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Searchable Case Studies for Climate Change Adaptation

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Communities across the United States are anticipating, planning, and preparing for the impacts of climate change. Below are examples of municipal, state, or tribal communities that have taken action.

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Description	Area of Concern	Level	NCA	Priority
See how Rhode Island helps municipalities address climate vulnerabilities in wastewater treatment facilities through a statewide financing program.	Water Quality, Water Utility, Getting Started, Sector Specific Adaptation Planning	Local, State	NE	1
See how the Alaskan Native village of Shaktoolik funded the development of a community shelter in response to coastal climate risks.	Water Quality, Water Utility, Ecosystem Protection, Water and Public Health, Getting Started, Comprehensive Adaptation Planning, Environmental Justice	Local, State, Tribal	AK	2
Learn how New York State provides matching grants to communities to implement climate adaptation projects.	Water Quality, Extreme Heat and Public Health, Water and Public Health, Getting Started, Comprehensive, Sector Specific, Environmental Justice	State, Local	NE	1
Learn how Hawai'i is preparing its highways for climate impacts.	Sector Specific, Getting Started	State	PI	1
Learn how Virginia plans address the state’s coastal climate vulnerabilities while prioritizing environmental justice.	Water Quality, Water Utility, Ecosystem Protection, Water and Public Health, Getting Started, Environmental Justice, Comprehensive Adaptation Planning	Local, State	SE	1
See how Washington State’s vulnerability assessment aims to protect its transportation system from a changing climate.	Water Quality, Getting Started, Sector Specific	State	NW	1
Learn how State government and a nonprofit partnered to support urban forestry initiatives, improve tree equity, and enhance climate resilience.	Water Quality, Air and Public Health, Extreme Heat and Public Health, Water and Public Health, Environmental Justice	Local, State	NE	2
Learn how New Hampshire’s regional Rockingham Planning Commission helps communities prioritize resources to respond to sea-level rise.	Sea Level Rise	Local	NE	0
See how several Northeast Indiana counties—Noble, LaGrange, Steuben, and DeKalb—developed debris management plans with the Northeast Indiana Solid Waste Management District (NISWMD).	Waste, Disaster Debris	Local	MW	0
Learn how King County, Washington is helping municipalities address climate change in local government services, including solid waste management.	Sector Specific Adaptation Planning, Waste	Local	NW	0
See how federal, state, tribal, county, and city governments are working to meet water supply and ecosystem restoration needs of the Yakima River Basin.	Drought, Water Quality, Water Management, Ecosystem Protection, Change in Fish	Local	NW	0
See how Lake County implemented a no-net-loss wetland acreage policy with a net gain in wetland function goal to improve their water quality and flood storage capacity.	Water Management, Ecosystem Protection, Wetland Protection	Local	MW	0
See how the city of Bridgeport recognized vulnerability to the impacts of climate change on IAQ as part of its BGreen initiative.	Indoor Air, Air and Public Health	Local	NE	0
See the process by which the Boston city government assessed vulnerability and developed an adaptation plan to respond to sea level rise and other climate risks.	Comprehensive Adaptation Planning, Sea Level Rise	Local	NE	0
See how Central New Mexico is working to improve air quality by accounting for future climate change in the city’s transportation plans and ongoing projects.	Sector Specific Adaptation Planning, Air and Public Health, Outdoor Air Quality,	State	SW	0
See how the Washington, DC Water and Sewer Authority will use green infrastructure to reduce combined sewer overflows, maintain water quality, and provide adaptive flexibility to changing climate conditions.	Stormwater Runoff, Flooding and Storms, Smart Growth, Water Quality, Water Utility	Local	NE	0
See how a wastewater utility in Washington, DC is protecting their facility by building a sea wall that accounts for higher river elevations and changing climate conditions.	Flooding and Storms, Sea Level Rise, Water Utility	Local	NE	0
See how Boston's Deer Island Water Treatment Facility redesigned their facility to account for expected sea levels and routinely evaluates performance under the best-available climate science.	Sea Level Rise, Water Utility	Local	NE	0
See how Manchester-by-the-sea used a EPA tool to help assess drinking water system vulnerability to sea level rise.	Water Utility, Sea Level Rise, Sector Specific Adaptation Planning	Local	NE	0
See how Iowa City, IA responded to riverine flooding risk by decommissioning a vulnerable facility and expanding service outside the floodplain.	Flooding and Storms, Water Utility	Local	MW	0
See how Iowa City, IA used smart growth strategies to increase climate change resiliency by removing vulnerable structures and managing stormwater along the riverfront.	Stormwater Runoff, Water Quality	Local	MW	0
See how Chicago, IL is improving climate resilience to extreme heat events by engaging vulnerable communities and improving disaster response protocols.	Air and Public Health, Environmental Justice	Local	MW	0
See how Chicago, IL assessed public health vulnerability to extreme heat events and is adapting by utilizing green infrastructure to reduce urban heat island hotspots in anticipation of future climate risk.	Extreme Heat and Public Health	Local	MW	0
See how Salt Lake City is implementing strategies that are reducing air pollutants in anticipation of increasing threats from climate change.	Outdoor Air Quality, Air and Public Health	Local	SW	0
See how a Tampa, FL water utility reduced vulnerability and evaluated climate threats to sea level rise exacerbated saltwater intrusion.	Source Water Impacts, Water Utility, Saltwater Intrusion, Drought	Local	SE	0
See how California is improving resiliency to particulate matter threats by planning to adapt to increased climate threats from wildfires.	Air and Public Health, Outdoor Air Quality, Sector Specific Adaptation Planning	State	SW	0
See how South Florida counties and municipalities partnered to develop a comprehensive sea level rise assessment.	Saltwater Intrusion, Water Utility, Sea Level Rise	Regional	SE	0
See how New York City, NY assessed climate risk from extreme heat and is undertaking efforts to reduce current and future vulnerability.	Air and Public Health, Sector Specific Adaptation Planning, Extreme Heat and Public Health	Local	NE	0
See how Camden, NJ water utility used an EPA tool to assess the climate risks from projected precipitation increases and vulnerability of greater combined sewer overflows.	Stormwater Runoff, Flooding and Storms, Water Utility, Water Quality	Local	NE	0
See how Pennsylvania is planning to adapt to climate threats to water quality criteria and protect ecosystem health, particularly for cold water fisheries.	Change in Fish, Erosion and Sedimentation, Stormwater Runoff, Ecosystem Protection, Water Quality	State	NE	0
See how a water utility in Washington state partnered with experts to redesign and rebuild a water utility to adapt to sea level rise and other changing climate conditions.	Source Water Impacts, Flooding and Storms, Drought, Water Utility, Saltwater Intrusion, Adaptation Planning	Local	NW	0
See how Charlotte Harbor National Estuary Program and Southwest Florida Regional Planning Council assessed the sea level rise climate vulnerability of marshes and wetlands and identified potential adaptation strategies.	Estuary, Wetland Protection, Water, Ecosystem Protection	Regional	SE	0
See how a water utility in Fredericktown, MO used an EPA tool to assess climate vulnerability for their source water from drought, erosion and sedimentation.	Erosion and Sedimentation, Source Water Impacts, Flooding and Storms, Water Utility, Water Quality, Drought	Local	MW	0
See how the state of Maryland used a modeling tool to assess the vulnerability of salt marshes to projected sea level rise.	Wetland Protection, Ecosystem Protection, Water	State	NE	0
See how Minnesota has assessed projected public health risks from climate change across the state.	Water and Public Health, Air and Public Health, Waste and Public Health, Sector Specific Adaptation Planning	State	MW	0
See how the Southern Nevada Water Authority used an EPA tool to better assess climate vulnerability to drought and harmful algal blooms.	Algal Blooms, Source Water Impacts, Drought, Water Utility	Regional	SW	0
See how New York City has used its vulnerability assessment to anticipate and prepare for changing conditions by using adaptation strategies to reduce extreme heat vulnerability.	Air and Public Health, Extreme Heat and Public Health	Local	NE	0
See how Massachusetts has surveyed local health departments to assess vulnerability to expected climate changes.	Water and Public Health, Air and Public Health, Waste and Public Health, Sector Specific Adaptation Planning	State	NE	0
See how American Cyanamid Superfund Site responded to disaster by rebuilding facilities to account for expected climate changes.	Waste, Contaminated Site	Local	NE	0
See how the San Juan Bay Estuary Program assessed climate risk to the bay and identified adaptation strategies to reduce ecosystem vulnerability from changing climate conditions.	Estuary, Wetland Protection, Ecosystem Protection, Water, Sector Specific Adaptation Planning, Environmental Justice	Local	SE	0
See how the Metropolitan Washington Council of Governments developed an adaptation plan with policy options for the consideration of its local jurisdictions.	Comprehensive Adaptation Planning	Regional	NE	0
The Minnehaha Creek Watershed District, responsible for Minneapolis, Minnesota, considered climate projections to better understand climate threats and vulnerability to stormwater management capabilities.	Stormwater Runoff, Flooding and Storms, Water Utility, Water Quality	Regional	MW	0
Barre City, Vermont used the Analysis of Brownfield Cleanup Alternatives Checklist to better understand the climate vulnerability of a redevelopment project on a brownfield site.	Waste, Contaminated Site	Local	NE	0
See how the Quinault Indian Nation is considering climate (sea level rise, storm surge, and river flooding) and non-climate (tsunami) risks together to form a village relocation plan.	Comprehensive Adaptation Planning, Sea Level Rise, Flooding and Storms, Environmental Justice	Tribal	NW	0
See how a simple checklist helped Augusta, GA, better understand the climate vulnerability of a Brownfields redevelopment project.	Waste, Contaminated Site	Local	SE	0
See how San Francisco is working to transform brownfields property into greenspace.	Waste, Contaminated Site	Local	SW	0

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Open access
Published: 19 March 2019

Climate change adaptation in South Africa: a case study on the role of the health sector

Matthew F. Chersich ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-4320-9168 1 &
Caradee Y. Wright 2

Globalization and Health volume 15 , Article number: 22 ( 2019 ) Cite this article

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Globally, the response to climate change is gradually gaining momentum as the impacts of climate change unfold. In South Africa, it is increasingly apparent that delays in responding to climate change over the past decades have jeopardized human life and livelihoods. While slow progress with mitigation, especially in the energy sector, has garnered much attention, focus is now shifting to developing plans and systems to adapt to the impacts of climate change.

We applied systematic review methods to assess progress with climate change adaptation in the health sector in South Africa. This case study provides useful lessons which could be applied in other countries in the African region, or globally. We reviewed the literature indexed in PubMed and Web of Science, together with relevant grey literature. We included articles describing adaptation interventions to reduce the impact of climate change on health in South Africa. All study designs were eligible. Data from included articles and grey literature were summed thematically.

Of the 820 publications screened, 21 were included, together with an additional xx papers. Very few studies presented findings of an intervention or used high-quality research designs. Several policy frameworks for climate change have been developed at national and local government levels. These, however, pay little attention to health concerns and the specific needs of vulnerable groups. Systems for forecasting extreme weather, and tracking malaria and other infections appear well established. Yet, there is little evidence about the country’s preparedness for extreme weather events, or the ability of the already strained health system to respond to these events. Seemingly, few adaptation measures have taken place in occupational and other settings. To date, little attention has been given to climate change in training curricula for health workers.

Conclusions

Overall, the volume and quality of research is disappointing, and disproportionate to the threat posed by climate change in South Africa. This is surprising given that the requisite expertise for policy advocacy, identifying effective interventions and implementing systems-based approaches rests within the health sector. More effective use of data, a traditional strength of health professionals, could support adaptation and promote accountability of the state. With increased health-sector leadership, climate change could be reframed as predominately a health issue, one necessitating an urgent, adequately-resourced response. Such a shift in South Africa, but also beyond the country, may play a key role in accelerating climate change adaptation and mitigation.

The impacts of global changes in climate are rapidly escalating in South Africa. Unless concerted action is taken to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, temperatures may rise by more than 4 °C over the southern African interior by 2100, and by more than 6 °C over the western, central and northern parts of South Africa [ 1 , 2 ]. Extreme weather events are the most noticeable effects to date, especially the drought in the Western Cape and wildfires, but rises in vector- and waterborne diseases are also gaining prominence. Global warming, which manifests as climate variability, has already been implicated in increased transmission of malaria, Rift Valley Fever, schistosomiasis, cholera and other diarrheal pathogens, and Avian influenza in the country [ 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 , 10 ]. Studies have documented the considerable impact of high ambient temperatures on mortality in the country, with mortality rises of 0.9% per 1 °C above certain thresholds, and considerably higher levels in the elderly and young children [ 11 , 12 ]. Food security is under threat, with, for example, crop yields likely to decline in several provinces, with concomitant loss of livestock [ 13 ]. Moreover, any negative impacts of climate change on the country’s economy will have major implications for people’s access to food, which is largely contingent on affordability. Food access is already tenuous given the existing levels of poverty and as ownership of arable land is highly inequitable, reflecting the particular history of the country [ 14 ].

The impact of rises in temperature are especially marked in occupational settings, particularly in the mining, agriculture and outdoor service sectors [ 15 , 16 , 17 ]. Impacts, including measurable mortality effects, are heightened in those living in informal settlements, where houses are often constructed of sheets of corrugated iron [ 18 , 19 , 20 ]. In addition, heat increments are pronounced in many schools and health facilities as these have not been constructed to withstand current and future temperature levels [ 21 , 22 ]. Importantly, all the impacts of climate change affect mental health, in a nation where already one sixth of the population have a mental health disorder [ 23 ].

While climate mitigation efforts, especially a reduction in carbon-based power production, have garnered much attention, focus is shifting to more direct, and shorter or ‘near’ term actions to counter the impacts of climate change [ 24 , 25 , 26 ]. These actions – commonly called adaptation measures – range from building the resilience of the population and health system, to preparing for health impacts of extreme weather events and to reducing the effects of incremental rises in heat in the workplace and other settings [ 27 ].

Most importantly, the effectiveness of adaptation pivots on reducing levels of poverty and inequities, especially in women and other vulnerable groups. Simply put: if an individual’s or household’s socio-economic status is robust, they will have a greater ability to withstand shocks induced by climate change. In South Africa, however, about a quarter of the population are unemployed and over half live below the poverty line [ 28 ]. Poverty reduction initiatives, such as the highly successful social grants system [ 29 ], thus lie at the heart of health adaptation. These initiatives already reach 17.5 million vulnerable people in South Africa [ 30 ], could be further extended to counter balance the disproportionate effects of climate change on vulnerable groups [ 31 ]. Equally, having a resilient health system is central to effective climate change adaptation.

While health professionals can play a critical role in advocating for stronger mitigation efforts such as a shift from brown to green energy (the government envisages that in 2030, still two thirds of energy production in the country will be coal-based [ 32 ]), the contribution of the health sector mostly centres around climate change adaptation. Several features of an effective health-sector adaptation response bear mention [ 33 ]. Firstly, national- and local-level policy frameworks and plans are required, supported by adequate resources. In particular, emergency incident response plans are needed for events such as heat waves, wildfires, floods, extreme water scarcity and infectious disease outbreaks [ 34 ]. These response plans set out the procedures to follow in the case of such events and the responsibilities of different actors. Secondly, communication is a key component of adaptation strategies, targeting a wide range of audiences, and using social and other media. Long-term communications strategies, such as “Heat education” campaigns, can raise awareness of the health risks of heat waves, and help prepare individuals and communities to self-manage their responses to increased heat [ 35 ]. Then, more short-term response communication is needed when an actual extreme weather event is forecast, making the public aware of an impending period of risk and what steps are needed to ameliorate that risk. Thirdly, the effectiveness of adaptation interventions rests on the strength of data systems and surveillance. Aside from providing warnings of extreme weather events, heightened surveillance is required of diseases associated with environmental factors, together with concerted efforts to systematically document the effectiveness of adaptation responses and to identify opportunities for improving services.

There is clearly a real opportunity to bring the credible voice and considerable resources of the health sector to bear on climate change policies and programmes [ 36 , 37 , 38 ]. It is important to assess the extent to which this is occurring and gaps in this response. Some reviews have examined this issue in South Africa [ 39 , 40 , 41 ], but none have done so recently, or employed systematic review methodology. This study fills that gap and presents lessons from the response in South Africa that might be applied in other countries and, indeed, globally [ 42 ]. In recent decades, South Africa has played a leading role in tackling public health issues affecting the African region, especially in the HIV field. The country has the potential, drawing on its research and programme expertise, to play a similar role in climate change adaptation, galvanising action in other parts of the continent. Thus, while the impacts of climate are somewhat unique to each country and even within different parts of a country, lessons drawn from this case study may provide useful insights for other countries in the region.

The paper is divided into two thematic areas. The first covers policy frameworks relating to climate change adaptation, as well as data monitoring and surveillance of climate change adaptation in the country. The second reviews the level of preparedness and actions already taken for extreme weather events, rises in temperature and infectious disease outbreaks. Topics indirectly related to health, such as food security, are not addressed in the paper, though remain of key importance.

Review methods

We systematically reviewed literature indexed in PubMed (Medline) and Web of Science for articles that address climate change adaptation in South Africa. Full details and the PRISMA Flow Chart are described elsewhere [ 43 ]. The Pubmed search strategy included free text terms and controlled vocabulary terms (MeSH codes), specifically: (((((“South Africa”[MeSH]) OR (“South Africa”[Title/Abstract]) OR (“Southern Africa*”[Title/Abstract]))) AND “last 10 years”[PDat])) AND (((“global warming”[Title/Abstract] OR “global warming”[MeSH] OR climatic*[Title/Abstract] OR “climate change”[Title/Abstract] OR “climate change”[MeSH] OR “Desert Climate”[MeSH] OR “El Nino-Southern Oscillation”[MeSH] OR Microclimate[MeSH] OR “Tropical Climate”[MeSH])). This strategy was translated into a Web of Science search.

In total, 820 titles and abstracts were screened by a single reviewer after removal of 34 duplicate items. To be included, articles had to describe adaptation interventions to reduce the impact of climate change on health in South Africa. All study designs were eligible and no time limits were imposed. We excluded articles that were not in English ( n = 3), only covered animals or plants ( n = 345), were not on South Africa ( n = 273), were unrelated to health ( n = 57) or to climate change ( n = 56), or were only on climate change impact ( n = 34) or mitigation ( n = 31). In total, we screened 86 full text articles for eligibility, 21 of which were included (Fig. 1 ). We also included literature located through searches of article references (one additional paper) or through targeted internet searches. Thereafter, we extracted data on the characteristics of the included articles, including their study design and outcome measures (Table 1 ). In analysis, we grouped studies on similar topics and, where possible, attempted to highlight commonalities or differences between the study findings. Policy documents were located by searching the website of the National Department of Environmental Affairs ( https://www.environment.gov.za ) and the National Department of Health ( http://www.health.gov.za/ ), and by asking experts familiar with these policies in South Africa.

PRISMA Flow Diagram for Review of health-related adaptation to Climate Change in South Africa

Engagement of the health sector in climate change policies, planning and data systems

We located 14 journal articles on health sector engagement. With these limited number of records, results are presented as a narrative, rather than as a comparison of findings in different parts of the country or across population groups. We first discuss national and local policies and practices, and then turn to assess the climate and health monitoring systems in the country.

In recent years, the national government has developed a series of documents covering key legislative and strategic aspects of adaptation. In 2018, the government released a draft of the National Climate Change Response White Paper which sets out the different ways in which climate change considerations can be integrated within all sectors, including health. This document updates the 2011 White Paper on this topic. More recently, the draft National Climate Change Bill was made available for comment [ 24 ]. Little reference is made to human health and scanty detail is provided on actual implementation of the policies. Additionally, in 2017, the second draft of the South African National Adaptation Strategy was made open for public comment [ 25 ]. This is a ten-year plan, which describes key strategic areas, with measurable outcomes. The strategy acts as a reference point for all climate change adaptation efforts in South Africa, providing overarching guidance across the various sectors of the economy. As such, it seeks to ensure that different levels of government and the private sector integrate and reflect climate change adaptation. The implementation priorities for health are listed as water and sanitation, early warning systems for effective public health interventions during extreme weather events, and occupational health.

While national policies set the stage for lower levels of government and funding prioritisation, much of the actual planning for climate change adaptation occurs at the provincial and local government level. Most importantly, each local area government is charged with developing an Integrated Development Plan every five years, involving many sectors, including health [ 44 ]. Health implications of climate change are mentioned in some of these plans, but not all [ 45 , 46 , 47 ]. A survey of Environmental Health Practitioners ( n = 48), who are at the forefront of implementing these plans, provides insights of the degree to which climate change priorities have been incorporated within these plans [ 48 ]. Though almost all felt that they should play a supportive or leading role in addressing climate change, only half had a budget allocated for climate change and health-related work, and only a third had ever participated in climate change-related projects. Another study involving fieldwork in a range of settings in South Africa reported that, for climate change adaptation plans to be successful, local communities need to be more involved in their design and implementation [ 49 ]. A further study in eThekwini Municipality, KwaZulu-Natal Province noted that few climate change advocates had emerged among local politicians and civil servants, and that decisions made at the local government level seldom took climate change issues into account [ 50 ]. A case study of the Integrated Development Plan in the same municipality examined the working relations between the local government, civil society and private sector actors on climate change initiatives, forming a ‘network governance’ structure [ 51 ]. Having a ‘network’ helped local government shift from ruling by regulations and authority, to a ‘softer approach’, one that ‘enabled’ solutions to climate challenges. For their part, however, the private sector found it challenging to incorporate climate-sensitive actions into their modus operandi and may require financial incentives to adopt mitigation and adaptation measures. Concerns remain that the private sector - and indeed the public sector – view environmental issues as constraints to profit and development, rather than as contributors [ 50 ].

While it appears that national and local policy and planning frameworks can influence programmes and funding allocations, at least to some extent, their impact needs to be monitored closely, using appropriate indicators. These data can help decision-makers to identify programmatic areas to target, researchers to analyse and benchmark programme performance, and civil society and communities to gauge service provision in their area. The growing and shifting burden of climate-sensitive diseases, however, means that the district- and national-level indicators currently used for monitoring disease and service provision may be less relevant in this new era.

A review in 2014 emphasized the need for developing new tools for incorporating data from climate monitoring systems, for example temperature and rainfall, into Demographic Health Information Systems (DHIS) in South Africa, and vice versa [ 39 ]. The tremendous potential of integrated weather-health data is, however, constrained by differences in spatial, temporal and quality of these respective data sources. While weather data are recorded hourly and in small geographical units, [ 52 , 53 ] health data are often only available in monthly units and at district level. Analysing climate data at those resolutions results in a considerable loss of information and thus predictive ability. Challenges in collecting health data – often paper-based – means that these data are often of poorer quality than climate data, though deficiencies in climate data are not uncommon in South Africa [ 12 ]. Despite these limitations, combining climate and health data can assist with seasonal forecasting, and early warning systems for infectious diseases and other climate-related conditions.

The Infectious Diseases Early Warning System project (iDEWS) project, involving Southern African and Japanese researchers, aims to advance all these efforts, and to develop early warning system for a wide range of infectious diseases, based on climate predictions [ 54 ]. Such applications have been developed to support malaria programming in the country [ 55 ], where temporal patterns in temperature, rainfall and sea surface temperature can forecast changes in malaria incidence and the geographical expansion of disease outbreaks [ 3 , 56 , 57 ]. Further, as shown in a study in Cape Town, close monitoring of ambient temperature, can predict spikes in incidence of diarrhoeal disease, allowing health services to prepare for rises in admissions and outpatient visits [ 9 ]. Similarly, another study across several provinces noted that anomalous high rainfall precedes outbreaks of Rift Valley fever by one month and that this finding can be used to forewarn epidemics in affected areas of the country [ 58 ].

In addition to applications around infectious diseases, health and climate data are analysed in multiple-risk systems, such as the South African Risk and Vulnerability Atlas (SARVA) [ 59 ]. This spatial database allow for visualisation of the drivers, exposures, vulnerabilities, risks and hazards across different locations. SARVA provides more than just data outputs, however, and has developed a range of practical climate services for the agriculture sector, for example. Additionally, Heat–Health Warning Systems in the country, based on increasingly sophisticated meteorological systems, have long lead-times, and can alert decision-makers and the public of forthcoming extreme heat events, triggering a graded set of pre-specified actions [ 52 , 60 ].

While adaptation is classically defined as the ability to deal with change, it also encompasses the capacity to learn from it. Doing so requires investments in research and analytical systems, especially among public health practitioners. Of concern, a collaboration across several countries, including South Africa, noted that climate change and environmental health, in general, have not been mainstreamed within curricula at medical schools [ 61 ]. The group noted that, given the limited capacity in this area, international assistance maybe required to develop curricula and teaching materials. Other studies in have documented considerable gaps in knowledge on climate change among university students across disciplines and the limited ability of these future leaders to engage with others on the topic [ 62 , 63 ]. Overall, the research outputs by South Africa scientists on climate change has grown (around 600 academic publications in 2015), but only 3%, or about 20, of these publications make reference to health [ 64 ]. Of more concern, a report of the Lancet Countdown on health and climate change group, using a narrower search strategy, located only about 20 papers related to climate change and health in the whole of Africa in 2017, constituting well under 10% of the total 300 such papers worldwide [ 65 ]. Reviews have also noted that little interdisciplinary work between meteorology and health has been done [ 66 ]. But, perhaps most importantly, research investigating the performance of interventions to reduce the health impacts of climate change are largely absent [ 40 , 67 ].

Response to extreme weather events and gradual increments in temperature

We located only 8 studies applicable to this section of the review, limiting our ability to provide a comprehensive analysis on the topic at hand. This section covers disaster preparedness and responses, including of the health system, and the population groups, occupations and housing types most vulnerable to heat exposure.

The government of South Africa has developed Disaster Management Frameworks and a National Disaster Management Centre, [ 25 , 68 ] whose responsibilities include directing the country’s responses to disasters and strengthening cooperation amongst different stakeholders. There are, however, concerns that disaster risk reduction systems operate in isolation from other climate change adaptation initiatives in the country, rather than drawing on the strengths of each group [ 69 ]. While there are robust ‘Heat Health’ warning systems in the country, it appears that actual action plans or responses to heat waves require further development [ 35 , 70 ]. Some steps have been taken to develop these systems in local government areas and the private sector. A case study examining preparedness for flooding in the city of Johannesburg provides useful examples of potential synergies between the health and other sectors, but also notes considerable political barriers to cross-sectoral actions [ 71 ]. Another example of preparedness was noted in a report by a mining company that operates in several parts of the country. The company had developed substantial information, communication and technology capacity for risk assessments, and warning systems for flooding and other climate-related disasters [ 72 ].

Efforts to prepare the health system for extreme weather events or infectious disease outbreaks are hampered by weaknesses in health systems, especially in human resources for health in South Africa [ 28 ]. The recent experiences with the Listeriosis outbreak, the largest and longest lasting epidemic documented worldwide to date, brought these concerns to the fore, in particular the country’s ability to mount a swift and systematic response to disease outbreaks [ 73 ]. There were major challenges in collecting data on patient outcomes during the epidemic, for example, where the mortality status was unknown for as many as 30% of affected patients [ 74 ]. This outbreak and recent extreme weather events present many opportunities for learning. It seems, however, that these learning opportunities are often missed. A review of the responses to droughts in the country over the past century found that there have been few attempts to learn from previous droughts, and that responses to each event were largely developed de novo, rather than shaped by long-term planning and lessons from previous similar events [ 75 ].

Several populations groups and geographical areas in South Africa are especially vulnerable to the impacts of climate change. The Draft National Adaptation Strategy in 2017 and the White Paper of 2011, which presented the South African Government’s strategic vision for an effective climate change response mentions the importance of placing women and other vulnerable groups at the centre of adaptation actions. These documents, however, do not expand on this concept and no evidence was located on the differential effectiveness of adaptation interventions among women in the country, and efforts to specifically tailor adaptation measures accordingly [ 31 ]. This is concerning as many of the health and social burdens in the country are underscored by harmful gender norms, with, for example, the country has one of the highest rates of sexual violence worldwide and a very gendered HIV epidemic [ 76 ]. Few studies were located on adaption in occupational settings, many of which may become ‘moderate to high risk’ workplaces as temperatures rise [ 15 ]. A study in Johannesburg and Upington (where daily maximum temperatures may exceed 40 °C) found that outdoor workers experienced a range of heat-related effects [ 17 ]. These include sunburn, sleeplessness, irritability and exhaustion, leading to difficulty in maintaining work levels and output during very hot weather. Aside from commencing work earlier, during the cooler part of the day, no measures had been taken to protect the workers, who believed that sunglasses, wide-brimmed hats and easier access to drinking water would improve their comfort and productivity. In the mining sector in South Africa, several studies have reported that workers’ comfort and productivity can be raised with interventions such as ventilation cooling [ 77 , 78 , 79 ]. Of note, insulation within many hospital buildings has been found wanting, but little had been done to address the problem [ 80 ]. Some hospitals have taken steps to increase use of natural ventilation to adapt to temperature increases and as part of efforts to curb use of air conditioning [ 81 ]. Natural ventilation also reduces transmission of multi-drug-resistant tuberculosis, important as the country has one of the highest rates of tuberculosis worldwide [ 82 ].

Improvements in specific types of housing, especially in informal settlements, could reduce the considerable heat-health impacts of these structures, which include mortality [ 18 , 19 ]. We identified several studies on urban health in South Africa, but these did not extend to documenting the health benefits of energy efficient buildings, green spaces, public transport, car-free zones and active transport [ 71 , 83 , 84 ]. Further, many school classrooms in the country are constructed of prefabricated asbestos sheeting and corrugated iron roofs or made from converted shipping containers. A study in several parts of Johannesburg showed that heat-related symptoms are common in these structures [ 21 ]. The authors postulate that improving these structures would increase comfort for scholars and could raise educational outcomes.

The review sums the body of evidence on climate change adaptation in South Africa. We note that some steps have been taken to develop a multi-pronged strategy that cuts across health and other disciplines, and that helps adapt to the already substantial and future impacts of climate change in the country [ 42 , 85 ]. Such steps are being supported by efforts to build the resilience of vulnerable groups, who have limited ability to adapt to droughts, flooding, changes in biomes and other events [ 84 ]. While key policy frameworks are in place, it is difficult to gauge whether these have been actualized at national and local level. Increased efforts to include civil society advocates, local communities and the private sector may accelerate progress with policy implementation. In South Africa, highly-detailed data are available on weather conditions at very fine spatial and temporal resolution. Health data generally have lower resolution and quality. Additional spatial and temporal disaggregation of health information could provide invaluable data, for example, to help identify critical heat-stress thresholds in different settings and to monitor the effectiveness of action response plans. In the meantime, more evaluations, including ‘dry runs’ are needed of the health aspects of emergency response plans to extreme weather events [ 60 ]. Gaps were also noted in research infrastructure and in efforts to reduce heat exposures in some housing types and occupational settings.

The case study presented here provides useful perspectives for other countries in sub-Saharan Africa. Most especially, the findings could feed into the work of the Clim-HEALTH Africa network, which aims to share expertise, and to inform climate-sensitive policies and planning across the region [ 86 ]. While the network has already supported the development of several adaptation plans, the evidence presented here may contribute to future iterations of these plans and other network initiatives.

Strategies for extreme events – and indeed for all interventions related to climate change – need to be informed by an analysis of the implications for those living in poverty, migrants, women and children, among other groups. We noted little evidence of specific ‘targeting’ of adaptation responses to vulnerable groups. There may, for example, be benefits to specifically targeting women, as opposed to men, in early warning systems and disaster reduction plans. This approach is supported by evidence that, as with many other social interventions, it is most effective to distribute relief kits and house building grants to women [ 87 ]. In tandem with other adaptation initiatives and targeting, the overall functioning of the health system needs to be fortified, though there is much uncertainty about how this might be done [ 88 , 89 ]. The goal is to ensure that health facilities remain operational during extreme weather events, serve as places of refuge and support, and can summon the additional capacity required to deal with the impacts of extreme events. An external evaluation of the recent response to the Listeriosis outbreak might identify important lessons for improving the response to future outbreaks or extreme weather events. Potential links between climate change and that outbreak as well as future outbreaks also warrant investigation [ 73 ]. The health sector is also responsible for developing and testing heat-health guidelines for specific settings and populations, such as guidelines for sports events, which stipulate the temperature thresholds at which different sport activities should be cancelled.

Going forward, there are many opportunities to strengthen data monitoring and surveillance systems on climate and health. The Lancet Countdown has developed indicators to monitor national-level progress on climate change in the health sector [ 90 ]. Six of these pertain to adaptation and correspond broadly to the sections of this paper: 1. National adaptation plans for health; 2. City-level climate change risk assessments; 3. Detection and early warning of, preparedness for, and response to health emergencies; 4. Climate information services for health; 5. National assessment of vulnerability, impacts and adaptation for health; and 6. Climate-resilient health infrastructure. This paper suggests that additional work is required in each of these areas in South Africa. These indicators – and the full Lancet Countdown framework – could be used to benchmark the country’s progress against other nations and to pinpoint the specific areas requiring attention [ 91 ]. Monitoring data could be used to produce annual estimates of the burden of disease and health costs that would be averted by more vigorous climate change mitigation or adaptation efforts [ 92 ]. Such disease prediction models have been used with great effect in the HIV epidemic [ 93 ], where they generated considerable pressure on the government and international donors to prioritise actions and resource allocations accordingly. Additionally, given the vulnerabilities of food security to climate change in South Africa, close monitoring is needed of under-nutrition, agriculture and marine productivity [ 14 , 94 ].

An adequate adaptation response is contingent on the progressive accrual of robust evidence. This, in turn, depends on earmarked funding for research on climate change and health, agile and responsive research systems and, indeed, an adequate number of capacitated researchers. Given the growing attention paid to this field, high-quality evidence with compelling findings could rapidly foment policy changes. Moreover, if the quality and volume of research were raised, it will become possible to make evidence-based national policies, as in other health fields. The health sector in South Africa, with its considerable research capacity, is well placed to lead such efforts. To achieve this, however, researchers in other health fields, such as HIV, for example, would need to take on projects on climate change. As a first step, it may be useful to convene consultations of experts in health, the environment and related fields to develop broad plans for taking advantage of opportunities for cross-learning and action. Some targeted research funding for joint health and environmental projects on climate change could have a considerable impact. The iDEWS project offers an important example of such an initiative [ 54 ]. In the long run, research in this field could be sustained by allocating more time to climate change topics in training programmes for health workers and public health practitioners.

While the review highlights some important findings, the limited number of papers located suggests that the country has some way to go to fulfilling its potential leadership role on the continent, and indeed globally. One area that health practitioners in South Africa could lead on is the promotion of a ‘meat tax’, given their pioneering work on the ‘sugar tax’ [ 95 ]. Curbing the intake of ruminant meat is a key climate change mitigation strategy and would lower cancer risks, among other health benefits [ 96 ]. This is important in South Africa, where an estimated total of 875,000 tons of beef are consumed annually [ 97 ], producing 648 gigagrams of methane [ 98 ]. The principal arguments for a sugar tax – and indeed for tobacco and alcohol taxes – hold for ruminant meat: harm to self and others, and the considerable cost burdens on broader society [ 99 ]. In this case, the harms are mediated through environmental destruction, a change in climate and cancer, amongst others [ 95 ]. Such policies are, however, likely to be vigorously opposed by the meat industry in South Africa, and public health and environmental and social justice experts in the country will need to rally together [ 26 ]. Bringing together the complementary skills of these experts has the potential for powerful synergies and for drawing additional researchers into the climate change and health arena. Similarly, broadening the scope of climate change adaptation to encompass existing programmes that have an indirect impact on climate change adaptation would also increase the number of climate adaption workers. This would also assist in mainstreaming climate change into existing health programmes, and highlight additional ways that the health sector has successfully responded to the problem. Increased attention to these successes might demonstrate the extent to which the sector is leading the field and its potential contribution to overall adaptation efforts in the country.

The study has some limitations. The limited number of papers included in the review ( n = 22) and the heterogeneous nature of the evidence constrained our ability to draw overall conclusions about the adaption response to date. Likely many additional studies on the topic are published in grey literature sources or unpublished and would thus not be in our search. Moreover, the search would not have located studies of interventions by the health sector that indirectly reduce the impact of climate change, but have not been framed as such. These intervention may include socio-economic initiatives that build financial resilience of households, improvements in housing and control of infectious diseases.

In fact, explicitly framing existing programmes that have an indirect impact on climate change adaptation as contributing to climate change adaptation.

The review highlights several important gaps in adaptation practices. While policy and planning frameworks for climate change at national, provincial and local level do make mention of health priorities, the health sector does not yet appear to be viewed as an essential platform for adaption measures, and health concerns appear to be accorded low priority. We did, however, note several important examples of health sector involvement in adaptation initiatives within local area government and in occupational settings. Importantly, there have been few rigorous evaluations of the effectiveness of actual interventions on climate adaptation for the health sector; most studies are descriptive in nature. Perhaps the largest knowledge gap is evidence around the effectiveness of disaster management systems and the level of preparedness of these systems for extreme weather events. The lack of studies on that and other topics may reflect the nascent nature of the field and that the priority given to climate-sensitive conditions in training for health workers and public health practitioners has not reflected the present and future burden of these conditions.

Clearly, interventions targeting the direct impacts of climate change need to occur in tandem with actions to shore up the resilience of the population and health system. Many health sector initiatives targeting those areas already contribute to climate adaptation, albeit indirectly so. Highlighting the successes of these initiatives and explicitly framing them as part of climate adaptation could mainstream climate change into existing programmes and provide examples of the ways in which the country is already successfully responding to the problem. Reframing in this manner may generate the leadership and momentum necessary for making rapid advances in this field.

Indeed, increased health sector leadership and lobbying may prove pivotal in advancing the adaptation field per se. The explicit framing of climate change adaptation and mitigation as critical to protecting the health of the nation may secure a more vigorous policy and programmatic response by government, and strengthen the engagement of civil society and communities [ 36 ]. Health could be placed firmly at the centre of policies for climate change adaptation and mitigation. Equally, effective leadership would mainstream climate change considerations into all policies for health [ 37 ]. High-quality research, involving a range of disciplines and backed by local and international funding, could go a long way to securing these changes.

While the country has led the way globally in HIV and several other arenas, it has yet to fully assume a leadership role in this field. With increased focus, the health sector could use its considerable influence to advocate for policy change and improved climate governance: it’s time for health to take a lead.

Abbreviations

Demographic Health Information System

Human Immunodeficiency Virus

Infectious Diseases Early Warning System project

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Acknowledgements

Neville Sweijd, Helen Rees, Fiona Scorgie for technical inputs.

This research received no external funding.

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Chersich, M.F., Wright, C.Y. Climate change adaptation in South Africa: a case study on the role of the health sector. Global Health 15 , 22 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12992-019-0466-x

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Published: 28 October 2021

CLIMATE ADAPTATION

Assessing adaptation implementation

Johanna Nalau ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-6581-3967 1

Nature Climate Change volume 11 , pages 907–908 ( 2021 ) Cite this article

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Assessing the global implementation of climate adaptation is critical. Now, research quantifies where adaptation is happening and where gaps remain.

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Berrang-Ford, L. et al. Nat. Clim. Change https://doi.org/10.1038/s41558-021-01170-y (2021).

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Berrang-Ford, L. et al. Nat. Clim. Change https://doi.org/10.1038/s41558-019-0490-0 (2019).

Dupuis, J. & Biesbroek, R. Glob. Environ. Chang. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2013.07.022 (2013).

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Benzie, M. & Persson, Å. Int. Environ. Agreem. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10784-019-09441-y (2019).

Moser, S. C., Ekstrom, J. A., Kim, J. & Heitsch, S. Ecol. Soc. https://doi.org/10.5751/ES-10980-240228 (2019).

Kural, E., Dellmuth, L. M. & Gustafsson, M.-T. PLoS ONE https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0257101 (2021).

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Transformative adaptation as a sustainable response to climate change: insights from large-scale case studies

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Volume 27 , article number 20 , ( 2022 )

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Walter Leal Filho ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-1241-5225 1 , 2 ,
Franziska Wolf ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-9724-5586 3 ,
Stefano Moncada 4 ,
Amanda Lange Salvia ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-4549-7685 5 ,
Abdul-Lateef Babatunde Balogun ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-0418-3487 6 ,
Constantina Skanavis 7 ,
Aristea Kounani ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-9976-4291 8 &
Patrick D. Nunn ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-9295-5741 9

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Many climate change responses focus on form rather than substance. As a result, they invariably look at the consequences but ignore the drivers of climate change. Since past approaches towards climate change adaptation have had limited success, the most effective and sustainable way to minimize future climate change impacts on humanity is through transformative adaptation (TA). This paper defines and characterizes the conceptual foundations of this term and outlines how TA influences current and future climate change adaptation challenges. This paper reviews the meaning and purpose of transformation in climate change adaptation and, by means of a set of case studies, explains how their commonalities can help define good TA practice. Deploying a range of situations, this study shows how this approach is being implemented in a set of countries, and considers its potential transformative impact, its benefits, and challenges. The results obtained have shown that when implemented with due care, TA can yield long-term benefits to local communities. The paper conclude by listing some measures by which TA may be further deployed as a means of helping communities to meet the future challenges posed by a changing climate.

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Filho, W.L., Wolf, F., Moncada, S. et al. Transformative adaptation as a sustainable response to climate change: insights from large-scale case studies. Mitig Adapt Strateg Glob Change 27 , 20 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11027-022-09997-2

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Adapting harvests: a comprehensive study of farmers’ perceptions, adaptation strategies, and climatic trends in dera ghazi khan, pakistan.

1. Introduction

2. materials and methods, 2.1. study area, 2.2. data collection, 2.2.1. climate data, 2.2.2. survey data.

Selection of the District Dera Ghazi Khan, Punjab, Pakistan as the study area.
Selection of two tehsils, D.G. Khan and Taunsa (sub-administrative unit), from the study area.
Selection of three union councils (smallest administrative unit in the country) from each chosen tehsil.
Selection of three villages from each chosen union council using simple random sampling.
A sample of 10 farmers from each village was taken randomly for interview.

2.3. Data Analysis

2.3.1. descriptive statistics, 2.3.2. mann–kendall trend test, 2.3.3. ordinal logistic regression, 2.3.4. binary logistic regression, 3.1. climate change trends, 3.2. demographic characteristics of farmers, 3.3. farmers’ perceptions of climate change, 3.4. socio-economic factors affecting farmers’ perceptions regarding climate change, 3.5. climate change effects on farmer’s life and income sources, 3.6. farmer’s adaptation strategies to climate change, 3.7. factors affecting farmers’ adaptation strategies, 4. discussion, 5. conclusions and implications, author contributions, institutional review board statement, informed consent statement, data availability statement, conflicts of interest.

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Click here to enlarge figure

Variable Name	Variable Description
Dependent Variables (Ordinal)
Perceived weather uncertainty	Likert Scale: ranges from 1 (Very low) to 5 (Very High)
Perceived pollution	Likert Scale: ranges from 1 (Very low) to 5 (Very High)
Perceived soil erosion	Likert Scale: ranges from 1 (Very low) to 5 (Very High)
Perceived floods	Likert Scale: ranges from 1 (Very low) to 5 (Very High)
Perceived heatwave	Likert Scale: ranges from 1 (Very low) to 5 (Very High)
Perceived rain	Likert Scale: ranges from 1 (Very low) to 5 (Very High)
Perceived drought	Likert Scale: ranges from 1 (Very low) to 5 (Very High)
Dependent Variables (Logit)
Change in planting dates	1 = Adopted, 0 = Not adopted
Change crop varieties	1 = Adopted, 0 = Not adopted
Use of water conservation techniques	1 = Adopted, 0 = Not adopted
Implementation of soil conservation techniques	1 = Adopted, 0 = Not adopted
Use of shades and shelters	1 = Adopted, 0 = Not adopted
Migration	1 = Adopted, 0 = Not adopted
Insurance	1 = Adopted, 0 = Not adopted
Search for off-farming jobs	1 = Adopted, 0 = Not adopted
Religious beliefs or prayers	1 = Adopted, 0 = Not adopted
Change the use of chemical fertilizers, pesticides, and insecticides	1 = Adopted, 0 = Not adopted
Independent Variables
Age	Continuous
Education	Continuous
Land in acres	Continuous
Experience	Continuous

Climatic Parameters	Sum of Ranks	Kendall’s Tau	p-Value (Two-Tailed)	Var (S)	Sen’s Slope	Hypothesis
Annual Rainfall	64	0.337	0.041	950	6.592	H Accept
Annual Maximum Temperature	1	0.005	1.000	933	0	H Accept
Annual Minimum Temperature	−66	−0.357	0.034	938.6	−0.065	H Accept

Environmental Issues	Perception (%)					Mean
Environmental Issues	Very Low	Low	Moderate	High	Very High	Mean
Weather Uncertainty	15.0	27.8	27.2	22.2	7.8	2.80
Floods	3.3	24.4	38.9	27.8	5.6	3.07
Rain	1.1	15.6	28.3	43.9	11.1	3.48
Drought	7.8	32.8	37.2	20.6	1.7	2.75
Heat waves	9.4	29.4	35.0	21.1	5.0	2.82
Soil erosion	25.6	22.8	28.3	18.9	4.4	2.53

Variables	Perceived Weather Uncertainty		Perceived Rain		Perceived Soil Erosion		Perceived Floods		Perceived Heatwave		Perceived Drought
Variables	Estimate	OR	Estimate	OR	Estimate	OR	Estimate	OR	Estimate	OR	Estimate	OR
Age	−0.017 **	0.984	0.007 **	1.007	−0.026 **	0.974	0.006 **	1.006	−0.193 *	0.825	−0.031 **	0.969
Education	0.226 *	1.254	0.180 *	1.197	0.109 *	1.115	0.326 *	1.386	0.272 *	1.313	0.220 *	1.246
Land	−0.016 **	0.984	0.002 **	1.002	0.279 *	1.321	0.117 *	1.124	0.000 **	1.000	0.005 **	1.005
Experience in farming	−0.012 **	0.988	−0.066 *	0.936	−0.012 **	0.988	0.041 *	1.042	0.025 **	1.025	0.072 *	1.075

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Share and Cite

Shah, S.A.A.; Mehmood, M.S.; Muhammad, I.; Ahamad, M.I.; Wu, H. Adapting Harvests: A Comprehensive Study of Farmers’ Perceptions, Adaptation Strategies, and Climatic Trends in Dera Ghazi Khan, Pakistan. Sustainability 2024 , 16 , 7070. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16167070

Shah SAA, Mehmood MS, Muhammad I, Ahamad MI, Wu H. Adapting Harvests: A Comprehensive Study of Farmers’ Perceptions, Adaptation Strategies, and Climatic Trends in Dera Ghazi Khan, Pakistan. Sustainability . 2024; 16(16):7070. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16167070

Shah, Syed Ali Asghar, Muhammad Sajid Mehmood, Ihsan Muhammad, Muhammad Irfan Ahamad, and Huixin Wu. 2024. "Adapting Harvests: A Comprehensive Study of Farmers’ Perceptions, Adaptation Strategies, and Climatic Trends in Dera Ghazi Khan, Pakistan" Sustainability 16, no. 16: 7070. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16167070

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Electronic Theses and Dissertations

How well do nature-based solutions to climate change address gender equity.

Stephanie Efua Yamoah , University of Denver Follow

Date of Award

Document type.

Masters Thesis

Degree Name

M.A. in Geography

Organizational Unit

College of Natural Science and Mathematics, Geography and the Environment

First Advisor

Hanson Nyantakyi-Frimpong

Second Advisor

Erika Trigoso Rubio

Third Advisor

Singumbe Muyeba

Gender equity, Intersectional feminist political ecology, Nature-based solutions, Tokenism

As the climate crisis continues to deepen, there have been calls for adaptation and mitigation approaches that rely on nature-based solutions. These solutions are approaches that offer the potential to reduce and remove greenhouse gas emissions. Examples include forest restoration, coastal wetland conservation, and no-till agriculture, among other practices. In this thesis, I employ an intersectional feminist political ecology perspective to critically examine the integration of gender equity within such nature-based solutions. I make two interrelated arguments using a qualitative methodology and an intensive case study of three projects in Ghana. First, I argue that women’s participation in nature-based solutions is frequently constrained by structural inequities, entrenched gender norms, and limited access to resources. Second, I contend that meaningful participation and tokenism are critical issues that occur in the design, implementation, and adaptive governance of nature-based solutions. While organizations promoting nature-based solutions purport to take gender equity seriously, the approaches adopted are often tokenistic. Also, projects rarely move beyond the simple inclusion of women and men, and there is often no serious attempt to address intersectional dimensions of inequality along the axes of class, age, and marital status. Ultimately, I show how nature-based solutions to climate change can be implemented with gender-transformative approaches that benefit both people and nature. By uncovering structural inequities and tokenistic approaches hindering women’s participation, this thesis underscores the underutilization of women, the largest segment of the population, in efforts to combat climate change.

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Publication Statement

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Stephanie Efua Yamoah

Received from ProQuest

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application/pdf

English (eng)

Recommended Citation

Yamoah, Stephanie Efua, "How Well Do Nature-Based Solutions to Climate Change Address Gender Equity?" (2024). Electronic Theses and Dissertations . 2423. https://digitalcommons.du.edu/etd/2423

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How is adaptation included within the international climate agenda?

Mangroves in Monterrico on the Pacific coast of Guatemala

Adaptation seeks to reduce the risks posed by climate change, and to benefit from any associated opportunities where possible. It is one of two main policy responses to climate change, the other being mitigation – reducing greenhouse gas emissions to address the root causes of climate change.

Adaptation has historically been deprioritised in favour of mitigation in international climate governance and, according to the 2023 UN Environment Programme’s Adaptation Gap Report , it remains significantly underfunded . However, as the impacts of climate change continue to manifest and grow, adaptation is being given more attention in global policy processes.

Overarching goals and targets

The Paris Agreement contains a global goal on adaptation (GGA), “to enhance adaptive capacity and resilience; to reduce vulnerability, with a view to contributing to sustainable development; and ensuring an adequate adaptation response in the context of the goal of containing average global warming well below 2°C and pursuing efforts to hold it below 1.5°C”. In 2023, countries agreed to a framework for the GGA with 11 global targets. By 2030, all Parties are meant to have conducted climate change impact assessments and used their outcomes to inform their National Adaptation Plans (NAPs), policy instruments and planning processes; made progress in implementing adaptation plans; and operationalised a system for monitoring and evaluating adaptation efforts.

The UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) includes adaptation as a critical part of the long-term global response to climate change. It recognises the “specific needs and special circumstances” of developing countries that would have to bear a “disproportionate burden” under the Convention, and provides them with support mechanisms for adaptation implementation, including provision of funding, insurance and technology transfer. It also provides scientific and technical assistance for all Parties to enhance their knowledge base; for example, through the Adaptation Knowledge Portal under the Nairobi Work Programme , and the Lima Adaptation Knowledge Initiative .

In addition, Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 13 on climate action contains the target to “strengthen resilience and adaptive capacity to climate-related hazards and natural disasters in all countries”. Adaptation and resilience concerns also run through other SDGs and their related targets .

How have recent CoP sessions advanced climate change adaptation?

Attention to adaptation has increased over time, including through the establishment of the Adaptation Committee in 2010 and the strong anchoring of adaptation in the Paris Agreement. Recent sessions of the Conference of the Parties (CoP) to the Paris Agreement have seen a rise in focus on adaptation . At COP28 in December 2023, Parties to the Paris Agreement adopted a new framework for the GGA, the ‘ UAE Framework for Global Climate Resilience ’. The purpose of the framework is to “guide the achievement of the global goal on adaptation and the review of overall progress in achieving it with a view to reducing the increasing adverse impacts, risks and vulnerabilities associated with climate change, as well as to enhance adaptation action and support”. The framework includes seven global thematic targets to be achieved by 2030 and beyond, including: attaining climate-resilient food production; accelerating the use of ecosystem-based adaptation and nature-based solutions; protecting cultural heritage from the impacts of climate-related risks; reducing the adverse effects of climate change to facilitate poverty eradication; and strengthening resilience to water-related climate hazards. A two-year work programme has established indicators for measuring progress towards the goal’s targets.

Adaptation is also part of the Global Stocktake , a comprehensive assessment of the world’s progress on climate action that takes place every five years. COP28 saw the conclusion of the first Global Stocktake, which noted that 51 countries have now submitted National Adaptation Plans.

How is the financing gap for adaptation being addressed?

UNEP’s Adaptation Gap Report noted a widening adaptation finance gap in developing countries, estimated at US$194–366 billion per year. It found that the finance requirement for adaptation is likely 10 to 18 times more than current finance flows, and 50% higher than previous estimates. The International High Level Expert Group on Climate Finance has also highlighted that the adaptation finance gap is growing.

A call from 2021 was reiterated in the COP28 final outcome for developed countries “to at least double” adaptation finance for developing nations by 2025, and it was agreed to prepare a report to assess progress on that effort.

A new financial target for adaptation is under discussion as part of the New Collective Quantified Goal on Climate Finance (NCQG) that is scheduled to be agreed at COP29 in 2024. The NCQG is intended to replace the existing goal of developed countries mobilising US$100 billion per year in climate finance for developing countries by 2020, which was not met by the target date, though preliminary evidence suggests it was achieved in 2022 . The NCQG is expected to be significantly higher than US$100 billion per year, while also broadening the donor base beyond the 1994 definition of developed countries under the UNFCCC.

Financial pledges related to adaptation at COP28 included:

New commitments totalling US$3.5 billion for the second replenishment of the Green Climate Fund , representing a 28% increase compared with the first replenishment. Half of the total pot of US$12.8 billion is devoted to adaptation .
A US$1 billion fund for climate and health initiatives comprising combined pledges from various governments and organisations such as: US$300 million from the Global Fund to prepare health systems; US$100 million from the Rockefeller Foundation for scaling up climate and health solutions; and up to £54 million from the UK Government, as part of a £100 million funding package from the country to help climate-vulnerable populations adapt to climate change.
A donation of US$200 million for the Global Environment Facility from the UAE to fund programmes addressing climate change adaptation in developing countries.
New pledges totalling nearly US$188 million to the Adaptation Fund , to support projects including early-warning systems for extreme weather events, climate-resilient infrastructure development and sustainable water management practices.

Is the link between nature and climate change being addressed in adaptation policy?

COP28 emphasised the interconnectedness of climate change with biodiversity loss and pollution. The framework for the global goal on adaptation includes a target to accelerate the use of ecosystem-based adaptation and nature-based solutions by 2030, and recognises the leadership of Indigenous Peoples and local communities “as stewards of nature”, encouraging the application of local knowledge in implementing the framework for the GGA.

In addition, the first Global Stocktake emphasised the role of ecosystems in adaptation, such as by recognising the role of water systems in delivering climate adaptation benefits.

This Explainer was written by Sam Kumari and Georgina Kyriacou with review by Timo Leiter and Anna Beswick.

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Ariel view of a green landscape next to a river

How USAID’s Upper Lempa Watershed Project Supports Transboundary Water Security and Resilience in Central America

The USAID Upper Lempa Watershed Project , implemented by Winrock International, focuses on the headwaters of the Lempa River, one of the longest in Central America – and the largest river in El Salvador. The project engages government, communities, environmental groups and other stakeholders across El Salvador, Guatemala and Honduras to improve the health and resilience of the Upper Lempa Watershed, directly impacting the wellbeing and water security of approximately 180,000 people in the three countries. As World Water Day 2024 approaches, we asked Chief of Party Deisy Lopez and her El Salvador-based team how the Upper Lempa Watershed Project collaborates with partners to help communities and government of the three nations achieve their aims for this critical natural resource.

What are the main goals of the USAID Upper Lempa Watershed Project?

The main goal is to support improved water resource management in the watershed through enhanced water quality, quantity and reliability. To do that, we’re working with a wide range of partners to address water security risks linked to man-made, climate, and environmental factors in an area that covers approximately 260,000 hectares – equivalent to just over 641,000 acres ─ of the watershed. This is a biologically significant region that contains many important and protected ecosystems. To give a sense of the area this big watershed covers, it’s similar in size to Los Angeles, California.

The main activities will help to mitigate future water security risks by ensuring that national water authorities in each of the three countries – Guatemala, where the river’s headwaters are located; Honduras; and El Salvador, where the river empties into the Pacific ─ and transboundary institutions have the information and support they need to effectively, inclusively plan and make decisions to enhance water security in the river’s basin. Also ─ to reduce risks for the tens of thousands of downstream water users who depend on the Lempa River for economic prosperity, ecosystem services and their own wellbeing. The project also promotes productive economic activities that help reduce violence and gender discrimination. In addition to Winrock, project partners include Plan Trifinio , Tetra Tech ARD , the Stockholm Environment Institute , and the Center for Water Security and Cooperation .

Why is the Upper Lempa River Watershed so important?

It’s the watershed of one of the longest rivers in Central America, and the river is also El Salvador’s largest and only navigable one. The northern valley has hydroelectric plants that supply power to most Salvadorans, and the southern basin is an important agricultural area, as it provides drinking water to 1.5 million Salvadorans at the metropolitan area. It’s also very beautiful: check out this USAID video to see some of it:

Despite its beauty, the Lempa River is at risk, for many reasons, including climate change, but also due to challenges with coordination amongst the jurisdictions and people who rely on it for drinking water, for irrigation for farms and livelihoods including aquaculture.

What are some of the project’s main strategies for improving water resources management?

We are working closely with our partners using a locally-led approach to strengthen regional, national, and local institutions, municipalities, and civil society organizations, including environmental and conservation-focused groups, in all three countries. These stakeholders already share common principles. They agree on the need to improve capacity and funding to empower their own institutions, citizens, CSOs and governments to efficiently, equitably protect water security and manage biodiversity. Ultimately, these measures aim to mitigate risks to water security, better protect human health, security and the economy, build prosperity and climate resilience, and preserve ecosystems and biodiversity.

We have three key objectives: Fortifying capacity to monitor water and utilize data for informed decision-making; showcasing the practical application of USAID’s Water Security Improvement process to local partners with a focus on municipal applications; and conducting a comprehensive assessment of the financial landscape within water resource management to facilitate stakeholder access to vital resources.

How’s it going, so far?

We are a five-year project and just finished our second year. We are making substantial strides in augmenting the health and resilience of the watershed, which encompasses the headwaters of the Lempa River. This work is pivotal in addressing the underlying causes of irregular migration, violence, and gender discrimination by sustaining economically productive activities and fostering adaptation to climate stressors. We use a combination of approaches, including exploring ways that new technology, data collection, analysis and sharing can help people across all three countries better protect the river, while simultaneously fostering intensive, community-led collaboration in planning and action.

Can you tell us three specific ways the project helps improve water security in the region?  

First, we are working with partners to strengthen local capacity to reduce the algae presence at the intake of the Torogoz Drinking Water Treatment Plant and to support the plant’s early water quality alert system.

Fisheye photograph out a window of the treatment plant

This is an important facility that treats drinking water for around 1.5 million Salvadorans. It is named after El Salvador’s national bird, the Torogoz, a symbol of freedom and the beauty of our natural environment. As in other freshwater bodies around the world, the algae proliferation problem in the Lempa River is exacerbated by climate change, in part because warmer temperatures encourage growth and distribution of algae in rivers and extends the growing season for algae, leading to longer blooms. Excessive nutrient runoff into the river is also a factor. To help government tackle this near the treatment plant, USAID provided three ultrasonic buoys to El Salvador’s National Administration of Aqueducts and Sewers (ANDA), which is responsible for providing water services in El Salvador. The buoy network reduces algae contamination in the river using ultrasound.

The buoys are floating platforms that use solar energy and ultrasound pulses to control microalgae in an area of up to 500 meters in diameter each, eliminating up to 90% of toxic microalgae and preventing their growth. They’re helping to combat excessive growth of microalgae, which affects the water’s quality – including its color, taste, odor and suitability for consumption.

Introduction of this new technology is a major step toward improved water quality.

We also are supporting the development of new Municipal Water Security Plans in El Salvador, Guatemala and Honduras. 

The project recognizes the interplay between local governance and the wellbeing of the watershed. This approach embodies our commitment to establishing a direct and efficient avenue for improving water security. By focusing on municipal collaboration, the project aims to address the immediate needs of communities and foster a more resilient and sustainable water management system.

In addition to controlling algae proliferation, they continuously monitor the water in the Lempa River. The data is reflected directly in real-time in our automated control center. This modern system will contribute to ensuring the water quality entering our drinking water treatment plant and improving the surveillance and early warning system for the Upper Lempa Watershed. ANDA President Rubén Alemán

Municipal Water Security Plans are part of this approach because they help to identify and address the current issues and state of water resources in municipalities along with their organizational management and governance while also addressing future challenges and building climate-resilient programming. The plans include activities and interventions to help municipalities achieve improved water security, which benefits citizens through more reliable water supply. We have prioritized communities that are the most vulnerable to water security risks, and work on these plans in close collaboration with municipal governments, water users and local organizations in all three countries.

The process we use ensures local ownership and leadership from the beginning, from generating interest and commitment to the planning process all the way to validation of the final plan. It involves carefully collecting information about each municipality’s current water management and use.

And third, we’re helping to boost local capacity to monitor water quality through hydrometric data collection.

In coordination with the Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources (MARN) of El Salvador, the project is constructing and equipping six riverine hydrometric stations in the main tributaries of the Lempa River. These stations are the first of their kind to be used in the region. They collect and generate real-time rainfall, flow and water quality data on conductivity, temperature, pH, and dissolved oxygen, all of which are critical for informed water management decision making. Additionally, the project is providing measurement and monitoring equipment for determining ecological flows and laboratory equipment for water quality analysis. 

This data will help technicians at the Torogoz facility anticipate phenomena that affect water quality, enabling them to take preventive measures faster to protect the water supply and better preserve aquatic life. With more timely and consistent information, agencies and communities can develop new measures to improve water suitability for aquaculture and agriculture, benefiting communities that depend on aquatic resources.

This information will also be strengthened with environmental flow data developed by MARN, helping to protect the aquatic life of the territory. Data collection will be carried out with the new instruments provided by the project.

We now have all the necessary equipment to conduct the biodiversity studies needed to determine ecological flows. Guillermo Cornejo, a water resources specialist at MARN

This blog was originally published by Winrock International .

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Winrock International

Winrock International is a recognized leader in U.S. and international development, providing solutions to some of the world’s most complex social, agricultural and environmental challenges. Inspired by its namesake Winthrop Rockefeller, Winrock’s mission is to empower the disadvantaged, increase economic opportunity and sustain natural resources.

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Shifts in vernalization and phenology at the rear edge hold insight into adaptation of 1 temperate plants to future milder winters

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Temperate plants often regulate reproduction through winter cues, such as vernalization, that may be reduced under climate change. Understanding adaptive potential to milder winters may be achieved by studying rear-edge populations, glacial relicts that persist in environments that have warmed since last glaciation. We studied how rear-edge populations have adapted to shorter winters and compared them to the rest of the range in the herb Campanula americana. Using citizen science, climate data and experimental climate manipulation, we characterize variation in vernalization requirements and reproductive phenology across the range and their potential climatic drivers. Rear-edge populations experienced little to no vernalization in nature. In climate manipulation experiments, these populations also had a reduced vernalization requirement, weaker response to changes in vernalization length, and flowered later compared to the rest of the range. Our results suggest shifts in phenology and its underlying regulation at the rear edge to compensate for unreliable vernalization cues. Thus, future milder winters may be less detrimental to these populations than more northern ones. Furthermore, our results showcase strong shifts in adaptation at the rear edges of temperate plants' ranges, highlighting their importance in studies on response and adaptation to predicted future climates.

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How USAID’s Upper Lempa Watershed Project Supports Transboundary Water Security and Resilience in Central America

Can you tell us three specific ways the project helps improve water security in the region?  