Journal of Infection Control 49(9):1194–1196. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajic.2021.03.014 .
Rengasamy, S., D. Sbarra, J. Nwoko, and R. Shaffer. 2015. Resistance to synthetic blood penetration of National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health-approved N95 filtering facepiece respirators and surgical N95 respirators. American Journal of Infection Control 43(11):1190–1196. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajic.2015.06.014 .
Shirley, M., Hawes Clever, L., Prezant, D.J., and Rupe, K. 2017. Respiratory Protection for Health Care Workers: Simplify Procedures and Improve Health. NAM Perspectives. Discussion Paper, National Academy of Medicine, Washington, DC. https://doi.org/10.31478/201703c .
Comments listed below are posted by individuals not associated with CDC, unless otherwise stated. These comments do not represent the official views of CDC, and CDC does not guarantee that any information posted by individuals on this site is correct, and disclaims any liability for any loss or damage resulting from reliance on any such information. Read more about our comment policy » .
Thank you for this excellent comprehensive compilation of regulatory information, research and advice on use of respirators in healthcare settings and related studies, which makes a really useful single-point citation for multiple relevant aspects.
It’s not strictly a regulatory aspect, but to improve its use as a one-stop information source, it may be worthwhile adding a section and references to cover the point that infectious and non-infectious airborne particles are removed equivalently by respirator filters. While to those versed in respirator technology, this is an obvious consequence of the laws of physics, I observe, too often, that even senior authorities and respected journals on the medical side have claimed that there is a difference between abilities of (what they state to be) “industrial” and “medical” respirator products to remove infectious particles – even when regulations, standards and manufacturer instructions never make a distinction. I recall that NIOSH has undertaken some studies on this aspect in the past. This false distinction may lead to assumption of equipment shortage even when capable products are available, or “blaming” respirator filter performance for unrelated issues.
And sorry, having grown up nearby, I need to note it’s “Southampton” not “South Hampton”.
Thank you very much.
Simon Smith PhD Volunteer Chair, Canadian Standards Biological Aerosols Working Group
Thank you for your comment noting the important point that “infectious and non-infectious airborne particles are removed equivalently by respirator filters”. Research confirms that whether a particle is living/infectious does not affect its ability to be filtered. NIOSH Approved filtering facepiece respirators can be used to protect workers from potentially harmful aerosol particles regardless of if they are virus, bacteria, dust, or even engineered nanoparticles. For more information, please see some of our additional resources on this topic below. And thank you for the note on Southampton. We have changed the blog text.
A Particle is a Particle (youtube.com)
Do We Need to Challenge Respirator Filters With Biological Aerosols? | Blogs | CDC
Harnish, D., B. Heimbuch, M. Husband, A. Lumley, K. Kinney, R. Shaffer et al.: Challenge of N95 Filtering Facepiece Respirators with Viable H1N1 Influenza Aerosols. Infection control and hospital epidemiology: the official journal of the Society of Hospital Epidemiologists of America 34(5): 494 (2013).
This is a great resource that has been needed for some time. We must remember where we came from and where we are now. The FDA performance requirement for a procedural/medical mask was primarily intended to protect against blood spurts at arterial pressure or flames from surgical instruments and protecting the patient means only exposing them to biocompatible materials as explained above. Procedural/medical masks were never intended to provide protection against a virus as they have no filtering capabilities nor do they provide a complete and effective seal. Fast forward to COVID-19, we finally realize the need to provide our HCW with a proper respirator that seals and filters. As noted above, many or most of the N95 FFR’s provide the fluid protection however as per OSHA guidance for PPE selection, you should wear a faceshield if a risk of splash to the face exists. In the end, a HCW works in a workplace and falls under OSHA regulations. In its simplest form, if a hazard exists in the workplace, the employer is required to eliminate the hazard or provide PPE to protect the workers against the hazard. COVID-19 has brought to the forefront, that the healthcare environment is a workplace and we must protect our HCW’s according to the OSHA requirements. NIOSH certified respirator products ensures the products are properly tested and will provide the protection needed whether its a construction site, foundry operation or healthcare environment. We must clear up the confusion so we are better prepared for the next event.
Thank you for your comment. The agencies will continue to work together to improve regulatory clarity.
These current and potential misconceptions about respiratory protection in healthcare not only contributed to respirator supply and access issues during the COVID pandemic, they may also prevent an effective response to the bird flu crisis.
Reporting today shows that bird flu cases across the country have more than doubled in the last few days.
A July 2022 New York Times investigation indicated that over 3600 HCW deaths were attributed to the failure to promote and put other more protective alternatives such as elastomeric respirators into widespread use during respirator shortages.
In January, National Nurses United, the largest nursing union in the country, reported that hospitals were once again facing N95 shortages. The union said that 3/10 nurses report a lack of supply of N95s with 1/5 nurses now going back to N95 reuse.
https://www.nationalnursesunited.org/ninth-covid-survey-nurses-face-worsening-working-conditions
Despite the practice of reusing N95s being banned, there is no corrective action taking place to discourage it from continuing. HCWs and their hospitals systems believing they can only use SN95 or N95 FFRs, not only continues to place HCWs at increased respiratory hazard exposure risk, it is also now putting the safety of farm workers at risk.
The lack of awareness on farms to alternative respiratory options including elastomeric respirators and PAPRs has already resulted in many farms giving up on using respiratory protection to protect workers.
It was reported in May that the reason farms are not using respiratory protection for bird flu is that after using N95s in those environments, they became wet and stopped working. PAPRs and elastomeric respirators are designed to be used in those wet environments and are already used for protection on farms such as for pesticides and grain dust so there is no reason they cannot be used for protection from bird flu.
At a webinar in June that included the CDC Director in charge of the bird flu response, farms were only told about N95s. In addition, farms were told that these types of protections weren’t really practical for workers to use despite being recommended by the CDC.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Gj1bkWoYGAQ
During the same webinar, it was mentioned that some farms are experiencing N95 shortages and that the way to deal with those shortages is to conserve them until farms are in hot zones.
The use of PAPRs and elastomeric respirators are meant to be safely reused for years so there is no excuse to recommend conserving PPE until the hazard has already started spreading in the community.
Promoting and using them would not only prevent the need to conserve PPE, it would better protect workers than N95s plus would provide a more cost effective option so money doesn’t become a barrier to protecting workers.
Studies show that N95s have many downsides compared to elastomeric respirators. While a worker performing a quick head movement with an N95 breaks their seal and exposes them to an airborne hazard 1/4 times, an elastomeric respirator never breaks the seal.
https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamanetworkopen/fullarticle/2777504
Another great benefit to elastomeric respirators is that there are source control options that filter the air in both directions so that not only HCWs can be better protected, their patients can be better protected as well.
https://www.fda.gov/news-events/fda-voices/elastomeric-respirator-innovations-play-critical-role-response-covid-19
It’s time to rethink what we use and promote in healthcare, not only for HCWs but also for patients. The current recommendations for patients with diseases such as measles is to provide them with surgical mask. Those masks allow airborne diseases to contaminate the hospital as patients are moved from one location to another.
Workers and other patients would not know that a measles patient has accidentally contaminated the air and that the virus could linger for hours after a patient has been moved from one area to another. This is why it is important to provide those patients with a source control elastomeric respirator.
If hospitals had a fit test machine, they could effectively ensure staff as well as infected patients could be properly fitted with an elastomeric at moment’s notice. Once an infected patient has been discharged, the elastomeric could then be cleaned and disinfected then put in storage until another patient would need it.
This would effectively put an end to hospital acquired infections and prevent a large source for community transmission. We don’t need to think outside the box to prevent transmission in hospitals, we simply need to think past N95s.
Thank you for your comment which clearly demonstrates your interest and passion about this topic. One of our goals is to increase the awareness about the suite of NIOSH Approved ® air purifying respirators (APRs) and their utility in the health care space. We appreciate your comments and continue to identify opportunities to increase awareness and improve clarity about the use of NIOSH Approved APRs in health care.
The insightful comments of Simon and Claudio emphasize the importance of clearing up misconceptions about respirator capabilities and ensuring clear, unified regulatory guidance across health care settings. Including information on the equivalence of infectious and non-infectious particle filtration would indeed add value to this resource, highlighting that respirators designed for various industries offer comparable protection against airborne hazards.
This discussion underscores the necessity of maintaining clarity in respirator regulations to protect health care workers effectively, especially during pandemics.
Best regards, Thomas Torkuma Yaaju
Thank you for continuing to work toward clarity on the topic of respiratory protection for healthcare workers. It seems that our need increases but our understanding does not. I would like to point out one misconception regarding the need for fluid resistance outside the surgical suite. Arterial lines are frequently placed, maintained, and accessed on patients in emergency departments and intensive care units. The arteriovenous fistulas of dialysis patients, puncture wounds and other traumas, and wound irrigation may all expose HCW to jetted blood and other potentially infectious materials. Additionally, as discussed in Rengasamy’s 2021 article about industrial respirators, “Outside the surgical setting, for routine patient care, these velocities also may simulate the velocities of virus-packed particles expelled from an infected person’s mouth and nose during cough and sneeze.” Beyond the cough and sneeze, tracheostomy care, oral care, dental procedures, intubations, and bronchoscopies may all be performed or attended in routine settings and require fluid resistance. I believe we need to expand our ability to protect all workers from exposure to the blood and body fluids of others in both respiratory and eye protection. The ability of a respirator to resist fluid splashes, sprays, and jets should be more clearly identified in labeling, packaging, and HCW education. Healthcare facilities should be encouraged by our federal safety partners and accreditation organizations to provide and promote a culture of safety for patients and staff through improved infection prevention strategies, including the correct, consistent use of PPE.
Thank you, Ms. Morgan for your thoughtful comments regarding the exposures outside of the surgical setting. Your examples clearly articulate the need for face shields or goggles in the environments you described. This information is very helpful as we continue to identify opportunities to provide clarity.
At our hospital, Infection Prevention staff and others are concerned about the potential to spread contaminated air from the respirator wearer (HCW) to the patient by way of exhaled/expelled air through the exhalation valve of the elastomeric respirator. I would request a reply that addresses this concern and provides supporting documentation that corroborates the position. Thank you very much and I appreciate your time and efforts.
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Update: March 15, 2024
The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) issued " Artificial Intelligence and Medical Products: How CBER, CDER, CDRH, and OCP are Working Together ," which outlines the agency's commitment and cross-center collaboration to protect public health while fostering responsible and ethical medical product innovation through Artificial Intelligence.
Download the Paper (PDF - 1.2 MB)
Artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning (ML) technologies have the potential to transform health care by deriving new and important insights from the vast amount of data generated during the delivery of health care every day. Medical device manufacturers are using these technologies to innovate their products to better assist health care providers and improve patient care. The complex and dynamic processes involved in the development, deployment, use, and maintenance of AI technologies benefit from careful management throughout the medical product life cycle.
What is artificial intelligence and machine learning, how are artificial intelligence and machine learning (ai/ml) transforming medical devices, how is the fda considering regulation of artificial intelligence and machine learning medical devices, additional resources.
Artificial Intelligence is a machine-based system that can, for a given set of human-defined objectives, make predictions, recommendations, or decisions influencing real or virtual environments. Artificial intelligence systems use machine- and human-based inputs to perceive real and virtual environments; abstract such perceptions into models through analysis in an automated manner; and use model inference to formulate options for information or action.
Machine Learning is a set of techniques that can be used to train AI algorithms to improve performance at a task based on data.
Some real-world examples of artificial intelligence and machine learning technologies include:
Additional information can be found at Safe, Secure, and Trustworthy Development and Use of Artificial Intelligence .
AI/ML technologies have the potential to transform health care by deriving new and important insights from the vast amount of data generated during the delivery of health care every day. Medical device manufacturers are using these technologies to innovate their products to better assist health care providers and improve patient care. One of the greatest benefits of AI/ML in software resides in its ability to learn from real-world use and experience, and its capability to improve its performance.
The FDA reviews medical devices through an appropriate premarket pathway, such as premarket clearance (510(k)), De Novo classification , or premarket approval . The FDA may also review and clear modifications to medical devices, including software as a medical device, depending on the significance or risk posed to patients of that modification. Learn the current FDA guidance for risk-based approach for 510(k) software modifications .
The FDA's traditional paradigm of medical device regulation was not designed for adaptive artificial intelligence and machine learning technologies. Many changes to artificial intelligence and machine learning-driven devices may need a premarket review.
On April 2, 2019, the FDA published a discussion paper " Proposed Regulatory Framework for Modifications to Artificial Intelligence/Machine Learning (AI/ML)-Based Software as a Medical Device (SaMD) - Discussion Paper and Request for Feedback " that describes a potential approach to premarket review for artificial intelligence and machine learning-driven software modifications.
In January 2021, the FDA published the " Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning Software as a Medical Device Action Plan " or "AI/ML SaMD Action Plan." Consistent with the action plan, the FDA later issued the following documents:
On March 15, 2024 the FDA published the " Artificial Intelligence and Medical Products: How CBER, CDER, CDRH, and OCP are Working Together ," which represents the FDA's coordinated approach to AI. This paper is intended to complement the " AI/ML SaMD Action Plan " and represents a commitment between the FDA's Center for Biologics Evaluation and Research (CBER), the Center for Drug Evaluation and Research (CDER), and the Center for Devices and Radiological Health (CDRH), and the Office of Combination Products (OCP), to drive alignment and share learnings applicable to AI in medical products more broadly.
If you have questions about artificial intelligence, machine learning, or other digital health topics, ask a question about digital health regulatory policies .
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The United States Department of Agriculture Cooperative State Research, Education, and Extension Service (USDA-CSREES) identified agricultural equipment on public roads as one of twelve priorities for action in the national agenda for agricultural safety and health. While issues relating to operating agricultural equipment on public roads are complex, this guide presents a review that focused on rural and urban traffic interface, state and federal regulations, higher speed tractors, and transport of workers on public roadways with farm equipment. The document provides guidance to farm equipment manufacturers, standards setting organizations, and government agencies in terms of engineering standards, policy, safety education programs, and future research needs. The guide presents an analysis of crash types, contributing factors, crash report terminology and accuracy, and historic lack of reporting for crashes that may have involved agricultural equipment, and serves as a starting point for improving data collection, conducting additional research, and solving safety concerns for agricultural workers.
The guide is free of charge at the following link: Agricultural Equipment on Public Roads
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On Tuesday, 23 July 2024, GN. R.5048 of 2024 was published in Government Gazette No. 50960, in terms of which the Minister of Employment and Labour has, under section 43 of the Occupational Health and Safety Act, 1993 promulgated the Explosives Regulations, 2024 (" the Regulations ").
The Regulations repeal the Explosives Regulations, 2002 and, in terms of regulation 2(2), applies to any employer, self-employed person or user who operates an explosives workplace for the purpose of manufacturing, testing, storing or using explosives.
The Regulations provide for, amongst others, the following:
The Regulations further introduce the Explosives Regulations, 2024: Radio Frequency Device Guidelines (" the Guidelines ") (regulation 6(3)(c) of the Regulations). The Guidelines make provision for, amongst others, the condition that every explosives manager intending to introduce radio frequency devices inside the danger area shall notify the chief inspector within 90 working days of the promulgation of the Regulations.
Click here to view a copy of the notice.
Is the service of a notice arguing that the particulars of claim is vague and embarrassing a valid response to a notice of bar *, africa regulatory round-up edition 3 : 2023 *, are contractual waivers impacted by non-variation clauses *, namibia: petroleum in the age of esg *, africa business in brief - issue 555 *.
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Regulations. The U.S. Department of Health and Human Services codified its regulations for the protection of human subjects in research in the code of federal regulations at 45 C.F.R. 46, which includes five subparts. Below, readers can access the regulatory text of subpart A (the Common Rule), including the 2018 revisions to the Common Rule ...
OHRP has published a variety of policy and regulatory guidance materials to assist the research community in conducting ethical research that is in compliance with the HHS regulations. These include guidance documents and frequently asked questions (FAQs) addressing various topics, findings in the form of OHRP letters addressing regulatory issues, and other media including decision tree ...
The Research Safety First Initiative is a coordinated by the U-M Office of the Vice President for Research (OVPR), the Department of Environment, Health & Safety (EHS), and the Office of the Provost to enhance and strengthen the culture of research safety across the University of Michigan campus. The goal of the program is to facilitate safe ...
The Office for Human Research Protections (OHRP) provides leadership in the protection of the rights, welfare, and wellbeing of human subjects involved in research conducted or supported by the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS). OHRP is part of the Office of the Assistant Secretary for Health in the Office of the Secretary of ...
Once a risk assessment has been completed, the final step before developing a risk management plan pertaining to OHS is understanding pertinent OHS standards. Leadership at institutions where nonhuman primates are used in research, teaching, or testing not only must be aware of workplace hazards and associated risks when developing their OHSP but also must be knowledgeable about and compliant ...
NIOSH Regulations. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) is responsible for conducting research and making recommendations for the prevention of work-related injury and illness. Although NIOSH is generally characterized as a non-regulatory agency, guidance and recommendations issued by NIOSH are often used by other ...
B. Regulatory Framework………………………………………… 143 . 1. Federal……………………………………………………… 143
CONFLICT OF INTEREST. A number of organizations have defined COIs in research and medicine. The Institute of Medicine has defined COI broadly as a set of circumstances resulting in a risk that a person's professional judgments or actions regarding a primary interest will be unduly influenced by a secondary interest. 1 The Public Health Service (PHS) has taken a narrower view and specifically ...
The passage of the Occupational Safety and Health Act of 1970 brought unprecedented changes in US workplaces, and the activities of the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) have contributed to a significant reduction in work-related deaths, injuries, and illnesses. Despite this, millions of workers are injured annually, and thousands killed. To reduce the toll, OSHA needs ...
The Research Institute is committed to the health and safety of our staff. As such, the mission of the Office of Research Safety (ORS) is to ensure compliance with all applicable regulations. ORS oversees the development, implementation, and administration of the biological, laboratory, and chemical safety programs while working closely with ...
The OSH Act of 1970 was enacted to assure safe and healthful working conditions for working individuals. This includes: Authorizing enforcement of the standards developed under the Act. Assisting and encouraging states in their efforts to assure safe and healthful working conditions. Providing for research, information, education, and training ...
The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) amended their regulations in 2011 so that employers are no longer required to notify and transfer records to NIOSH. See 76 Federal Register 33590, 33598 for more information about the change, and OSHA's 1910.1020 page for the current requirements.
A sustainable safety culture in research is built on leadership engagement, hazard awareness, enhanced communication, and behavior changes. The Laboratory Safety and Chemical Hygiene Plan provides information and guidance to help conduct laboratory work safely and in compliance with environmental health and safety regulations and University policy.
Responsibilities. Adherence to good health and safety practices and compliance with applicable health and safety regulations are a responsibility of all faculty, staff, and students. Line responsibility for good health and safety practice begins with the supervisor in the workplace, laboratory or classroom and proceeds upward through the levels ...
OSHA standards are published in Title 29 of the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) and are divided into separate standards for General Industry, Construction, and Maritime. ... Occupational Safety and Health Administration 200 Constitution Ave NW Washington, DC 20210 1-800-321-OSHA 1-800-321-6742 www.osha.gov. Federal Government White House ...
Without pressure of federal regulations and enforcement to assure minimum standards, there is potential for work to offer fewer benefits, lower pay, ... an evidence-based method to identify worker safety and health research priorities. Annals of Work Exposures and Health, 63 (4) (2019), pp. 375-385. Crossref View in Scopus Google Scholar.
The first ever interdisciplinary handbook in the field, this vital resource offers wide-ranging analysis of health research regulation. The chapters confront gaps between documented law and research in practice, and draw on legal, ethical and social theories about what counts as robust research regulation to make recommendations for future directions.
Finally, occupational health and safety regulation as a research field is characterised by methodological diversity, with researchers drawing on various types of both quantitative and qualitative methods to gain insight into the complexities of regulatory interventions. ... and/or compliance with occupational health and safety regulations. The ...
The Regulatory Flexibility Act, 5 U.S.C. 610, directs HHS to periodically review regulations that have a significant economic impact upon a substantial number of small entities ("SEISNOSE"). Content created by Assistant Secretary for Public Affairs (ASPA) Content last reviewed April 28, 2021. The Department of Health and Human Services (HHS ...
Fair Labor Standards Act. FLSA contains rules concerning the employment of young workers, those under the age of 18, and is administered and enforced by DOL's Wage and Hour Division. Intended to protect the health and well-being of youth in America, the FLSA contains minimum age restrictions for employment, restrictions on the times of day ...
General Safety and Health References. Due to the increasing complexity of occupational health and safety problems, a variety of resources may be needed to address specific issues. Reference Texts. Reference Texts. Includes authoritative textbooks that remain a primary source of information. Their major disadvantage is the time required to write ...
All NIOSH Workplace Safety and Health Topics, sorted by topic name. May 12, 2024. Extramural Programs ... Search the NIOSHTIC-2 bibliographic database for all NIOSH-supported research publications and produ... June 13, 2023. NIOSH Newsroom. NIOSH Newsroom contains links to Press Releases, Updates and Features. June 16, 2024. NIOSH Science Blog ...
The Education and Care Services National Regulations (National Regulations) support the National Law by providing detail on a range of operational requirements for an education and care service including: the National Quality Standard (schedule 1) application processes for provider and service approval. setting out the rating scale.
Clearly, there are a multitude of regulations that impact clinical research, and it's vital to stay up to date on the latest industry developments. To get the latest information and insights on a broad spectrum of topics, Health Care Compliance Association® (HCCA®) invites you to join us for our 28th Annual Compliance Institute, April 14-17.
A Discussion Paper, Streamlining Regulatory Oversight of Respirators Used in Health Care Settings will Improve Worker Protection, was recently published in the National Academy of Medicine's NAM Perspectives journal by respiratory experts outside of the federal government. This paper highlights continued confusion amongst interested parties including health care organizations and ...
Website of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). EPA's mission is to protect human health and the environment.
Update: March 15, 2024. Artificial Intelligence and Medical Products: How CBER, CDER, CDRH, and OCP are Working Together. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) issued "Artificial ...
The United States Department of Agriculture Cooperative State Research, Education, and Extension Service (USDA-CSREES) identified agricultural equipment on public roads as one of twelve priorities for action in the national agenda for agricultural safety and health. While issues relating to operating agricultural equipment on public roads are complex, this guide presents a review that focused ...
R.5048 of 2024 was published in Government Gazette No. 50960, in terms of which the Minister of Employment and Labour has, under section 43 of the Occupational Health and Safety Act, 1993 ...
programs, providing safety and health specialists, and developing information on the proper use of safety and health equipment. The OSH Act intends for NIOSH-produced research to inform OSHA safety and health standards. To better understand the OSH Act, the following sections explore the reasons why it . came to be. OSH Act at 50: A Special ...