essay about sports participation

Essay on Importance of Sports for Students and Children

500+ words essay on importance of sports.

First of all, Sport refers to an activity involving physical activity and skill . Here, two or more parties compete against each other. Sports are an integral part of human life and there is great importance of sports in all spheres of life. Furthermore, Sports help build the character and personality of a person. It certainly is an excellent tool to keep the body physically fit. Most noteworthy, the benefits of Sports are so many that books can be written.  Sports have a massive positive effect on both the mind and body.

Physical Benefits of Sports

First of all, Sports strengthen the heart. Regular Sports certainly make the heart stronger. Hence, Sport is an excellent preventive measure against heart diseases . This certainly increases the life expectancy of individuals. Furthermore, a healthy heart means a healthy blood pressure.

Sports involve physical activity of the body. Due to this physical activity, blood vessels remain clean. Sports reduces the amount of cholesterol and fats in the body. This happens because of the increase of flexibility of the wall of the blood vessels. The flexibility increases due to physical exertion, which is the result of Sports.

Furthermore, the sugar level in blood also gets lower thanks to Sports. The sugar certainly does not accumulate in the blood due to physical activity.

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A person experiences a good quality of breathing because of Sports. Sports strengthen the lungs of the body. Sports certainly escalate the lung capacity and efficiency of the body. Hence, more oxygen enters the blood which is extremely beneficial. Furthermore, there are fewer chances of developing lung diseases due to Sports.

Appropriate body weight is easy to maintain because of sports. A Sports playing person probably does not suffer from obesity or underweight problems. Sports certainly help the body remain fit and slim.

Furthermore, Sports also improves the quality of bones. A person who plays sports will have strong bones even in old age. Several scientific research reports that Sports prevent many diseases. For example, many researchers conclude that Sports prevent the development of cancer.

Other Benefits of Sports

Sport is certainly an excellent tool to build self-confidence . Playing Sports increases confidence to talk properly. A sport certainly improves the skills of communicating with others. Furthermore, the person experiences confidence in sitting, standing, and walking properly. Hence, Sports enriches the social life of an individual.

Sports bring discipline in life. It certainly teaches the values of dedication and patience. Sports also teach people how to handle failure. Furthermore, the importance of following a time schedule is also present in Sports.

Above all, Sports improves the thinking ability of individuals. Sports certainly sharpen the mind. Children who play Sports probably perform better at exams than those who don’t.

Finally, Sports reduces the stress of mind . A Sports playing person would certainly experience less depression. Sports ensure the peace of mind of those playing it. Most noteworthy, Sports brings happiness and joy in the life of individuals.

A sport is an aspect of human life that is of paramount importance. It certainly increases the quality of human life. Sports must be made mandatory in schools. This is because it is as important as education. Everyone must perform at least one Sport activity on a regular basis.

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• Systematic review update
• Open access
• Published: 21 June 2023

The impact of sports participation on mental health and social outcomes in adults: a systematic review and the ‘Mental Health through Sport’ conceptual model

• Narelle Eather   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-6320-4540 1 , 2 ,
• Levi Wade   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-4007-5336 1 , 3 ,
• Aurélie Pankowiak   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-0178-513X 4 &
• Rochelle Eime   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-8614-2813 4 , 5  

Systematic Reviews volume  12 , Article number:  102 ( 2023 ) Cite this article

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Sport is a subset of physical activity that can be particularly beneficial for short-and-long-term physical and mental health, and social outcomes in adults. This study presents the results of an updated systematic review of the mental health and social outcomes of community and elite-level sport participation for adults. The findings have informed the development of the ‘Mental Health through Sport’ conceptual model for adults.

Nine electronic databases were searched, with studies published between 2012 and March 2020 screened for inclusion. Eligible qualitative and quantitative studies reported on the relationship between sport participation and mental health and/or social outcomes in adult populations. Risk of bias (ROB) was determined using the Quality Assessment Tool (quantitative studies) or Critical Appraisal Skills Programme (qualitative studies).

The search strategy located 8528 articles, of which, 29 involving adults 18–84 years were included for analysis. Data was extracted for demographics, methodology, and study outcomes, and results presented according to study design. The evidence indicates that participation in sport (community and elite) is related to better mental health, including improved psychological well-being (for example, higher self-esteem and life satisfaction) and lower psychological ill-being (for example, reduced levels of depression, anxiety, and stress), and improved social outcomes (for example, improved self-control, pro-social behavior, interpersonal communication, and fostering a sense of belonging). Overall, adults participating in team sport had more favorable health outcomes than those participating in individual sport, and those participating in sports more often generally report the greatest benefits; however, some evidence suggests that adults in elite sport may experience higher levels of psychological distress. Low ROB was observed for qualitative studies, but quantitative studies demonstrated inconsistencies in methodological quality.

Conclusions

The findings of this review confirm that participation in sport of any form (team or individual) is beneficial for improving mental health and social outcomes amongst adults. Team sports, however, may provide more potent and additional benefits for mental and social outcomes across adulthood. This review also provides preliminary evidence for the Mental Health through Sport model, though further experimental and longitudinal evidence is needed to establish the mechanisms responsible for sports effect on mental health and moderators of intervention effects. Additional qualitative work is also required to gain a better understanding of the relationship between specific elements of the sporting environment and mental health and social outcomes in adult participants.

Peer Review reports

Introduction

The organizational structure of sport and the performance demands characteristic of sport training and competition provide a unique opportunity for participants to engage in health-enhancing physical activity of varied intensity, duration, and mode; and the opportunity to do so with other people as part of a team and/or club. Participation in individual and team sports have shown to be beneficial to physical, social, psychological, and cognitive health outcomes [ 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 ]. Often, the social and mental health benefits facilitated through participation in sport exceed those achieved through participation in other leisure-time or recreational activities [ 8 , 9 , 10 ]. Notably, these benefits are observed across different sports and sub-populations (including youth, adults, older adults, males, and females) [ 11 ]. However, the evidence regarding sports participation at the elite level is limited, with available research indicating that elite athletes may be more susceptible to mental health problems, potentially due to the intense mental and physical demands placed on elite athletes [ 12 ].

Participation in sport varies across the lifespan, with children representing the largest cohort to engage in organized community sport [ 13 ]. Across adolescence and into young adulthood, dropout from organized sport is common, and especially for females [ 14 , 15 , 16 ], and adults are shifting from organized sports towards leisure and fitness activities, where individual activities (including swimming, walking, and cycling) are the most popular [ 13 , 17 , 18 , 19 ]. Despite the general decline in sport participation with age [ 13 ], the most recent (pre-COVID) global data highlights that a range of organized team sports (such as, basketball, netball volleyball, and tennis) continue to rank highly amongst adult sport participants, with soccer remaining a popular choice across all regions of the world [ 13 ]. It is encouraging many adults continue to participate in sport and physical activities throughout their lives; however, high rates of dropout in youth sport and non-participation amongst adults means that many individuals may be missing the opportunity to reap the potential health benefits associated with participation in sport.

According to the World Health Organization, mental health refers to a state of well-being and effective functioning in which an individual realizes his or her own abilities, is resilient to the stresses of life, and is able to make a positive contribution to his or her community [ 20 ]. Mental health covers three main components, including psychological, emotional and social health [ 21 ]. Further, psychological health has two distinct indicators, psychological well-being (e.g., self-esteem and quality of life) and psychological ill-being (e.g., pre-clinical psychological states such as psychological difficulties and high levels of stress) [ 22 ]. Emotional well-being describes how an individual feels about themselves (including life satisfaction, interest in life, loneliness, and happiness); and social well–being includes an individual’s contribution to, and integration in society [ 23 ].

Mental illnesses are common among adults and incidence rates have remained consistently high over the past 25 years (~ 10% of people affected globally) [ 24 ]. Recent statistics released by the World Health Organization indicate that depression and anxiety are the most common mental disorders, affecting an estimated 264 million people, ranking as one of the main causes of disability worldwide [ 25 , 26 ]. Specific elements of social health, including high levels of isolation and loneliness among adults, are now also considered a serious public health concern due to the strong connections with ill-health [ 27 ]. Participation in sport has shown to positively impact mental and social health status, with a previous systematic review by Eime et al. (2013) indicated that sports participation was associated with lower levels of perceived stress, and improved vitality, social functioning, mental health, and life satisfaction [ 1 ]. Based on their findings, the authors developed a conceptual model (health through sport) depicting the relationship between determinants of adult sports participation and physical, psychological, and social health benefits of participation. In support of Eime’s review findings, Malm and colleagues (2019) recently described how sport aids in preventing or alleviating mental illness, including depressive symptoms and anxiety or stress-related disease [ 7 ]. Andersen (2019) also highlighted that team sports participation is associated with decreased rates of depression and anxiety [ 11 ]. In general, these reviews report stronger effects for sports participation compared to other types of physical activity, and a dose–response relationship between sports participation and mental health outcomes (i.e., higher volume and/or intensity of participation being associated with greater health benefits) when adults participate in sports they enjoy and choose [ 1 , 7 ]. Sport is typically more social than other forms of physical activity, including enhanced social connectedness, social support, peer bonding, and club support, which may provide some explanation as to why sport appears to be especially beneficial to mental and social health [ 28 ].

Thoits (2011) proposed several potential mechanisms through which social relationships and social support improve physical and psychological well-being [ 29 ]; however, these mechanisms have yet to be explored in the context of sports participation at any level in adults. The identification of the mechanisms responsible for such effects may direct future research in this area and help inform future policy and practice in the delivery of sport to enhance mental health and social outcomes amongst adult participants. Therefore, the primary objective of this review was to examine and synthesize all research findings regarding the relationship between sports participation, mental health and social outcomes at the community and elite level in adults. Based on the review findings, the secondary objective was to develop the ‘Mental Health through Sport’ conceptual model.

This review has been registered in the PROSPERO systematic review database and assigned the identifier: CRD42020185412. The conduct and reporting of this systematic review also follows the Preferred Reporting for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines [ 30 ] (PRISMA flow diagram and PRISMA Checklist available in supplementary files ). This review is an update of a previous review of the same topic [ 31 ], published in 2012.

Identification of studies

Nine electronic databases (CINAHL, Cochrane Library, Google Scholar, Informit, Medline, PsychINFO, Psychology and Behavioural Sciences Collection, Scopus, and SPORTDiscus) were systematically searched for relevant records published from 2012 to March 10, 2020. The following key terms were developed by all members of the research team (and guided by previous reviews) and entered into these databases by author LW: sport* AND health AND value OR benefit* OR effect* OR outcome* OR impact* AND psych* OR depress* OR stress OR anxiety OR happiness OR mood OR ‘quality of life’ OR ‘social health’ OR ‘social relation*’ OR well* OR ‘social connect*’ OR ‘social functioning’ OR ‘life satisfac*’ OR ‘mental health’ OR social OR sociolog* OR affect* OR enjoy* OR fun. Where possible, Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) were also used.

Criteria for inclusion/exclusion

The titles of studies identified using this method were screened by LW. Abstract and full text of the articles were reviewed independently by LW and NE. To be included in the current review, each study needed to meet each of the following criteria: (1) published in English from 2012 to 2020; (2) full-text available online; (3) original research or report published in a peer-reviewed journal; (4) provides data on the psychological or social effects of participation in sport (with sport defined as a subset of exercise that can be undertaken individually or as a part of a team, where participants adhere to a common set of rules or expectations, and a defined goal exists); (5) the population of interest were adults (18 years and older) and were apparently healthy. All papers retrieved in the initial search were assessed for eligibility by title and abstract. In cases where a study could not be included or excluded via their title and abstract, the full text of the article was reviewed independently by two of the authors.

Data extraction

For the included studies, the following data was extracted independently by LW and checked by NE using a customized Google Docs spreadsheet: author name, year of publication, country, study design, aim, type of sport (e.g., tennis, hockey, team, individual), study conditions/comparisons, sample size, where participants were recruited from, mean age of participants, measure of sports participation, measure of physical activity, psychological and/or social outcome/s, measure of psychological and/or social outcome/s, statistical method of analysis, changes in physical activity or sports participation, and the psychological and/or social results.

Risk of bias (ROB) assessment

A risk of bias was performed by LW and AP independently using the ‘Quality Assessment Tool for Observational Cohort and Cross-Sectional Studies’ OR the ‘Quality Assessment of Controlled Intervention Studies’ for the included quantitative studies, and the ‘Critical Appraisal Skills Programme (CASP) Checklist for the included qualitative studies [ 32 , 33 ]. Any discrepancies in the ROB assessments were discussed between the two reviewers, and a consensus reached.

The search yielded 8528 studies, with a total of 29 studies included in the systematic review (Fig.  1 ). Tables  1 and 2 provide a summary of the included studies. The research included adults from 18 to 84 years old, with most of the evidence coming from studies targeting young adults (18–25 years). Study samples ranged from 14 to 131, 962, with the most reported psychological outcomes being self-rated mental health ( n  = 5) and depression ( n  = 5). Most studies did not investigate or report the link between a particular sport and a specific mental health or social outcome; instead, the authors’ focused on comparing the impact of sport to physical activity, and/or individual sports compared to team sports. The results of this review are summarized in the following section, with findings presented by study design (cross-sectional, experimental, and longitudinal).

Flow of studies through the review process

Effects of sports participation on psychological well-being, ill-being, and social outcomes

Cross-sectional evidence.

This review included 14 studies reporting on the cross-sectional relationship between sports participation and psychological and/or social outcomes. Sample sizes range from n  = 414 to n  = 131,962 with a total of n  = 239,394 adults included across the cross-sectional studies.

The cross-sectional evidence generally supports that participation in sport, and especially team sports, is associated with greater mental health and psychological wellbeing in adults compared to non-participants [ 36 , 59 ]; and that higher frequency of sports participation and/or sport played at a higher level of competition, are also linked to lower levels of mental distress in adults . This was not the case for one specific study involving ice hockey players aged 35 and over, with Kitchen and Chowhan (2016) Kitchen and Chowhan (2016) reporting no relationship between participation in ice hockey and either mental health, or perceived life stress [ 54 ]. There is also some evidence to support that previous participation in sports (e.g., during childhood or young adulthood) is linked to better mental health outcomes later in life, including improved mental well-being and lower mental distress [ 59 ], even after controlling for age and current physical activity.

Compared to published community data for adults, elite or high-performance adult athletes demonstrated higher levels of body satisfaction, self-esteem, and overall life satisfaction [ 39 ]; and reported reduced tendency to respond to distress with anger and depression. However, rates of psychological distress were higher in the elite sport cohort (compared to community norms), with nearly 1 in 5 athletes reporting ‘high to very high’ distress, and 1 in 3 reporting poor mental health symptoms at a level warranting treatment by a health professional in one study ( n  = 749) [ 39 ].

Four studies focused on the associations between physical activity and sports participation and mental health outcomes in older adults. Physical activity was associated with greater quality of life [ 56 ], with the relationship strongest for those participating in sport in middle age, and for those who cycled in later life (> 65) [ 56 ]. Group physical activities (e.g., walking groups) and sports (e.g., golf) were also significantly related to excellent self-rated health, low depressive symptoms, high health-related quality of life (HRQoL) and a high frequency of laughter in males and females [ 60 , 61 ]. No participation or irregular participation in sport was associated with symptoms of mild to severe depression in older adults [ 62 ].

Several cross-sectional studies examined whether the effects of physical activity varied by type (e.g., total physical activity vs. sports participation). In an analysis of 1446 young adults (mean age = 18), total physical activity, moderate-to-vigorous physical activity, and team sport were independently associated with mental health [ 46 ]. Relative to individual physical activity, after adjusting for covariates and moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA), only team sport was significantly associated with improved mental health. Similarly, in a cross-sectional analysis of Australian women, Eime, Harvey, Payne (2014) reported that women who engaged in club and team-based sports (tennis or netball) reported better mental health and life satisfaction than those who engaged in individual types of physical activity [ 47 ]. Interestingly, there was no relationship between the amount of physical activity and either of these outcomes, suggesting that other qualities of sports participation contribute to its relationship to mental health and life satisfaction. There was also some evidence to support a relationship between exercise type (ball sports, aerobic activity, weightlifting, and dancing), and mental health amongst young adults (mean age 22 years) [ 48 ], with ball sports and dancing related to fewer symptoms of depression in students with high stress; and weightlifting related to fewer depressive symptoms in weightlifters exhibiting low stress.

Longitudinal evidence

Eight studies examined the longitudinal relationship between sports participation and either mental health and/or social outcomes. Sample sizes range from n  = 113 to n  = 1679 with a total of n  = 7022 adults included across the longitudinal studies.

Five of the included longitudinal studies focused on the relationship between sports participation in childhood or adolescence and mental health in young adulthood. There is evidence that participation in sport in high-school is protective of future symptoms of anxiety (including panic disorder, generalised anxiety disorder, social phobia, and agoraphobia) [ 42 ]. Specifically, after controlling for covariates (including current physical activity), the number of years of sports participation in high school was shown to be protective of symptoms of panic and agoraphobia in young adulthood, but not protective of symptoms of social phobia or generalized anxiety disorder [ 42 ]. A comparison of individual or team sports participation also revealed that participation in either context was protective of panic disorder symptoms, while only team sport was protective of agoraphobia symptoms, and only individual sport was protective of social phobia symptoms. Furthermore, current and past sports team participation was shown to negatively relate to adult depressive symptoms [ 43 ]; drop out of sport was linked to higher depressive symptoms in adulthood compared to those with maintained participation [ 9 , 22 , 63 ]; and consistent participation in team sports (but not individual sport) in adolescence was linked to higher self-rated mental health, lower perceived stress and depressive symptoms, and lower depression scores in early adulthood [ 53 , 58 ].

Two longitudinal studies [ 35 , 55 ], also investigated the association between team and individual playing context and mental health. Dore and colleagues [ 35 ] reported that compared to individual activities, being active in informal groups (e.g., yoga, running groups) or team sports was associated with better mental health, fewer depressive symptoms and higher social connectedness – and that involvement in team sports was related to better mental health regardless of physical activity volume. Kim and James [ 55 ] discovered that sports participation led to both short and long-term improvements in positive affect and life satisfaction.

A study on social outcomes related to mixed martial-arts (MMA) and Brazilian jiu-jitsu (BJJ) showed that both sports improved practitioners’ self-control and pro-social behavior, with greater improvements seen in the BJJ group [ 62 ]. Notably, while BJJ reduced participants’ reported aggression, there was a slight increase in MMA practitioners, though it is worth mentioning that individuals who sought out MMA had higher levels of baseline aggression.

Experimental evidence

Six of the included studies were experimental or quasi-experimental. Sample sizes ranged from n  = 28 to n  = 55 with a total of n  = 239 adults included across six longitudinal studies. Three studies involved a form of martial arts (such as judo and karate) [ 45 , 51 , 52 ], one involved a variety of team sports (such as netball, soccer, and cricket) [ 34 ], and the remaining two focused on badminton [ 57 ] and handball [ 49 ].

Brinkley and colleagues [ 34 ] reported significant effects on interpersonal communication (but not vitality, social cohesion, quality of life, stress, or interpersonal relationships) for participants ( n  = 40) engaging in a 12-week workplace team sports intervention. Also using a 12-week intervention, Hornstrup et al. [ 49 ] reported a significant improvement in mental energy (but not well-being or anxiety) in young women (mean age = 24; n  = 28) playing in a handball program. Patterns et al. [ 57 ] showed that in comparison to no exercise, participation in an 8-week badminton or running program had no significant improvement on self-esteem, despite improvements in perceived and actual fitness levels.

Three studies examined the effect of martial arts on the mental health of older adults (mean ages 79 [ 52 ], 64 [ 51 ], and 70 [ 45 ] years). Participation in Karate-Do had positive effects on overall mental health, emotional wellbeing, depression and anxiety when compared to other activities (physical, cognitive, mindfulness) and a control group [ 51 , 52 ]. Ciaccioni et al. [ 45 ] found that a Judo program did not affect either the participants’ mental health or their body satisfaction, citing a small sample size, and the limited length of the intervention as possible contributors to the findings.

Qualitative evidence

Three studies interviewed current or former sports players regarding their experiences with sport. Chinkov and Holt [ 41 ] reported that jiu-jitsu practitioners (mean age 35 years) were more self-confident in their lives outside of the gym, including improved self-confidence in their interactions with others because of their training. McGraw and colleagues [ 37 ] interviewed former and current National Football League (NFL) players and their families about its impact on the emotional and mental health of the players. Most of the players reported that their NFL career provided them with social and emotional benefits, as well as improvements to their self-esteem even after retiring. Though, despite these benefits, almost all the players experienced at least one mental health challenge during their career, including depression, anxiety, or difficulty controlling their temper. Some of the players and their families reported that they felt socially isolated from people outside of the national football league.

Through a series of semi-structured interviews and focus groups, Thorpe, Anders [ 40 ] investigated the impact of an Aboriginal male community sporting team on the health of its players. The players reported they felt a sense of belonging when playing in the team, further noting that the social and community aspects were as important as the physical health benefits. Participating in the club strengthened the cultural identity of the players, enhancing their well-being. The players further noted that participation provided them with enjoyment, stress relief, a sense of purpose, peer support, and improved self-esteem. Though they also noted challenges, including the presence of racism, community conflict, and peer-pressure.

Quality of studies

Full details of our risk of bias (ROB) results are provided in Supplementary Material A . Of the three qualitative studies assessed using the Critical Appraisal Skills Program (CASP), all three were deemed to have utilised and reported appropriate methodological standards on at least 8 of the 10 criteria. Twenty studies were assessed using the Quality Assessment Tool for Observational Cohort and Cross-Sectional Studies, with all studies clearly reporting the research question/s or objective/s and study population. However, only four studies provided a justification for sample size, and less than half of the studies met quality criteria for items 6, 7, 9, or 10 (and items 12 and 13 were largely not applicable). Of concern, only four of the observational or cohort studies were deemed to have used clearly defined, valid, and reliable exposure measures (independent variables) and implemented them consistently across all study participants. Six studies were assessed using the Quality Assessment of Controlled Intervention Studies, with three studies described as a randomized trial (but none of the three reported a suitable method of randomization, concealment of treatment allocation, or blinding to treatment group assignment). Three studies showed evidence that study groups were similar at baseline for important characteristics and an overall drop-out rate from the study < 20%. Four studies reported high adherence to intervention protocols (with two not reporting) and five demonstrated that.study outcomes were assessed using valid and reliable measures and implemented consistently across all study participants. Importantly, researchers did not report or have access to validated instruments for assessing sport participation or physical activity amongst adults, though most studies provided psychometrics for their mental health outcome measure/s. Only one study reported that the sample size was sufficiently powered to detect a difference in the main outcome between groups (with ≥ 80% power) and that all participants were included in the analysis of results (intention-to-treat analysis). In general, the methodological quality of the six randomised studies was deemed low.

Initially, our discussion will focus on the review findings regarding sports participation and well-being, ill-being, and psychological health. However, the heterogeneity and methodological quality of the included research (especially controlled trials) should be considered during the interpretation of our results. Considering our findings, the Mental Health through Sport conceptual model for adults will then be presented and discussed and study limitations outlined.

Sports participation and psychological well-being

In summary, the evidence presented here indicates that for adults, sports participation is associated with better overall mental health [ 36 , 46 , 47 , 59 ], mood [ 56 ], higher life satisfaction [ 39 , 47 ], self-esteem [ 39 ], body satisfaction [ 39 ], HRQoL [ 60 ], self-rated health [ 61 ], and frequency of laughter [ 61 ]. Sports participation has also shown to be predictive of better psychological wellbeing over time [ 35 , 53 ], higher positive affect [ 55 ], and greater life satisfaction [ 55 ]. Furthermore, higher frequency of sports participation and/or sport played at a higher level of competition, have been linked to lower levels of mental distress, higher levels of body satisfaction, self-esteem, and overall life satisfaction in adults [ 39 ].

Despite considerable heterogeneity of sports type, cross-sectional and experimental research indicate that team-based sports participation, compared to individual sports and informal group physical activity, has a more positive effect on mental energy [ 49 ], physical self-perception [ 57 ], and overall psychological health and well-being in adults, regardless of physical activity volume [ 35 , 46 , 47 ]. And, karate-do benefits the subjective well-being of elderly practitioners [ 51 , 52 ]. Qualitative research in this area has queried participants’ experiences of jiu-jitsu, Australian football, and former and current American footballers. Participants in these sports reported that their participation was beneficial for psychological well-being [ 37 , 40 , 41 ], improved self-esteem [ 37 , 40 , 41 ], and enjoyment [ 37 ].

Sports participation and psychological ill-being

Of the included studies, n  = 19 examined the relationship between participating in sport and psychological ill-being. In summary, there is consistent evidence that sports participation is related to lower depression scores [ 43 , 48 , 61 , 62 ]. There were mixed findings regarding psychological stress, where participation in childhood (retrospectively assessed) was related to lower stress in young adulthood [ 41 ], but no relationship was identified between recreational hockey in adulthood and stress [ 54 ]. Concerning the potential impact of competing at an elite level, there is evidence of higher stress in elite athletes compared to community norms [ 39 ]. Further, there is qualitative evidence that many current or former national football league players experienced at least one mental health challenge, including depression, anxiety, difficulty controlling their temper, during their career [ 37 ].

Evidence from longitudinal research provided consistent evidence that participating in sport in adolescence is protective of symptoms of depression in young adulthood [ 43 , 53 , 58 , 63 ], and further evidence that participating in young adulthood is related to lower depressive symptoms over time (6 months) [ 35 ]. Participation in adolescence was also protective of manifestations of anxiety (panic disorder and agoraphobia) and stress in young adulthood [ 42 ], though participation in young adulthood was not related to a more general measure of anxiety [ 35 ] nor to changes in negative affect [ 55 ]). The findings from experimental research were mixed. Two studies examined the effect of karate-do on markers of psychological ill-being, demonstrating its capacity to reduce anxiety [ 52 ], with some evidence of its effectiveness on depression [ 51 ]. The other studies examined small-sided team-based games but showed no effect on stress or anxiety [ 34 , 49 ]. Most studies did not differentiate between team and individual sports, though one study found that adolescents who participated in team sports (not individual sports) in secondary school has lower depression scores in young adulthood [ 58 ].

Sports participation and social outcomes

Seven of the included studies examined the relationship between sports participation and social outcomes. However, very few studies examined social outcomes or tested a social outcome as a potential mediator of the relationship between sport and mental health. It should also be noted that this body of evidence comes from a wide range of sport types, including martial arts, professional football, and workplace team-sport, as well as different methodologies. Taken as a whole, the evidence shows that participating in sport is beneficial for several social outcomes, including self-control [ 50 ], pro-social behavior [ 50 ], interpersonal communication [ 34 ], and fostering a sense of belonging [ 40 ]. Further, there is evidence that group activity, for example team sport or informal group activity, is related to higher social connectedness over time, though analyses showed that social connectedness was not a mediator for mental health [ 35 ].

There were conflicting findings regarding social effects at the elite level, with current and former NFL players reporting that they felt socially isolated during their career [ 37 ], whilst another study reported no relationship between participation at the elite level and social dysfunction [ 39 ]. Conversely, interviews with a group of indigenous men revealed that they felt as though participating in an all-indigenous Australian football team provided them with a sense of purpose, and they felt as though the social aspect of the game was as important as the physical benefits it provides [ 40 ].

Mental health through sport conceptual model for adults

The ‘Health through Sport’ model provides a depiction of the determinants and benefits of sports participation [ 31 ]. The model recognises that the physical, mental, and social benefits of sports participation vary by the context of sport (e.g., individual vs. team, organized vs. informal). To identify the elements of sport which contribute to its effect on mental health outcomes, we describe the ‘Mental Health through Sport’ model (Fig.  2 ). The model proposes that the social and physical elements of sport each provide independent, and likely synergistic contributions to its overall influence on mental health.

The Mental Health through Sport conceptual model

The model describes two key pathways through which sport may influence mental health: physical activity, and social relationships and support. Several likely moderators of this effect are also provided, including sport type, intensity, frequency, context (team vs. individual), environment (e.g., indoor vs. outdoor), as well as the level of competition (e.g., elite vs. amateur).

The means by which the physical activity component of sport may influence mental health stems from the work of Lubans et al., who propose three key groups of mechanisms: neurobiological, psychosocial, and behavioral [ 64 ]. Processes whereby physical activity may enhance psychological outcomes via changes in the structural and functional composition of the brain are referred to as neurobiological mechanisms [ 65 , 66 ]. Processes whereby physical activity provides opportunities for the development of self-efficacy, opportunity for mastery, changes in self-perceptions, the development of independence, and for interaction with the environment are considered psychosocial mechanisms. Lastly, processes by which physical activity may influence behaviors which ultimately affect psychological health, including changes in sleep duration, self-regulation, and coping skills, are described as behavioral mechanisms.

Playing sport offers the opportunity to form relationships and to develop a social support network, both of which are likely to influence mental health. Thoits [ 29 ] describes 7 key mechanisms by which social relationships and support may influence mental health: social influence/social comparison; social control; role-based purpose and meaning (mattering); self-esteem; sense of control; belonging and companionship; and perceived support availability [ 29 ]. These mechanisms and their presence within a sporting context are elaborated below.

Subjective to the attitudes and behaviors of individuals in a group, social influence and comparison may facilitate protective or harmful effects on mental health. Participants in individual or team sport will be influenced and perhaps steered by the behaviors, expectations, and norms of other players and teams. When individual’s compare their capabilities, attitudes, and values to those of other participants, their own behaviors and subsequent health outcomes may be affected. When others attempt to encourage or discourage an individual to adopt or reject certain health practices, social control is displayed [ 29 ]. This may evolve as strategies between players (or between players and coach) are discussion and implemented. Likewise, teammates may try to motivate each another during a match to work harder, or to engage in specific events or routines off-field (fitness programs, after game celebrations, attending club events) which may impact current and future physical and mental health.

Sport may also provide behavioral guidance, purpose, and meaning to its participants. Role identities (positions within a social structure that come with reciprocal obligations), often formed as a consequence of social ties formed through sport. Particularly in team sports, participants come to understand they form an integral part of the larger whole, and consequently, they hold certain responsibility in ensuring the team’s success. They have a commitment to the team to, train and play, communicate with the team and a potential responsibility to maintain a high level of health, perform to their capacity, and support other players. As a source of behavioral guidance and of purpose and meaning in life, these identities are likely to influence mental health outcomes amongst sport participants.

An individual’s level of self-esteem may be affected by the social relationships and social support provided through sport; with improved perceptions of capability (or value within a team) in the sporting domain likely to have positive impact on global self-esteem and sense of worth [ 64 ]. The unique opportunities provided through participation in sport, also allow individuals to develop new skills, overcome challenges, and develop their sense of self-control or mastery . Working towards and finding creative solutions to challenges in sport facilitates a sense of mastery in participants. This sense of mastery may translate to other areas of life, with individual’s developing the confidence to cope with varied life challenges. For example, developing a sense of mastery regarding capacity to formulate new / creative solutions when taking on an opponent in sport may result in greater confidence to be creative at work. Social relationships and social support provided through sport may also provide participants with a source of belonging and companionship. The development of connections (on and off the field) to others who share common interests, can build a sense of belonging that may mediate improvements in mental health outcomes. Social support is often provided emotionally during expressions of trust and care; instrumentally via tangible assistance; through information such as advice and suggestions; or as appraisal such feedback. All forms of social support provided on and off the field contribute to a more generalised sense of perceived support that may mediate the effect of social interaction on mental health outcomes.

Participation in sport may influence mental health via some combination of the social mechanisms identified by Thoits, and the neurobiological, psychosocial, and behavioral mechanisms stemming from physical activity identified by Lubans [ 29 , 64 ]. The exact mechanisms through which sport may confer psychological benefit is likely to vary between sports, as each sport varies in its physical and social requirements. One must also consider the social effects of sports participation both on and off the field. For instance, membership of a sporting team and/or club may provide a sense of identity and belonging—an effect that persists beyond the immediacy of playing the sport and may have a persistent effect on their psychological health. Furthermore, the potential for team-based activity to provide additional benefit to psychological outcomes may not just be attributable to the differences in social interactions, there are also physiological differences in the requirements for sport both within (team vs. team) and between (team vs. individual) categories that may elicit additional improvements in psychological outcomes. For example, evidence supports that exercise intensity moderates the relationship between physical activity and several psychological outcomes—supporting that sports performed at higher intensity will be more beneficial for psychological health.

Limitations and recommendations

There are several limitations of this review worthy of consideration. Firstly, amongst the included studies there was considerable heterogeneity in study outcomes and study methodology, and self-selection bias (especially in non-experimental studies) is likely to influence study findings and reduce the likelihood that study participants and results are representative of the overall population. Secondly, the predominately observational evidence included in this and Eime’s prior review enabled us to identify the positive relationship between sports participation and social and psychological health (and examine directionality)—but more experimental and longitudinal research is required to determine causality and explore potential mechanisms responsible for the effect of sports participation on participant outcomes. Additional qualitative work would also help researchers gain a better understanding of the relationship between specific elements of the sporting environment and mental health and social outcomes in adult participants. Thirdly, there were no studies identified in the literature where sports participation involved animals (such as equestrian sports) or guns (such as shooting sports). Such studies may present novel and important variables in the assessment of mental health benefits for participants when compared to non-participants or participants in sports not involving animals/guns—further research is needed in this area. Our proposed conceptual model also identifies several pathways through which sport may lead to improvements in mental health—but excludes some potentially negative influences (such as poor coaching behaviors and injury). And our model is not designed to capture all possible mechanisms, creating the likelihood that other mechanisms exist but are not included in this review. Additionally, an interrelationship exits between physical activity, mental health, and social relationships, whereby changes in one area may facilitate changes in the other/s; but for the purpose of this study, we have focused on how the physical and social elements of sport may mediate improvements in psychological outcomes. Consequently, our conceptual model is not all-encompassing, but designed to inform and guide future research investigating the impact of sport participation on mental health.

The findings of this review endorse that participation in sport is beneficial for psychological well-being, indicators of psychological ill-being, and social outcomes in adults. Furthermore, participation in team sports is associated with better psychological and social outcomes compared to individual sports or other physical activities. Our findings support and add to previous review findings [ 1 ]; and have informed the development of our ‘Mental Health through Sport’ conceptual model for adults which presents the potential mechanisms by which participation in sport may affect mental health.

Availability of data and materials

The datasets used and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

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Acknowledgements

We would like to acknowledge the work of the original systematic review conducted by Eime, R. M., Young, J. A., Harvey, J. T., Charity, M. J., and Payne, W. R. (2013).

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Eather, N., Wade, L., Pankowiak, A. et al. The impact of sports participation on mental health and social outcomes in adults: a systematic review and the ‘Mental Health through Sport’ conceptual model. Syst Rev 12 , 102 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1186/s13643-023-02264-8

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Essay on Sports

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Sports play a crucial role in our lives, offering numerous benefits both physically and mentally. Engaging in sports activities not only promotes physical fitness but also teaches valuable life skills and promotes social interaction.

Firstly, participating in sports enhances our physical well-being. Regular exercise involved in sports helps strengthen muscles, improve cardiovascular health, and increase overall endurance. It also aids in maintaining a healthy weight and preventing various health issues such as obesity, diabetes, and heart diseases.

Furthermore, sports instill important life skills such as teamwork, discipline, perseverance, and leadership. Athletes learn to work together towards a common goal, understand the value of hard work and dedication, and develop the ability to overcome challenges and setbacks. These qualities are not only beneficial on the field but also applicable in various aspects of life.

Sports also provide a platform for social interaction and the development of friendships. Whether playing on a team or attending sporting events, individuals have the opportunity to connect with others who share similar interests. This fosters a sense of community, encourages positive competition, and promotes cultural exchange.

In conclusion, sports are more than just physical activities. They contribute to our physical well-being, teach important life skills, and facilitate social interaction. Engaging in sports is a valuable pursuit that brings numerous benefits and should be encouraged for individuals of all ages.

Sports play a vital role in our society, offering a multitude of benefits both physically and mentally. Whether it’s participating in a team sport or engaging in individual activities, sports have a significant impact on individuals and communities alike.

First and foremost, sports promote physical fitness and overall health. Regular participation in sports activities helps improve cardiovascular health, increase muscle strength and flexibility, and enhance overall endurance. It aids in maintaining a healthy weight and reduces the risk of developing various health issues such as obesity, diabetes, and heart diseases. Moreover, engaging in sports from a young age encourages a habit of an active lifestyle, setting a foundation for a healthier future.

Furthermore, sports teach essential life skills and values. Team sports, in particular, promote teamwork, cooperation, and effective communication. Athletes learn to work together towards a common goal, understand the value of each team member’s contribution, and develop skills in collaboration and problem-solving. These skills are not only applicable to the field but also extend to various aspects of life, including academics, career, and personal relationships.

Sports also instill discipline, perseverance, and resilience. Athletes learn the importance of practice, setting goals, and working hard to achieve them. They face challenges and setbacks, but through sports, they develop the determination and resilience to overcome obstacles and strive for improvement. These qualities are crucial for success in any endeavor and contribute to personal growth and character development.

Moreover, sports provide a platform for social interaction and community building. Whether it’s playing on a team or attending sporting events, individuals have the opportunity to connect with others who share similar interests. This fosters a sense of belonging, camaraderie, and unity among players and fans alike. Sporting events bring people together, promoting cultural exchange and fostering a spirit of sportsmanship and fair play.

In conclusion, sports have far-reaching effects beyond physical activity. They promote physical fitness, teach valuable life skills, and foster social interaction and community building. Engaging in sports is not only enjoyable but also contributes to personal growth, overall well-being, and the development of a stronger and healthier society. Therefore, it is important to encourage and support sports participation at all levels, ensuring that individuals of all ages have access to the numerous benefits that sports offer.

Introduction :

Sports play a significant role in society, impacting individuals physically, mentally, and socially. Whether participating in team sports or engaging in individual activities, sports offer a range of benefits that contribute to personal growth and community development. This essay will explore the importance of sports, discussing their impact on physical fitness, life skills, social interaction, and overall well-being.

Physical Fitness and Health

Regular participation in sports activities promotes physical fitness and overall health. Engaging in physical exercise through sports helps improve cardiovascular health, increase muscle strength and flexibility, and enhance endurance. It aids in maintaining a healthy weight and reduces the risk of developing health issues such as obesity, diabetes, and heart disease. Through sports, individuals improve their physical capabilities, pushing their limits, and achieving higher levels of fitness. Moreover, participating in sports from a young age encourages the development of an active lifestyle, establishing healthy habits that can last a lifetime.

Life Skills and Values

Sports teach valuable life skills and values that extend beyond the field of play. Team sports, in particular, promote teamwork, cooperation, and effective communication. Athletes learn to work together towards a common goal, understanding the value of each team member’s contribution. They develop skills in collaboration, problem-solving, and decision-making, all of which are essential in various aspects of life, including academics, career, and personal relationships. Sports also instill discipline, perseverance, and resilience. Athletes learn the importance of practice, setting goals, and working hard to achieve them. They face challenges and setbacks, but through sports, they develop the determination and resilience to overcome obstacles and strive for improvement. These qualities are crucial for success in any endeavor and contribute to personal growth and character development.

Social Interaction and Community Building

Sports provide a platform for social interaction and community building. Whether it’s playing on a team or attending sporting events, individuals have the opportunity to connect with others who share similar interests. This fosters a sense of belonging, camaraderie, and unity among players and fans alike. Sporting events bring people together, promoting cultural exchange and fostering a spirit of sportsmanship and fair play. Through sports, individuals develop social skills, learn to respect others, and appreciate diversity. They build relationships and networks that extend beyond the realm of sports, creating a sense of community and fostering a positive social environment.

Overall Well-being and Personal Growth

Engaging in sports contributes to overall well-being and personal growth. Physical activity releases endorphins, the “feel-good” hormones, which reduce stress, anxiety, and depression. Participating in sports provides an outlet for emotions, helping individuals manage their mental health and improve their overall mood. Additionally, sports promote self-confidence and self-esteem. As athletes achieve their goals, surpass their limits, and experience success, they develop a sense of accomplishment and self-belief that translates into other areas of life. Sports also teach individuals to accept failure and learn from it, promoting a growth mindset and encouraging continuous self-improvement.

Conclusion :

Sports have a profound impact on individuals and communities, offering a range of benefits that encompass physical fitness, life skills, social interaction, and overall well-being. Engaging in sports not only improves physical health but also teaches valuable life lessons, instills important values, and fosters social connections. It contributes to personal growth, character development, and the creation of a positive and healthy society. Therefore, it is essential to promote and support sports participation at all levels, ensuring that individuals of all ages have access to the numerous benefits that sports offer.

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Understanding participation in sport and physical activity among children and adults: a review of qualitative studies

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Steven Allender, Gill Cowburn, Charlie Foster, Understanding participation in sport and physical activity among children and adults: a review of qualitative studies, Health Education Research , Volume 21, Issue 6, December 2006, Pages 826–835, https://doi.org/10.1093/her/cyl063

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Qualitative research may be able to provide an answer as to why adults and children do or do not participate in sport and physical activity. This paper systematically examines published and unpublished qualitative research studies of UK children's and adults' reasons for participation and non-participation in sport and physical activity. The review covers peer reviewed and gray literature from 1990 to 2004. Papers were entered into review if they: aimed to explore the participants' experiences of sport and physical activity and reasons for participation or non-participation in sport and physical activity, collected information on participants who lived in the United Kingdom and presented data collected using qualitative methods. From >1200 papers identified in the initial search, 24 papers met all inclusion criteria. The majority of these reported research with young people based in community settings. Weight management, social interaction and enjoyment were common reasons for participation in sport and physical activity. Concerns about maintaining a slim body shape motivated participation among young girls. Older people identified the importance of sport and physical activity in staving off the effects of aging and providing a social support network. Challenges to identity such as having to show others an unfit body, lacking confidence and competence in core skills or appearing overly masculine were barriers to participation.

It is generally accepted that physical activity confers benefits to psychosocial health, functional ability and general quality of life [ 1 ] and has been proven to reduce the risk of coronary heart disease [ 2 ] and some cancers [ 3 ]. Here, physical activity refers to ‘any bodily movement produced by skeletal muscles that results in energy expenditure’ [ 4 ].

Conditions associated with physical inactivity include obesity, hypertension, diabetes, back pain, poor joint mobility and psychosocial problems [ 5–7 ]. Physical inactivity is a major public health challenge in the developed world and is recognized as a global epidemic [ 8 ]. Within the United States, the rate of childhood obesity is expected to reach 40% in the next two decades [ 9 ] and Type 2 diabetes is expected to affect 300 million people worldwide within the same time [ 10 ].

The UK government has set a target for ‘70% of the population to be reasonably active (for example 30 minutes of moderate exercise five times a week) by 2020’ [ 8 , 11 ] (p. 15). This target could be described as ambitious; only 37% of men and 24% of women in the United Kingdom currently meet this benchmark [ 12 ]. The Health Survey for England (HSE) [ 13 ] found that the number of physically inactive people (less than one occasion of 30-min activity per week) was increasing and that this trend was consistent for both genders and across all age groups [ 14 ]. Conventionally, sport and forms of physical activity such as aerobics, running or gym work have been the focus of efforts to increase population activity levels. The HSE measure includes activities, such as gardening and housework, which are not traditionally considered as physical activity. Sport England found that in the 10-year period between 1987 and 1996 participation in traditional types of sport and physical activity stagnated or fell in all groups other than the 60- to 69-year old age group. This trend was socially patterned by gender, socio-economic status, social class and ethnicity [ 15 ]. There are many broad influences upon physical activity behavior including intra-personal, social, environmental factors and these determinants vary across the life course [ 4 ].

Ambitious national targets and increased funding of community sport and physical activity projects (such as the Sports Hub in Regent's Park, London) [ 16 ] show that sport and physical activity is gaining social, political and health policy importance. The increased interest in physical activity is welcome, but the trend data hints that current interventions to promote sport and physical activity are inadequate. Further, it questions whether the evidence base supporting physical activity policy provides an adequate understanding of the reasons for participation or non-participation in physical activity.

Historically, research into determinants of sport and physical activity participation has tended to adopt quantitative methods, which undertake cross-sectional surveys of pre-determined questions on individual's knowledge, attitudes and beliefs about sport and physical activity. For example, the HSE [ 13 ] asks adults about activity in five domains: activity at work, activity at home (e.g. housework, gardening, do it yourself maintenance (DIY)), walks of ≥15 min and sports and exercise activities. Large studies such as these can successfully assess the direction and strength of trends in participation but are unable to explain how children and adults adopt, maintain or cease to participate in sport and physical activity throughout their lives.

An alternative approach is required which is sensitive to the contextual, social, economic and cultural factors which influence participation in physical activity [ 17 ]. Qualitative methods offer this in-depth insight into individuals' experiences and perceptions of the motives and barriers to participation in sport and physical activity [ 18 ] and are recognized as increasingly important in developing the evidence base for public health [ 19 ]. Although qualitative research is a blanket term for a wide range of approaches, this type of research typically aims to understand the meaning of individual experience within social context. The data for qualitative studies often come from repeated interviews or focus groups, are generally more in-depth and have fewer participants than quantitative research. Additionally, the inductive nature of qualitative research allows for theory to emerge from the lived experiences of research participants rather than the pre-determined hypotheses testing of quantitative approaches.

Thomas and Nelson [ 20 ] describe qualitative methods as the ‘new kid on the block’ in sport and physical activity research and a small body of qualitative research on sport and physical activity in the United Kingdom is known to exist. This paper aims to systematically examine published and unpublished qualitative research studies which have examined UK children's and adults' reasons for participation and non-participation in sport and physical activity.

The review of qualitative research covered the period from 1990 to 2004. This 15-year period was considered adequate to cover the most recent research on barriers and motivation to participation in sport and physical activity. Research papers were sourced in three ways. First, a wide range of electronic databases were searched, including Medline, CINAHL, Index to Thesis, ISI Science Citation Index, ISI Social Science Citation Index, PAIS International, PSYCHINFO, SIGLE and SPORTS-DISCUS. Second, relevant references from published literature were followed up and included where they met inclusion criteria. Third, additional ‘gray’ literature not identified in electronic searches was sourced through individuals who were likely to have knowledge in this area, including librarians and researchers active in the field. This third step ensures inclusion of papers which may not be submitted to peer review journals including reports for government bodies such as Sport England or the Department of Health. Search terms included ‘sports’, ‘dancing’, ‘play’, ‘cycle’, ‘walk’, ‘physical activity’, ‘physical education’ and ‘exercise’.

Papers which met the following criteria were entered into the next phase of the review:

(i) the aim of the study was to explore the participants' experiences of sport and physical activity and reasons for participation or non-participation in sport and physical activity;

(ii) the study collected information on participants who lived in the United Kingdom; and,

(iii) the study presented data collected using qualitative methods.

Two researchers (GC and SA) reviewed each paper independently. Results were compared and discrepancies discussed. Data were extracted using a review schema developed by the research team. In most cases, the original author's own words were used in an attempt to convey the intended meaning and to allow for more realistic comparison between studies.

More than 1200 papers were identified by the initial search strategy. A total of 24 papers were accepted into the final stage of the review, with all but two published during or after 1997. Half of the papers (12) reported research where data were collected in community settings. Of the others, four were set in general physician (GP) referral schemes (in which GPs refer patients to physical activity groups), three in schools, two in sports and leisure clubs and one in a group of three national sports governing bodies. Table I shows that studies described participants by socio-economic status (working class, low income, private or public patient), ethnicity (South Asian and Black in one study, or Scottish, Pakistani, Chinese, Bangladeshi in another) and level of exercise (Elite or other, participant or non-participant).

Participant characteristics

Almost two-thirds of papers (15) did not specify a theoretical framework. Of the nine that did, three used grounded theory, three used a feminist framework, one used figurational sociology, one used gender relations theory and one used Sidentop's model of participation.

The age profile of participants was described in different ways although some grouping was possible ( Table I ). Two studies involved children aged <15 years (5–15 years old and 9–15 years old), seven studies involved research with teenage girls or younger women (aged between 14 and 24 years), 11 related to middle-aged participants (30–65 years) and four reported on adults 50 years or older. The results are organized in two sections: reasons for participation in physical activity and barriers to participation in physical activity. Within each section, results are presented in order of the age group which participated in the study.

Reasons for participation in sport and physical activity

Table II summarizes the main findings of this review. Although most people recognized that there were health benefits associated with physical activity, this was not the main reason for participation. Other factors such as weight management, enjoyment, social interaction and support were more common reasons for people being physically active.

Summary of main findings

Young children

Participation for young children was found to be more enjoyable when children were not being forced to compete and win, but encouraged to experiment with different activities. MacPhail et al. [ 21 ] found providing children with many different types of physical activity and sport-encouraged participation. Enjoyment and support from parents were also crucial [ 22 ]. Parents play a large role in enabling young children opportunities to be physically active and Bostock [ 23 ] found that mothers with young children discouraged their children from playing in an environment perceived as unsafe. Porter [ 24 ] showed that parents are more supportive of activity with easy access, a safe play environment, good ‘drop-off’ arrangements and activities available for other members of the family.

Teenagers and young women

Concerns about body shape and weight management were the main reasons for the participation of young girls. A number of studies [ 25–27 ] reported pressure to conform to popular ideals of beauty as important reasons for teenage girls being physically active. Flintoff and Scraton [ 28 ] interviewed very active girls who described having learnt new skills, increased self-esteem, improved fitness and developed new social networks as motivation to be physically active.

Support from family and significant others at ‘key’ transitional phases (such as changing schools) was essential to maintaining participation [ 29 ]. Those who continued participating through these transitionary periods recalled the importance of positive influences at school in becoming and staying physically active. For girls, having peers to share their active time with was important.

A wide range of adults were studied including patients in GP referral schemes, gay and disabled groups, runners and South Asian and Black communities.

Adults exercise for a sense of achievement, skill development and to spend ‘luxury time’ on themselves away from daily responsibilities [ 30 ]. Non-exercisers recalled negative school experiences as reasons for not participating into middle age [ 31 ].

Studies of GP exercise referral schemes found that the medical sanctioning of programs was a great motivator for participation [ 32 ]. Other benefits reported by referral scheme participants were the social support network created and the general health benefits of being active [ 30 , 33 ].

Among disabled men, exercise provided an opportunity to positively reinterpret their role following a disabling injury [ 34 ]. For this group, displaying and confirming their status as active and competitive was beneficial. Participants in this study described the support network offered by participation as the real value of physical activity and sport. In particular, meeting other disabled men and sharing similar experiences was a key motivator. The building of skills and confidence was another motive for disabled men's participation in sport [ 35 ].

The enjoyment and social networks offered by sport and physical activity are clearly important motivators for many different groups of people aged between 18 and 50 years. The reasons for participation can, however, differ subtly between people within a single group. For example, Smith [ 36 ] interviewed members of a running club and found a distinction between ‘runners’ and ‘joggers’. Runners were elite members of the club and were motivated by intense competition and winning. Conversely, joggers did not consider themselves competitive in races but aimed to better their own previous best time. Joggers were more motivated by the health benefits of running and the increased status afforded to them by non-exercisers who saw them as fit and healthy.

Older adults

Hardcastle and Taylor [ 37 ] suggest that a complex interplay of physical, psychological and environmental factors influence participation among older people. Older adults identified the health benefits of physical activity in terms of reducing the effects of aging and being fit and able to play with grandchildren [ 38 ].

While GP referrals [ 32 , 39 ] encouraged the uptake of exercise in older age groups participation appears to be maintained through enjoyment and strong social networks. This is exemplified by Cooper and Thomas' [ 40 ] study of ballroom dancers in London. Social dancers described dance as helping them challenge the traditional expectations of older people being physically infirm. Participation over time was supported by the flexible nature of ballroom dancing. Different styles of dance provide more or less vigorous forms of activity to suit the skills and limitations of each dancer. Equally important was the social network provided by the weekly social dance encouraging the maintenance of participation across major life events such as bereavement through the support of other dancers in the group. Other studies also highlight the importance of social networks in maintaining participation [ 41 ].

Barriers to participation in sport and physical activity

On a simple level, barriers to participation in physical activity include high costs, poor access to facilities and unsafe environments. Other more complex issues relating to identity and shifting social networks also have a great influence. There were no studies reporting on the barriers to participation in sport and physical activity facing young children.

Negative experiences during school physical activity [physical education (PE)] classes were the strongest factor discouraging participation in teenage girls [ 29 ]. For many girls, impressing boyfriends and other peers was seen as more important than physical activity. While many girls wanted to be physically active, a tension existed between wishing to appear feminine and attractive and the sweaty muscular image attached to active women [ 25 ].

A number of studies [ 27 , 29 , 42 ] showed that tight, ill-fitting PE uniforms were major impediments to girls participating in school sport. These concerns over image and relationships with peers led to an increased interest in non-active leisure.

Flintoff and Scraton [ 28 ] cited the disruptive influence of boys in PE class as another major reason for girls' non-participation. The competitive nature of PE classes and the lack of support for girls from teachers reinforced these problems. Girls were actively marginalized in PE class by boys and many described not being able to get involved in games or even getting to use equipment. Teachers were found to be complicit in this marginalization by not challenging the disruptive behavior of boys in class. Coakley and White [ 29 ] noted that boys were also disruptive out of class and some boys actively discouraged their girlfriends from participating in sport as it made them look ‘butch’. Mulvihill et al. [ 22 ] and Coakley and White [ 29 ] both argue that gender stereotyping has serious negative effects on the participation of girls. Realistic role models for all body types and competency levels were needed rather than the current ‘sporty’ types.

Orme [ 42 ] found that girls were bored by the traditional sports offered in PE. Mulvihill et al. [ 22 ] found that many girls were disappointed with the lack of variety in PE and would rather play sports other than football, rugby and hockey. Being unable to demonstrate competency of a skill to peers in class also made people uncomfortable with PE. Non-traditional activities such as dance were more popular than traditional PE as they provided the opportunity for fun and enjoyment without competition [ 28 ].

Coakley and White [ 29 ] showed that the transition from childhood to adulthood was a key risk time for drop-out. Teenagers did not wish to be associated with activities which they described as ‘childish’ and instead chose activities that were independent and conferred a more adult identity upon them. One participant in this study described leaving a netball team of younger girls because it was ‘babyish’. A number of young women interviewed by these researchers described their belief that ‘adult’ women did not participate in physical activity or sport.

Anxiety and lack of confidence about entering unfamiliar settings such as gyms were the main barriers to participation in GP referral schemes. Not knowing other people, poor body image and not fitting in with the ‘gym’ culture were the prime concerns of this group [ 33 ]. The adults reported in the studies reviewed did not identify with role models used to promote physical activity and people from this age group suggested that realistic exercise leaders would be more effective in encouraging participation [ 41 ]. The lack of realistic role models was also a problem for members of the South Asian and Black community [ 43 ]. This group did not see physical activity as a black or Asian pursuit, but rather as white, middle-class, male domain. The authors argue that there were few opportunities or facilities available to this group.

Self-perception is incredibly important in motivating people to participate in all types of physical activity. The stigma attached to being socially disadvantaged was shown to decrease exercise among low-income women in the Midlands [ 23 ]. Women in this study did not want others to see them walking due to the social stigma attached with not owning a car.

Arthur and Finch's [ 35 ] study of adults with disabilities found that few relevant or positive role models existed. Disabled men reported a lack of knowledge about the appropriate types or levels of activity in relation to their disability. Additionally there were few opportunities to meet other people who were active and disabled. This study also found that the dominance of masculine stereotypes in sport was a particular challenge to participation among gay men. These men expressed concerns about not fitting in and not being one of the ‘lads’. Gay men reported withdrawing from organized sport due to feeling uncomfortable in the associated social situations [ 34 ].

Shaw and Hoeber's [ 44 ] discourse study of three English sports governing bodies reinforced the negative impact of macho culture in sport. Their study found that discourses of masculinity were predominant at all levels of the organization from coaching to senior management. The use of gendered language was shown to actively discourage women from advancing in these organizations. Discourses of femininity (characterized by loyalty, organizational, communicative and human resource skills) were associated with middle and lower management positions compared with masculine discourses (centered on elite coaching, competition and the imperative to win), which were associated with senior organizational roles.

Some older adults were unsure about the ‘right amount’ of physical activity for someone of their age [ 38 ]. As in other age groups, the lack of realistic role models in the community was a deterrent. Exercise prescriptions were perceived as targeted at young people and not relevant to older groups. Porter [ 31 ] found that older people were anxious about returning to physical activity and identified cost and time barriers as the main problems.

This paper has reviewed the qualitative research into the reasons for participation and non-participation of UK adults and children in sport and physical activity. The review covered all qualitative papers relating to sport and physical activity in the United Kingdom from 1990 to 2004.

Although we did find >20 studies, few studies met the basic qualitative research quality criteria of reporting a theoretical framework [ 45 ]. It would appear that little theory is being generated empirically and suggests that any understanding of reasons for participation and non-participation in physical activity in the United Kingdom may be limited.

Shaw and Hoeber [ 44 ] provide one example of the benefits a theoretical framework brings to qualitative research in their analysis of the gendered nature of discourses in three national sporting bodies. Their feminist discourse analysis framework directed the research toward the particular forms of language used in a specific social setting and the implications of this language for marginalizing some groups while supporting the dominance of others. The authors used this framework to show how the masculine discourses used in senior positions actively reduced the career opportunities for women, while men were shown to be actively deterred from regional development officer posts by the feminine discourse surrounding these roles.

Motivations and barriers to participation

Fun, enjoyment and social support for aspects of identity were reported more often as predictors of participation and non-participation than perceived health benefits. For young children and teenage girls in particular, pressure to conform to social stereotypes is a key motivator. Along with older groups, children see enjoyment and social interaction with peers as reasons to be physically active. Although girls report a willingness to be active, this must be on their own terms in a safe non-threatening environment.

A clear opposition can be seen between girls wanting to be physically active and at the same time feminine [ 25 ] and the strong macho culture of school and extracurricular sport [ 46 ]. One area where the evidence base is strong is the negative impact which school PE classes have on participation of young girls. Changing PE uniforms, providing single sex classes and offering alternate, non-competitive forms of PE are easy, realistic ways in which PE could be changed and which the research suggests would improve long-term participation. Additionally, teachers need to take a more active role in ensuring that students are involved and enjoying PE classes. There appears to be some change in this area. The Youth Sports Trust/Nike Girls Project ‘Girls in Sport’ program involved 64 schools across England with the intention of creating ‘girl-friendly’ forms of PE and with changing school practices and community attitudes [ 47 ]. Preliminary results show changes in the style of teaching in PE, ‘girl-friendly’ changing rooms, positive role models for girls in sport, extended and new types of activities, relaxed emphasis on PE kit and an emphasis on rewarding effort as well as achievement.

A number of papers reviewed made the point that the role models for children and young adults are usually beautiful and thin in the case of women and muscular in the case of men. The desire to be thin and, in the case of girls, feminine, leads to increased motivation to be physically active [ 28 ]. This desire is not as strong in older populations and from the mid-20s on, role models with a perfect body have a negative effect on participation [ 43 ].

While the masculine nature of organized and semi-organized sport culture marginalizes women, this review has shown that groups of men are also marginalized. Robertson [ 34 ] has suggested a rethinking of youth sports and in particular the links between sport and masculine identities. Identity formation is a key transition in adolescence, and there is some evidence that physical activity advances identity development. Kendzierski [ 48 ] reported that individuals with an exercise self-schema (self-perception as a physically active person) tended to be active more often and in more types of activity than those with a non-exercise schema (self-perception as not physically active). This relationship between leisure activity and identity may also be dependent on gender and the gendered nature of activities [ 49 ]. Alternate models of sporting clubs, such as those in which children can try a number of traditional and non-traditional sports in one place, could also provide improved take up and maintenance of participation.

Implications for the promotion of sport and physical activity

… throughout the sport and physical activity sector the quality and availability of data on facilities, participation, long term trends, behavioural and other factors is very poor [ 11 ] (p. 14).

Little is known about the reasons why people do and do not participate in physical activity and the relationship between their levels of participation and different stages in their lives. A number of the papers reviewed [ 29 , 34 , 35 ] found that significant shifts in the life course have implications for participation in physical activity. A mix of quantitative and qualitative methods could build an evidence base to understand changes to sport and physical activity at critical transitional phases during childhood, adolescence and adult life. This review provides a starting point for new work.

This review has identified qualitative studies of the reasons for and barriers to participation in sport and physical activity. Participation is motivated by enjoyment and the development and maintenance of social support networks. Barriers to participation include transitions at key stages of the life course and having to reorient individual identities during these times. The theoretical and evidence base informing policy and health promotion is limited and more work needs to be done in this area.

None declared.

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Argumentative Essay: The Importance of Sports

Participation in sports is extremely important, and should be encouraged much more. Children and young people in particular need to do sport so that they develop good habits that they can continue into adulthood. The main benefits of sport are improved health and fitness, and the development of social and communication skills.

With more than a third of adults in the USA being classed as obese, and many more being overweight, it has never been more important to participate in sports. People that do sport on a regular basis are burning more calories than those that don’t, and are therefore less likely to end up overweight. Being a healthy weight means that you will be less likely to die young and suffer from heart disease, strokes, high blood pressure, diabetes and a range of other conditions, and if you already eat well, it can give you an extra calorie allowance so you can treat yourself without feeling guilty about it.

As well as improving cardiovascular health and fitness, exercising is also good for the musculoskeletal system, making muscles more supple and toned, and improving the strength of bones and joints. People who do sports will be stronger and more able to lift and carry heavy things, which is also always useful, and they are less likely to become really weak and frail as they get older because their bodies are strong. Furthermore, doing sports can improve mental health as well as physical health, with exercise being helpful for people with depression and a range of other mental health issues, because it releases good chemicals into our brains. It also makes people feel better about their bodies, which can make them happier, and reduces the risk of eating disorders and crash dieting, as people make more sensible, healthy changes to their lifestyle.

Sports also allow people to develop personally. Social and communication skills can be learned and developed through sport. Teamwork, for example, is naturally learned through participating in team sports and games. Communication skills can really be honed, as they are at the center of any team’s success, and a lack of them leads to failure. Many people will also develop leadership skills through sport, often discovering abilities that they never knew they even had.

Many people’s self-esteem improves through sport as they discover things that they are good at and improve their body. Participating in any competitive sport also improves our ability to handle pressure and still perform well, as well as teaching us how to win and lose graciously. All in all, the fact that playing sport is good for us is completely undeniable, because it helps our minds and bodies, and ultimately means that we will be living longer, happier lives.

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Movement, Play, and Games—An Essay about Youth Sports and Its Benefits for Human Development

Miguel nery.

1 Faculdade de Ciências Sociais e Tecnologia, Universidade Europeia, 1500-210 Lisboa, Portugal

Isabel Sequeira

2 Self-Psicologia e Psicoterapia, 1150-278 Lisboa, Portugal

Carlos Neto

3 Faculdade de Motricidade Humana, Universidade de Lisboa, 1649-004 Lisboa, Portugal

António Rosado

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The acknowledgment of the qualities and features of the world is made through the body, movement, and imagination. During their development, children learn new skills, complexify their thoughts, and become more autonomous. The progressive increase in motor repertoire in children reflects a more unified and solid self. Nowadays, there is a generalized restriction of the movement of children. It starts at home when parents establish rigid and/or phobic attachments with their children; it can be also observed at school which is more and more based on rigid learning rhythms and obsessive ideas about students’ performance, and finally in urban areas where free and outdoor play has considerably decreased during recent decades. The current lifestyles in Western societies resulted in a decrease in play among children. The culture influences the dominant types of psychopathology and, during childhood, mental suffering is often expressed with the increase (turmoil) or decrease (inhibition) of the body movement. Sports are underpinned by movement and play; they are a powerful tool in health promotion and an excellent way to assign meaning to movement. This work is an essay about the importance of play and youth sports in child development.

1. Introduction

This essay article addresses the importance of play and youth sports in child development. We focus mostly on early stages of sport engagement, when play should be the core activity of childhood. Different theoretical approaches are considered, including child motor behavior, sports sciences, psychology, and psychoanalysis. The manuscript is divided into three parts, and each one of them is divided into its main topics and sub-topics.

PART I is dedicated to child development, and aims to provide a general framework for the upcoming sections. We start with a brief review of early phases of child development (psychomotor development), before moving forward until the beginning of more structured sport practice. A special attention is provided to the body as a means of self-expression and communication with others, and to different types of play (and its development) during childhood. It includes topics such as body, attachment, motor behavior, and play.

PART II—entitled Actual Constraints on Child Development—focuses on recent issues that constrain child (natural) movement, and have negative impact on their development. Despite the impressive economic development in the last half century in Western societies, with considerable positive impact on child health and education, modern lifestyles face new obstacles. Among these is a severe decrease in physical activity and play among youngsters. We describe how child movement and (free unstructured) play have become less accepted in settings such as home, school, and street. Later, we focus on the analysis of problems that result from it. We do not intend to make an in-depth analysis of child psychopathology; the focus is on the difficulties mostly expressed through the body (although related to overall development). We divided such problems into opposite poles related to a lack or excess of movement.

Finally, in PART III, we focus on the role of sports in child development. Here, we analyze the symbolic meaning of sports, and how it may contribute to fostering healthy development. This final section aims to provide a reflection about the use of sports as a tool to tackle issues. To do so, we start with a brief description of three models that emphasize the role of sports in child development. Although being generally perceived as a social good, engagement in sports is not always positive, and can also become a source of suffering due to different types of abuse existent in this context. We briefly address some types of violence and abuse that may be found in sports, and the increasing importance of safeguarding. We finish with a reflection about the potential of sports as a tool to promote healthy development (when properly conducted).

2. PART I. Child Development. Play and Motor Behavior

Play is a key element in child development. The body, movement, and the imagination are very important means for children to explore and progressively understand their environment. The body includes both “somatic” and “relational” parts, and these are interconnected. The somatic part of the body relates to the maturation process, musculoskeletal system, and physiology, and it is mainly approached by scientific areas such as biology, chemistry, and some disciplines of medicine such as neurology and pediatrics, among others. On the other hand, the relational part of the body relates to attachment (affect, emotions, and feelings) between the child and his/her significant others and environment, and it is mostly approached by scientific areas such as psychology, psychoanalysis, and social sciences.

The body must be understood based on an integrative perspective that considers both somatic and relational parts, their interconnection, and mutual influence. We consider the tangible part of the body, but with extensions that go beyond its physical limits, through the attachment and connections established during the personal history of the individual, and the development of his/her autobiographical memory [ 1 ].

The development of neurosciences shed some light on these topics; it is now widely accepted and more deeply understood that the mind is underpinned by a biological structure that cannot be ignored [ 2 , 3 ]. Considering that both attachment and physical maturation contribute to the development of the individual—and both play an important role in healthy development—we briefly summarize some ideas that underpin the forthcoming reflection.

2.2. Attachment

There is considerable evidence of the influence of attachment on child development, including the styles of attachment and personality development [ 4 ], the negative outcomes of deprivation [ 5 ], healthy and psychopathological development [ 6 ], and mentalization and development of self [ 7 ].

Humans have a long childhood period, and babies are born incredibly dependent on their caregivers (contrary to other species, including several mammals). The British pediatrician and psychoanalyst Donald Winnicott—who dedicated most of his clinical activity to children—once stated that “there is no such thing as the baby”, along with “a baby alone doesn’t exist. What exists is always a nursing couple” [ 8 ]. This iconic sentence of the psychoanalytic field relates to the total dependence of the baby, and alerts us to the need to think about the baby within this relation/attachment (mother–baby dyad). We are born with a considerable potential, but we take much time to become autonomous. The developmental endeavor of becoming autonomous (and the degree of its success) greatly depends on the type (and quality) of the attachment created between the baby and its caregivers.

A mother and child-centered framework is established through the process of the development of the self. The emotional, neurological, and structural puzzle that provides the infant for his future connections is constructed from this plan. Therefore, each person’s attachment style will be determined by the responsiveness, contingency, and persistence of their mother’s replies to their bond requests.

Humans are born with a bonding mechanism that allows them to connect with a caregiver and, from this relationship, develop a connection with the rest of the world. Therefore, the body is the locus of secure bonding expression, the safe place. When a baby feels cherished, he perceives his body as a secure haven. Secure attachment bonds offer emotional support, safety, and availability throughout a human’s developmental history, particularly during trying times and significant moments of change. Infants who are securely attached can anticipate their caregivers’ availability, comprehension, and responsiveness thanks to attachment events. They will consequently feel secure and confident.

According to attachment theory, the stable nature of the attachment bond serves as a vital “emotional buffer” and is essential for completing developmental tasks in adolescence, such as adjusting to bodily changes, developing one’s own identity, or making goals for the future. The baby or toddler can begin to act in ways that involve exploring his environment by feeling secure and confident thanks to the safe bonding response. Initially, the main caregiver figures, followed by additional characters, the world space, and so forth.

The body serves as both the place and the agent of discovery and exploration. The physical body, with its limitations and potential, is a place and agent of pleasure and pain. Bowlby’s initial choice of protection as a “principal” biological function is no longer necessary, as noted in Bowlby’s final collection of lectures from 1988. Instead, the multiple advantages of attachment—such as feeding, learning about the environment, self-regulation, and social interaction—all contribute to its conveying an evolutionary advantage. According to this theory, attachment is not seen as a symptom of immaturity that needs to be overcome, but rather as a normal and healthy trait of individuals throughout the lifespan.

The Attachment Behavioral System

An “attachment behavioral system” is hypothesized to contain attachment behaviors. To characterize a species-specific system of behaviors that result in certain predictable consequences, at least one of which contributes to survival and reproductive fitness, Bowlby [ 9 ] borrowed the behavioral system notion from ethology. Inherent motivation is a part of the behavioral systems idea.

Children are believed to form attachments to others regardless of whether their physiological demands are satisfied, so there is no need to see attachment as the result of any more fundamental processes or “drive”. Evidence demonstrating that attachment is not caused by links with food, as suggested by secondary drive theories (e.g., [ 10 ]), supports this theory, as was already indicated [ 11 , 12 ]. The infant chooses the actions that are most appropriate for that situation and with that caregiver. As they grow, children have access to a wider range of approaches to proximity and learn which ones work best under what conditions. In fact, as Sroufe and Waters [ 13 ] noted, this organizational perspective aids in explaining stability in the face of both developmental and environmental changes.

Murray [ 14 ] established the concept of “affiliation”, according to Bowlby [ 9 ], p. 229: “Under this heading are classified all indications of friendliness and kindness, of the desire to accomplish things in partnership with others”. As a result, it encompasses a far wider range of behaviors than attachment and is not meant to include conduct that is focused on one or a small number of specific figures, which is the characteristic of attachment behavior. Thus, the organization of the biologically driven, survival-promoting desire to be sociable with others is referred to as the social system . The likelihood that people will spend at least some of their time with others is a significant expected result of activating this system.

Whenever it comes to what initiates behavior, what stops behavior, and how behaviors are organized, studies of both humans and other primates clearly demonstrate distinctions between the attachment and sociability systems [ 15 , 16 ].

When a child is secure, they want to play and engage socially, so, when a youngster is happy and certain of his or her attachment-whereabouts, they search for a playmate. Additionally, once they find the playmate, they want to interact with them in a playful manner. So, as a conclusion, a secure attachment allows the toddler to feel secure and to explore and places the body as central. Through the lifespan, it will allow engagement in play and sports. The usage of the body replays the early playful moments with primary caregivers.

2.3. Motor Behavior

The development of motor behavior heavily depends on maturation. The exploration of the surrounding environment by children requires movement, which is a key element in child development. Babies develop within their mother´s uterus for as long as possible; however, when they are born, despite their innate skills, they are still very “incomplete” and totally dependent on external support. From the rudimentary movements and basic skills of the baby, to the possibility to execute more complex and intentional movements (with higher capacity to act on the surrounding environment), children progressively develop (with more or less harmony) their motor skills, cognition, and language. During the early stages, children considerably increase their motor abilities; in a short period of approximately two years, they learn how to reach and grasp, to sit, to stand and walk, and to chew and talk [ 17 ]. Here, the action/movement of the body should be understood as a way of expression (speech), in which an increased physical coordination and motor competency/domain reflect a more unified self.

Through movement, children progress from the total dependency of early childhood to a more active functioning of exploration of the environment. To crawl and, later, to walk are examples of remarkable conquests made by toddlers and allow the first movements away from the secure base (mother). These movements symbolically relate to the earlier essays of autonomy [ 18 ]. The motor development allows new opportunities for children to learn about the surrounding world, and the flourishing motor skills instigate developmental changes in perceptual, cognitive, and social domains [ 19 ].

As described, during the early stages of their lives, children progressively increase their motor repertoire because of both maturational and interactional processes with their environment. The acquisition of these motor skills, along with cognitive development and construction of psychic apparatus, occurs through play activity [ 20 ], which is internally motivated and has a symbolic feature that promotes wellbeing and pleasure.

There are several types of play; these develop and evolve during childhood. The different types of play are not mutually exclusive; actually, they frequently overlap, but one of them tends to be more active/present during a certain period of child development, based on his/her degree of psychic structure. So, different types of play are related to different types of internal functioning. This is the reason why children with different ages tend to choose different types of play which are more in line with their stage of development. During childhood, new types of play overcome the preceding ones, which requires new skills. There are several taxonomies of play; these vary based on different scientific approaches and disciplines. This is a possible definition from developmental psychology:

Play is often defined as activity done for its own sake, characterized by means rather than ends (the process is more important than any end point or goal), flexibility (objects are put in new combinations or roles are acted out in new ways), and positive affect (children often smile, laugh, and say they enjoy it). These criteria contrast play with exploration (focused investigation as a child gets more familiar with a new toy or environment, that may then lead into play), work (which has a definite goal), and games (more organized activities in which there is some goal, typically winning the game). Developmentally, games with rules tend to be common after about 6 years of age, whereas play is very frequent for 2- to 6-year-olds [ 21 ].

According to Pellegrini [ 22 ], play has four domains: social, locomotor, object-directed, and pretend. Games come later and are more demanding from a social point of view.

Play is very important during child and self-development; there is solid scientific evidence corroborating this [ 23 ].

2.4.1. Social Play

Social play is part of the interaction between children and adults (typically parents), and between children and other children. Peek-a-boo play is one of earliest forms of play, in which babies and their parents engage in interactions characterized by some of the hallmarks of play, such as unpredictability, vocalizations, expectations, and positive affect. The quality of the social interaction between children and their parents strongly influences the competence of the children in future interactions with peers and others, due to the social learning and nature of the attachment between parents and children [ 22 ].

From a psychoanalytical standpoint, peek-a-boo is based on presence/absence, and relates to the need to be sought and found, as well as the role of being seen in the development of the self. By playing this, children progressively try to elaborate and symbolize the absence, which is a fundamental acquisition for their future social and academic endeavors [ 24 ]. Toddlers are thrilled when their parents hide behind a sweatshirt and ask aloud where the baby is, and then they put down the sweatshirt and show their happy face for “having found” him/her. Fragments of this type of play remain during childhood, although it may appear in different manners such as turning lights on and off, or later in the hide and seek game.

2.4.2. Locomotor Play

Locomotor play comes later, and the child’s body is more actively involved; it includes a dimension of physical vigor, and consists in exaggerated and non-functional behaviors and behavioral sequences. According to Pellegrini [ 22 ], there are three sub-types of locomotor play, with different age peaks: (1) rhythmic stereotypies (infancy), (2) exercise play (preschool years), and (3) rough-and-tumble play (middle childhood). Locomotor play has physical, cognitive, and social benefits, and there are some gender differences, with boys being more prone to engage in this type of play, especially exercise play and rough-and-tumble play. Although rough-and-tumble play is a sub-type of locomotor play, due to its importance in future sport activities, we describe it with more detail. Rough-and-tumble play is frequent among juvenile mammals (mostly among males), and has an important impact on physical and psychological development. It consists in play fighting (very different from real fighting). Children wrestle, climb over each other, and roll around, among other similar behaviors. Besides developing strength and physical skills, it also allows participants to assess other´s skills and physical strength [ 22 , 25 ]. Rough-and-tumble play fosters both psychological development and social skills; more specifically, it helps children to learn the limits of their strength, to find out what other children will and will not let them do, to develop social relationships due to the change in roles and sort out personal boundaries, and, also importantly, burn off energy and decrease tension.

2.4.3. Object-Directed Play

In object-directed play, children use objects (extensions of their bodies) when playing; they discover novel uses for objects, and these can be used in exploration, in play (with objects), in construction, and in tool use [ 26 ]. The use of objects is connected with social network and group structure.

2.4.4. Pretend Play

Pretend play—also called imaginative play or dramatic play—happens when children use their imagination to enact scenarios (experienced, seen, and/or fantasized). It may progress from solitary to social pretending with others, and according to Pellegrini [ 22 ] there are four components of pretending: (1) decontextualized behavior, (2) self–other relations, (3) sequential combinations, and (4) object substitution.

Pretend play is rooted in early interactions with adults, especially the child’s mother (attachment), and may be exclusive to humans. It becomes more intense with the rise of the Oedipal complex. This type of play allows the possibility of movements towards identifications, the deeper acknowledgement of sexual differences between boys and girls, and other important aspects of construction of the identity [ 24 ]. Here, children enact different roles (e.g., super-hero, princess) within an interpersonal scenario with peers and other important figures. This type of pretend play allows children to dramatize his/her inner world, speaking about him/herself through others. Some gender differences should be noticed; boys and girls tend to choose different characters, which becomes more pronounced at this stage.

The definitions of play and games differ; the latter develop later in childhood, are governed by specific rules based on deduction [ 27 ], and the aim is usually to win. During childhood, children tend to have an idealized idea of their parents, and perceive them as omnipotent entities who know everything, and are able to solve any problem. This (normal) idealization is rooted in the need to feel safe in the face of anxieties (and vulnerability). In healthy development, the idealization (and illusion) progressively decreases, allowing children to abandon their omnipotence (self-centered interpretation of the world) and to incorporate social norms and rules, provided by social order; as a result, children can then access more abstract thinking. In this phase, the game emerges; it reflects a higher differentiation between psychic structures (id, ego, superego), and is underpinned by both competition and measurement of skills between the participants (peers function as a mirror).

Play (and later, games) have an important role in child development. Play allows—among other things—the expression of internal conflicts (some of them normal, others more prone to become psychopathology), and children change from passivity to activity, allowing them to act upon their surrounding reality. The later engagement in games is more demanding; due to their standardized characteristics, to properly engage in games, children must submit to social rules and norms. We consider that the earlier forms of play and games—along with specialization of basic motor skills—underpin sport activities. More on this topic will be discussed later.

2.4.5. Importance of Play in Natural Environments

Despite its benefits for child development, the amount of time spent by children on outdoor free play (unstructured activities) has considerably decreased in current societies [ 28 , 29 ], contributing to more sedentary lifestyles, disconnected from the natural world [ 30 ].

Unstructured outdoor play has several benefits in child development, health, and wellbeing, including physical development, self-regulation and attention, communication and social development, cognitive development and creativity [ 29 ], and imagination and reasoning abilities [ 31 ]. Outdoor play also contributes to fostering physical exercise (and energy bust), to improve social and emotional development [ 18 ] and may contribute to establishing rapport between parents and their children [ 31 ]. Due to its benefits, outdoor play has been considered in educational approaches [ 28 , 32 ].

3. PART II. Actual Constraints on Child Development

3.1. settings.

Nowadays, mostly in Western societies, child movement is frequently (and early) not accepted and contained. The COVID-19 pandemic has contributed to the decrease in child movement due to lockdown and other preventive measures that resulted in a decrease in outdoor areas to play, and increased the physical distance between people [ 33 ]. In their review article, Kourti et. al. [ 34 ] suggest that play habits changed during the COVID-19 pandemic (and teachers were concerned about it); the authors analyzed 17 articles from Europe and North America, and concluded that outdoor play decreased during the pandemic, while indoor play and videogames/screen use increased. However, even before the pandemic, some contexts were identified in which child movement was already being felt as unacceptable. Here, we highlight three of them.

3.1.1. Home

At home, within the family environment, when parenting styles lead to insecure attachment styles, the natural movement of infants—which is associated with (normal) aggressiveness, dirtiness, excitement, and noise—is perceived as uncomfortable to some parents [ 24 ]. The normal movement of children is poorly understood and contained by an external environment that aims to impose excessive order and tidiness, going in the opposite direction of children’s needs. When this happens, as submission is gradually imposed, children (especially male) are pushed to become “good”: quiet, clean and “well-behaved”. Here, when children behave accordingly, their submission tends to be reinforced by parents (and, as a result, the opposite behavior is rejected). For girls, it is expected, even in an unconscious way, that they behave, stay quiet, and play with dolls or house tools.

The increased (and often excessive) use of electronic devices among children also contributes to the decrease in play. These devices keep children quiet in front of a screen; it becomes very useful when parents wish for their children to demand less attention from them. The high number of children who cannot be seated at the dinner table with their parents (and perhaps siblings) without having an electronic device to play is impressive. Despite the positive aspects of technology, the excessive use of electronic devices by children is a red flag regarding their healthy development. The stimulus of electronic devices is excessive. This aspect leads to a growing necessity of fast pleasure and immediate reward. In an older child, the world is “expected” to be pleasurable and satisfying. So, frustration and need for continuous reward are a predicable factor of anxiety and aggressiveness among older children.

According to Desmurget [ 35 ], the excessive use of electronic devices by children may result in negative outcomes regarding their physical health (obesity, heart diseases, lower average life expectancy), behavior (aggressiveness, depression, anxiety), and intellectual skills (language, concentration, and memory). Some major international organizations have also focused their attention on the impact of excessive use of electronic devices by youngsters [ 36 , 37 ].

3.1.2. School

The first major separation of children from their nuclear families and homes occurs when they go to school. Even those children who have been in kindergarten before going to school now have to face a more structured and demanding environment. Children face challenges such as the need to develop their skills, to learn school material (within a specific time), to make friends, and to progressively become less dependent of adults—to grow. Obviously, attachment issues have a strong influence on their success in these demanding tasks.

School is a very important context and allows children to grow and develop their skills. However, their natural movement is also often poorly understood and tolerated. Children are often asked to keep quiet, and to listen to a teacher for long periods of time, in an environment often marked by an obsessive analysis of school performance (grades) and accumulation of material rather than fostering understanding [ 18 , 38 ]. Education has become more technical and “pseudo-cumulative”, with emphasis being placed on “skill acquisition” rather than fundamental knowledge and fostering the development of the capacity of children to think about themselves and how the world works.

Today´s school asks children to carefully listen to what their teacher tells them; however, children are being raised in a world where the value of words has decreased considerably over time, and children are constantly a target of visual, immediate, and short-term stimuli (electronic devices, social media, and others). As a result, the opportunities to appreciate silence, to contemplate, to feel, to listen and be listened to, and to have relationships with an adult caregiver that foster thinking about how the world works and thinking about themselves (which is time consuming), have decreased [ 24 ].

3.1.3. Outdoor (Street)

The lack of play in cities and streets is also a constraint. During recent decades, outdoor (street) free play has been gradually replaced by standardized and artificial activities [ 39 ], in which children are oriented by adults in predefined and goal-oriented activities. Free time has become a paradox; children are often asked to do something in time periods that are supposed to be free (and include the possibility not to do anything). Laziness among children is often necessary and important; when children feel bored, they tend to use creative solutions to amuse themselves. This often allows games and play to arise. In urban areas (where most families live), the presence of children playing on the street has significantly decreased. They mostly live locked at home and are transported by adults from point A to point B all the time. Today, the street, perceived as a place to play with other children, practically does not exist.

Parents, schools, and urban areas often have difficulties to contain and to provide meaning to child movement. The natural benefits of play are being replaced by artificial programs (often seen at school) to “teach empathy”, to “develop social skills”, and/or to “learn about emotions”.

3.2. Psychopathology

The verbal skills and the capacity of children to access symbolic thought, when compared to adults, are, obviously, lower (and still under development). When play decreases among children, psychopathology tends to arise [ 39 , 40 ]. Clinicians who work with children often observe infants’ difficulties being expressed through their bodies. We do not intend to cover child psychopathology in detail; for the purpose of this article, we divided the problem into two groups: children whose (normal) aggressiveness becomes inhibited (lack of movement) and, at the opposite pole, those whose who are characterized by excess of movement (due to the lack of containment).

3.2.1. Lack of Movement: Inhibition of Aggressiveness

Inhibited children tend to be more submissive, formal, and “hyper-mature” (behaviors often reinforced by their parents and teachers), kinds of mini-adults who lack spontaneity and have difficulties with imagination and fantasy. These children are usually perceived as well-behaved and a role model at school but have difficulties in making friends and in free spontaneous play.

Inhibited children are much less often signaled at school (where many cases of primary diagnosis are spotted) because they do not disturb adults. The preoccupations around these children are often connected with their difficulties with peers (e.g., bullying victimization), a sudden (and not expected) break in their academic performance, or abrupt change in behavior. The expression of normal aggressiveness often fails in submissive children, not allowing them to be properly assertive. The parents of inhibited children (especially boys) often seek sports activity for their children, expecting them to learn there how to defend themselves (e.g., fighting sports), or to make friends to compensate for the loneliness felt at school due to peer rejection.

3.2.2. Excess of Movement: ADHD and Related Issues

The opposite pole to inhibited children are those children who cannot calm down and are constantly excited and hyperkinetic. In these cases, the movement is disorganized and expresses internal conflict and/or nameless threats. The excess of excitement (that should not be confused with normal motor activity) often reflects a poorly harmonious evolution in child development. Inhibited children often have problems with expressing normal aggressiveness; on the other hand, hyperkinetic children (mostly boys) often have problems related to lack of containment. These children are often labeled as suffering from attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD).

Interestingly, these children tend to behave differently if they are alone, with parents, in school, or with someone who they do not know. Their behavior also differs considerably when they are with peers (more agitated) or in a one-on-one situation with an adult (they tend to regulate more easily), especially a male figure. Finally, very stimulating environments and situations in which children are freer to control their learning rhythms, and situations in which they are being paid to do tasks, also contribute to the ability of ADHD children to regulate themselves [ 24 ]. These variables allow us to think about the role of internal working models in ADHD, as well as the importance sports may have in the regulation of these children; those (especially boys) who have difficulties in impulse control and affect regulation often find sports a positive environment, and may strongly benefit from such activities.

The benefits of sports for children at both poles will be described in more detail later in this essay.

4. PART III. Role of Sports in Child Development

4.1. how sports foster healthy development.

Sport participation fosters overall wellbeing of children [ 41 ]. Efforts have been made to develop models to describe how sports foster human development. Here, we briefly describe three proposals, based on different approaches, and considering different variables.

4.1.1. Developmental Model of Sport Participation

The Developmental Model of Sport Participation (DMSP) is based on theoretical and empirical data, and aims to describe the processes, pathways, and outcomes related to the participation of children and adolescents in sports [ 42 ]. The DMSP considers the importance of appropriate training considering the age of the participants and their physical and psycho-social development. It identifies three trajectories towards grassroots and elite performance: (1) sampling years (age 6–12), (2) specializing years (age 13–15), and (3) investment years (age 16+). The DMSP considers early diversification (taking part in different sports) to foster the development of general motor skills. It also calls attention to the benefits of a high amount of deliberate play, and a low amount of deliberate practice, during sampling years.

4.1.2. Personal Assets Framework

The Personal Assets Framework [ 43 ] aims to describe the mechanisms of positive youth development in sports. This model considers that sport experiences should be analyzed based on three dynamic elements: (1) type of activities (What?), (2) quality of relationships (Who?), and (3) setting (Where?).

According to Côté, Murata, and Martin [ 41 ], the type of activity emphasizes the need to tackle early specialization due to its negative impacts on children (see [ 44 ]), and to foster play during childhood while progressively increasing practice as youngsters grow older and approach adolescence. The quality of the relationships includes interpersonal relationships, team dynamics, and the broader social environment; different types of relations (attachments), such as adult–child, child–child (peers), child–club, individual, and group relations, should be considered. Finally, the settings include structures that provide physical support for the sport activities.

4.1.3. Long-Term Athlete Development

Long-term athlete development is a developmental model underpinning a considerable amount of research, that aims to foster participation in sports and physical activity throughout life, by describing what people should be doing at certain ages, in sports. The idea of doing the right things at the right time, in sports participation, is described in nine stages, from childhood to adulthood, divided by gender. The stages consider the physical, intellectual, cognitive, and moral development of the individuals within each category, and are divided into: (1) Active Start (age 0–6), FUNdamentals (age 6–9), Learning to Train (age 9–12), Training to Train (age 12–16), Learning to Compete (age 16–18), Training to Compete (age 18–21), Learning to Win (age 20–23), Winning for a Living (age 24+), and finally Active for Life (any age). The first three stages are mostly focused on physical literacy and development of basic motor skills through play; these underpin further endeavor in sports, from being active in life to competition [ 45 ].

Despite their differences, all three models overlap regarding the need to foster free play during the early stages of athlete development, and describe its benefits for motor, social, and psychological development. Children (especially boys) easily engage in sport activities, and these can play an important role in child development.

4.2. Maltreatment and Abuse in Sports

Sports are generally perceived as positive, and their potential benefits for children are well known; as a result, parents, teachers, and physicians, among others, often foster the engagement of children in sport activities. However, participation in sports may also result in negative outcomes; despite the potential to foster human development, several types of abuse may occur during sport activities. Abuse in sports settings has been studied—especially in the last couple of decades—including research on bullying [ 46 ], coach emotional abuse [ 47 ], early specialization [ 44 ], sexual abuse and harassment [ 48 ], and different types of interpersonal violence [ 49 ], among others. The results of the studies, as well as the public knowledge of some major scandals, called attention to the need to protect young athletes from abuse. Safeguarding in sports has progressively become a growing concern.

When parents leave their kids in sport clubs, they expect them to be in a safe environment, and engaged in a positive activity with peers, regulated by a responsible adult. However, as stated before, different types of abuse may occur. Some children may be (re)victimized in sports, rather than finding a healthy environment that helps them to grow and overcome their difficulties. We can then ask, are sports positive for children?

4.3. Does the Engagement in Sports Foster Child Development?

The right answer to this question is probably that sports are a very powerful tool to foster human development, and children may find many positive opportunities to develop physical and emotional skills, and to improve themselves constantly. However—and despite their potential—the quality of the engagement in sports greatly relies on the quality of the relationships (attachments) established with significant others within this setting (and with sport itself). We can conclude that merely practicing sports cannot ensure positive outcomes, but if sports activities are properly conducted and adapted to children’s developmental stages, then sports can be an outstanding tool to foster positive development of children and youth.

Being a competent child´s sport coach is high skilled and demanding activity. These coaches must have knowledge about sports training, but also about child development. To become a role model, these coaches must understand the children´s needs, and always focus their attention on their best interests.

4.4. Understanding Sports

Those who are/were athletes, and even those who do not practice sports and prefer to merely watch, are often excited by the accomplishments of athletes, or become profoundly sad and disappointed when their admired athlete or team loses a match/game. People often celebrate a point/goal/win in enthusiastic ways, rarely seen in other areas of their lives. Sports promote fights and disputes, but also companionship between people. The passion is often used as an explanation to explain such apparently weird behaviors. Besides that, sport activities are universal, which calls attention to their importance. Actually, sports are an ancestral activity, deeply rooted in all cultures, underpinned by play, and include corporeality and intra- and interpersonal relationships within a competition setting. Sports have been studied by several scientific areas, with different aims and methods. Historical analyses of paintings on the walls of caves, artifacts, and manuscripts, among other records and sources of information, describe how sport activities have always been spread all over the world, and have always had an important social role [ 50 , 51 , 52 , 53 ]. There seems to be a common base for most sports; modern sports are underpinned by the ancient ones and—despite some differences due to geographical, cultural, and chronological variables—there is a considerable overlap between them.

Sport sciences have focused their attention on improving the performance of athletes (including many efforts of sport psychology). However, other approaches focused mostly on understanding sports, by analyzing their social and symbolic aspects; among these are included sociology, anthropology, and social psychology. Regarding psychoanalysis—perhaps surprisingly—there is a lack of research on sports [ 54 , 55 ]. The involvement and participation in sports are not purely rational; unconscious drives and life and death instincts play an important role that helps to understand why humans become involved in sports, and the reason for the great amount of pleasure from such activity [ 56 ]. To better understand sports and their “passion”, we must look at the symbolic meanings of sports activity. The psychoanalysis approach to sports considers topics such as aggressiveness, narcissism [ 54 , 57 ], sexuality, and attachment themes throughout the human life cycle [ 57 ], among others.

Basic Elements of Sports

Sports are not easy to define and include under the same concept. Several operational definitions and taxonomies have been proposed, and none of them is totally satisfying. We do not intend to develop such a conceptual discussion. For the purpose of this article, we will adopt a definition that—despite its limitations—has received a large consensus. The European Sports Charter ([ 58 ] https://rm.coe.int/16804c9dbb (accessed on 1 January 2023), in Article 2, defines sport as: “all forms of physical activity which, through casual or organised participation, aim at expressing or improving physical fitness and mental well-being, forming social relationships or obtaining results in competition at all levels”.

Despite the differences between different sports (and sports definitions), they are all underpinned by three basic elements: (body) movement, play, and competition (games).

(a) Movement

Sports result from the specialization of basic movements such as walking, running, jumping, kicking, grabbing/throwing, diving, climbing, etc. As a result, the body plays a major role in sports activities. Extension materials should also be considered (these are often used in child play); here, the body receives a “new part”, an extension, perceived as a continuity of the body itself (hockey or tennis are good examples).

The observation and analysis of the movement should not be based exclusively on sports techniques based on a musculoskeletal approach; it should also include the imprints from the psyche. The way children move and perceive their body is strongly related to their psychological development and attachment issues. Sports should therefore be perceived as an important area to provide meaning to movement, through a relation with another (bond). This is particularly important for youth sports training and young children who might suffer from inhibition of aggressiveness, ADHD, and other related issues.

Sports occur in a context of play with rules (games). They are underpinned by competition, and include ludic, symbolic, and pleasurable aspects. The understanding of the symbolic features of sports (and their potential to transform), as well as the working models of children, allows is to use sports in the service of child development. Sports allow the sublimation of aggressiveness in adequate ways, as well as impulses and unconscious desires.

(c) Competition

Competition is inherent to sports, and the engagement in these activities allows children to express normal aggressiveness. By playing sports, passiveness is turned into activeness, and children may symbolically domain others, and simulate their destruction (fantasy). The unconscious elements involved in sports may be expressed in adequate and progressively integrated ways (rather than being projected and acted out).

The binomials inside/outside, activity/passivity, and attack/defense interconnect and mutually influence each other. Many sports symbolically relate to attack and defense, to kill or die. The notions of space, territory, and target (own and opponents) should also be considered when analyzing sports. Besides motor skills, cognitive and spontaneous domains also play an important role and should not be ignored. The cognitive domain relates to planning and discipline; the representation (thinking and imagining) of an action before acting and the discipline to execute an action plan are always present in sports and extend to other areas of children’s lives (such as school). The spontaneous domain relates to freedom, to a creative flow, complementary to the cognitive domain.

4.5. Positive Outcomes

Here, we aim to analyze the use of sports as a tool to foster child healthy development. To do so, we divided the positive outcomes of sports into three major categories: (1) assigning meaning to body movement, (2) corporeality, fantasy, and play, and (3) ethics: positive identifications and sense of belonging. These areas are discussed and analyzed in the following.

4.5.1. Assigning Meaning to Body Movement

The brain has seven primary process emotional systems: SEEKING, SADNESS, FEAR, LUST, CARE, ANGER and PLAY; these are strongly linked to psychiatric disorders. The PLAY/JOY system stimulates young animals to engage in physical activities such as those described in rough-and-tumble play (wrestling, running, chasing each other), which helps young mammals to learn social limits and develop impulse control. If children do not play (or play less than needed), the development of their brain may be impaired, resulting in consequences in their maturation [ 3 , 59 ]. According to Panksepp [ 40 ], the increasing prevalence of ADHD among children may be related to the decreased opportunities for preschool children to engage more often in natural self-generated social play, because this type of play facilitates behavioral inhibition, while psychostimulants reduce playfulness.

When children are medicated for ADHD, many decrease their motor activity, but tend to feel apathy [ 24 ].

Rough-and-tumble play is also very common in childhood, especially among males; it contributes, among other aspects, to the development of social skills and capacity to increase concentration [ 60 ]. Both types of play described here underpin sports. Considering the actual decrease in play and generalized restrictions to movement among children, sports clubs became even more important to allow children to play (and move). If training is properly managed, and playfulness overcomes the development of specific motor skills, sports clubs can play a major role in assigning meaning to movement. The developmental models of young athletes overlap in the need to emphasize play and unstructured activities in early phases (see the section How Sports Foster Healthy Development). Unfortunately, many coaches of young athletes overemphasize the need to win in the short term, rather than focusing on the playfulness of sports, and on the development of children’s motor repertoire during their early training phases. Panksepp [ 40 ] proposes that play “sanctuaries” for children who suffer from ADHD should be established as an alternative for psychostimulants that reduce play. The author considers that this action would foster frontal lobe maturation and promote the healthy development of pro-social minds.

However, it is not only children who are hyperkinetic who benefit from sports. Those children who have difficulties in expressing normal aggressiveness and become too submissive may also find in sports an important setting to tackle their difficulties. Aggressiveness is natural and important; children should learn how to use and integrate it in proper ways (e.g., assertiveness). When aggressiveness is not integrated, and is turned towards the self, difficulties can arise. These children may become too mechanical, functional, and (pathologically) normative [ 61 ]. Children who suffer from obesity, dyspraxia, impairments in lateralization, and tics may also benefit from their engagement in sport activities, because they enhance body scheme and spatial–temporal representation, improve physical skills, and allow them to express aggressiveness in adequate ways.

Many difficulties of children are expressed through the body, and modern lifestyles contribute to the decrease in free play and constraint of movement. Sports can play an important role in stimulating play and movement of young children, fostering their motor, social, and psychological development. To do so, training practices should consider age appropriate activities, including free play and unstructured activities in early stages. The specialization of motor skills should be gradual, with training focused on enhancing performance, and coaches should be (more) aware of the needs of the children. In those cases of children who are inhibited or hyperkinetic, it is important understand their movement as a reflection of their internal world (and conflicts).

4.5.2. Corporeality, Fantasy, and Play

Advances in technology have brought major developments and improved the quality of lives worldwide. However, the virtual experience has also supplanted a large amount of embodied experience, which makes involvement in sports (playing) an important way to stay connected with a deep and ancestral part of human life [ 62 ].

Sports have a connection with psychoanalysis due to both considering interrelationships among intrapsychic, interpersonal, and social realms [ 57 ]. Involvement in sport activities includes the use of body expression (motor skills), within a ritual that considers both internal and external rules to regulate it (Freudian id, ego, and superego). According to Free [ 56 ], the overall system of allowances and prohibitions in sport activities may be perceived as an analogy to the Oedipal complex; most sports allow the symbolic physical expression of unconscious desires for maternal possession (which can be seen in the efforts to conquer territory, to score goals, to penetrate lines), but also require internalized discipline associated with parental authority (super ego). The pre-Oedipal functioning relates to indulgence, libido, and aggressive instincts, while the post-Oedipal regards aspects such as maturity, discipline, submission to social reality, and norms.

The internal working models of children influence how they perceive sports, and how they engage in such activities. The questions about “what” and “how” children play should be considered.

What a child plays is related to the sport chosen by him/her. What does the child try to symbolically express by playing that sport? How a child plays is related to the type of attachments he/she establishes with sports, peers, coaches, and competition. Some children do not allow themselves to win (due to the unconscious fantasy of destroying the other by doing so), while others cannot stand to lose (felt like a dangerous attack to their self-esteem). Learning how to “play the game” is very important for youngsters who engage in sports. By playing the game, we refer to learning how to relate to others in a positive way. More on this is developed in the next section.

4.5.3. Ethics: Positive Identifications and Sense of Belonging

According to Bonovitz [ 63 ], sports play an important role in the need for adolescents to search for idealization and idealized objects, for example, sport stars, allowing them to identify with these heroes, and foster their efforts for further separation from their parental figures. This positive idealization and identification reinforce the sense of identity of youngsters, within a social environment outside their families, and not directly linked with them.

By identifying with their sport heroes, youngsters may seek self-improvement and personal transcendence. In a broader sense, this is an ethical perspective of the utility of sports, that may work as a significant means to foster the identification with a competent, strong, fair, and resilient person, who works hard on a daily basis to overcome obstacles and become a successful hero. This perspective overlaps with the idea of the Jungian archetype of the hero [ 64 ].

Sports activity relies mostly on self-improvement and self-monitoring. There is the underpinning idea of competition: the best win and become champions— Citius, Altius, Fortius — Communis (Olympic Motto—Communis em 2021 [ 65 ]). The pursuit of things of value within a social setting (that include cooperation, rivalry, and competition) is important, and relates to the idea of a hierarchy. Hierarchies between people foster people to improve themselves so they can reach their goals and achievements. The idea of the champion is based on someone who is able to achieve something special; to do so, those who want to become champions must adopt the carpe diem ideal of using every day to improve him/herself (following a plan, with predefined goals). Although winning a game/competition is important, and athletes should focus their attention on it, and give their best to be successful, that game/competition is “just” one part of a much wider endeavor, that inevitably includes victories and losses, glory and frustration. This is a metaphor for life, and that is why winning each game is important but, at the same time, it is not. In the end, what might be important to teach children through sports is that the whole process, the whole sport life, is the most important, and to enhance the chances of being successful, one must learn how the world works, and how to play well with others.

Hierarchies result from the need to create a social organization, based on perceived value of their elements, that organize social relations. Hierarchies and power are frequently (and wrongly) associated with coercion and abuse. It is the misuse of power (abuse) that makes hierarchies non-functional: when elements arise from another factor rather than competence, then the hierarchy becomes tyrannical. The ideal of sports is to promote the best, based on their skills and competence, regardless their background, country, or any other factor that is not competence. Poor coaching perceives hierarchies wrongly, and tends to organize youth sport activities around two opposite poles: (1) flat hierarchies, and (2) win-at-all-costs mentality. Both approaches have flaws.

Flat hierarchies, considering that everyone wins despite their performance, are usually justified as a way to avoid negative feelings of frustration among youngsters, resulting from not being the best/champion. This approach is frequently fostered by those who consider competition a negative thing. We will try to explain why this approach is wrong.

First of all, if there is no competition, then we are not talking about sports. Competition is part of sports (and life in general). Avoiding competition is not a good strategy (especially in a long-term perspective) because it does not push children forward in order to pursue their goals. When this approach is undertaken, children see themselves as the Dodo Bird in Alice in Wonderland: despite their performance, everyone wins, and everyone has presents. When adults tell children that they win, no matter what they do (and their result), and that everything they do is always fantastic, children perceive their accomplishments as fake, and the judgement of adults as not reliable. This continued approach may contribute to the poor development of narcissism of narcissism, and the consequent feeling of not having real value. In these situations, children tend to remain in a pre-Oedipal state, not facing the social rules and personal limitations, and not being encouraged to expand their skills. The idea of keeping children in a non-confrontational ideal world does not allow them to grow up and accept their own (and others’) flaws and limitations. Here, it is important to have the role of the masculine, that helps to separate children from their protective mothers, and foster their endeavor to conquer unexplored territories.

Avoiding competition is a poor approach; however, the opposite pole of winning at all costs may not be the best option either. When adults teach children that winning at all costs is the thing to pursue, they are missing the point of the utility of sports. It is important to explain to children that the most important thing is to learn how to play the game. This does not mean that winning the game is not important, but it is more important to learn how to develop cooperation and to compete in the long term. The most important thing is to pursue this long-term goal (and sometimes to sacrifice short-term goals of winning the game) because the present competition is just a piece (and the beginning) of something bigger, longer, and more important.

Children should be trained not to necessarily win isolated games, but to improve their performance and become better, game after game (like in life). This idea is underpinned by the Olympic Motto and relates to the development of character or an attitude towards life, based on pursuing valuable things and playing well with others (in sports and life), which will increase the possibility of having success in life. To do so, sometimes one needs to sacrifice present satisfaction (winning now), and to progressively learn how to delay pleasure and build solid endeavors. By success, here, we refer to the improvement of relationships with others, by learning to metaphorically “play the game”, which will result in more positive relationships with peers, adults, and the whole community. To be successful is to learn to develop strategies to go well in life in the long term; to do so, children must identify themselves with role models not solely based on their skills, but mostly on their attitude towards sports and others.

Besides fostering active engagement over passivity, intense involvement in sports also provides a feeling of community and sense of identification [ 66 ]. According to Free [ 56 ], formally organized games and sports are reality-adapted play (post-Oedipal) that foster mutual identification between athletes, and observing rules is more significant than the victory itself. Peer relations become more and more important as children grow, peaking in adolescence, and engagement in sports can also play an important role here.

5. Conclusions

Sport activities include topics such as motor behavior (movement), unconscious motivation, conflict, and fantasy. In sports, youngsters find a way to express themselves; they allow them to confront their limitations while, at the same time, they have a huge potential for transcendence and improving resilience.

Considering the decrease in free and outdoor play in Western societies, sports become more and more important to provide meaning to child movement expressed through their bodies. Sports can be a powerful tool to foster human development. To do so, it is important to understand the relational dynamics of children, the quality of their attachments, and to know how to interpret the symbolic meaning of their behaviors. This humanistic approach to sports is the opposite of a considerable part of modern youth sports training, focused exclusively (and obsessively) on sports performance and competition. The obsession with sports performance among youngsters (as often happens at school) contributes for poor sport practices, and makes sports less fun for the athletes.

Despite the enormous potential of sports to foster child development, the quality of sport experience depends largely on the type of attachments and relationships established between the youngsters and other stakeholders in their sports environment: coach, peers, parents, club, and community. The active and continued engagement in sports fosters motor, social, and (healthier) psychological development, and should therefore be considered in youth education.

Funding Statement

This research received no external funding.

Author Contributions

Investigation, I.S.; data caution, C.N.; conception, M.N.; methods, A.R. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Data availability statement, conflicts of interest.

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Should School Sports Prioritize Participation Over Competition? What a New Report Says

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High school sports play an important role in addressing students’ physical and mental health needs, but with fewer than 2 in 5 public high school students participating, the traditional model needs to be updated to serve more of them, a report this spring from the Aspen Institute says.

The Sport for All, Play for Life high school sports report proposes eight strategies to help principals and school leaders develop their students’ social and emotional skills through sports. A product of two years of research and input from more than 60 experts, the report envisions a school sports system with opportunities for every student. Increasing participation in sports can have lifelong ramifications, given that student athletes are more likely to be active as adults. It also comes as educators scramble to boost students’ socioemotional skills and reconnect them with their schools after years of pandemic-driven isolation and educational disruption.

“The current high school sports model doesn’t really work for enough students,” Jon Solomon, the editorial director of the Aspen Institute Sports & Society Program, said. “It’s largely based on trying to win games and scholarships, and playing for the school, and that’s still incredibly valuable and important, but there are many other students who are being left behind.”

“We believe that leaders should recognize that every student, regardless of their background or ability, has a right to play sports — and we don’t just mean a right to try out for a team,” he added.

Here are some steps school leaders can take to make school sports more accessible to their students:

Align school sports with student interests

Schools need to know what students want to participate in in order to design sport offerings that will raise participation. However, Jay Coakley, a sociologist at the University of Colorado, Colorado Springs, who was one of the experts the Aspen Institute consulted during its reporting process, said youth sports today are “adult-oriented.”

“The developmental interests of children and the interests of children in their own movements have been ignored,” Coakley said. “It’s adult perspectives that create the leagues and all of the things that go along with it—run the practices, set the schedules—and children have no voice and their interests are either ignored or unknown.”

“A lot of the changes that have occurred have taken the act of playing out of the hands of kids and put it into the hands of adults,” he added. “I’m not against adult guidance, but that move is not good.”

This is because, according to Coakley, adults have different definitions of fun than students do. The number one reason high school students play sports is to have fun, according to the Aspen Institute report. Nearly two-thirds of surveyed students said they engage so they can play with and make new friends.

“Those are the first things that are eliminated in organized sports,” Coakley said.

For instance, in Little League baseball, Coakley said, a coach’s goal is to identify the pitcher on the team who will prevent batters from hitting the ball, which excludes the other players from fielding the ball.

“Everybody in the stands is telling them this is a perfect game, this is what you want. Meanwhile, the other seven players don’t field the ball,” Coakley said.

To gauge student voices, the Aspen Institute report suggests schools conduct annual student interest surveys with a common set of questions on students’ sport preferences, their rationale for participating or not, and youth/adult relationships in the context of sport that they give students. These surveys should also take note of respondents’ disability status, race, ethnicity, and grade level.

Give a variety of options for play

Intramural sports and club sports led by students can offer many of the same benefits as interscholastic competition including exercise, teamwork skills, mental health benefits, and a sense of belonging. These formats, while popular on college campuses, are often under-prioritized in high schools. However, when, for example, 75 students try out for varsity basketball, 15 make the team, and only 10 get significant playing time, these alternative opportunities to play can make a difference.

One way Dan Dejager, a physical education teacher at Meraki High school in Fair Oaks, Calif., keeps his students active outside of interscholastic programs is by differentiating his instruction based on his students’ needs, interests, and ability levels.

For example, instead of teaching his students how to line dance, Dejager has his class play Just Dance, a video game where players dance in sync with a virtual character to contemporary music.

“I think if you become more physically active, and you find activities that you enjoy doing that are meaningful to you, then that physical well-being, that emotional well-being, and mental well-being will come,” Dejager said.

The Aspen Institute suggests physical education teachers and athletic directors expand course offerings or connect students to community-based programs such as bike clubs and yoga classes given that, according to their findings, more than 1 in 3 students are interested in strength training, 1 in 4 want biking, and 1 in 5 want skateboarding, yoga, and dance.

Prioritize educating students over winning games

In most high schools, sports are seen as having different goals than academics, which tend to prioritize education. Coaches often think their main job is to win championships and therefore, they can focus resources on the best athletes, sometimes at the expense of other students who also want to play and would benefit from doing so.

Terri Drain, the president of the Society of Health and Physical Educators, who taught for 34 years and coached high school field hockey, said that in order to attract kids back to sports, there needs to be “quite a mind shift.”

“We need to talk about what the goal of school sports is,” Drain said. “Is it to prepare kids for their university sporting career and measure success when our students get drafted or scholarships? Or should how we measure success be by the number of students that participate?”

As students get older, more are cut from or drop out of sports. On average, kids quit playing sports by age 11, according to a survey by the Aspen Institute and the Utah State University Families in Sports Lab.

Drain envisions a school sports system in which “every child, no matter what their ability level,” can play, “not just for the elite children on the college path.”

To combat this, administrators should ensure that all sports activities map to a school’s vision of education, according to the Aspen Institute report. This could include crafting a symbiotic mission statement specific to the athletic department and holding sports personnel accountable to it through group discussions and performance reviews.

Increase education for coaches

Coaches often play a pivotal role in shaping a student’s ideas about health and education. In fact, 1 in 3 students said they play sports because of “a coach who cares about me,” according to the Aspen Report. However, many coaches’ training stops after their initial certification, and they lack the knowledge to make sports a healthy and positive experience for students. In surveys, nearly half of all students say they play sports for their emotional well-being and mental health, yet only six states require coaches to train in human development, development psychology and organization management.

The Society of Health and Physical Educators has developed national standards for sport coaches, the first of which is to “develop and enact an athlete-centered coaching philosophy.” In other words, sport coaches prioritize opportunities for athletes’ development over winning games.

Many coaches, according to Drain, coach the way they were coached as athletes. To break that cycle, schools need to provide professional development that helps physical educators teach with physical literacy in mind and with the attitude that all children have a right to learn.

The Aspen Institute says athletic directors should actively support effective behaviors of coaches through in-house teaching, required outside trainings, and coach networking. They should also hold coaches accountable to providing a positive experience for their athletes and growing the student retention rate.

Other ways the Aspen Institute said schools can make school sports more appealing and developmentally useful include having administrators craft personalized activity plans with students, requiring athletic trainers in schools that offer collision sports, defining athletic program standards for schools, and developing partnerships with community-based organizations.

Adam Lane, the principal at Haines City High School in Polk County, Fla., said that of all the report’s suggested strategies, “the most challenging” for schools is implementing the sports that most interest students.

“The reason is the feasibility of starting up a new program from the ground up when you don’t have any of the equipment or the facilities needed for it,” Lane said.

“Something like that cannot be done in a couple months,” he continued. “One because of the financial needs of all the equipment that is needed, but two, you also have to find a facility or a place to play and the school might not have it, the community not might not have it. There’s a lot of planning that goes into that.”

The Aspen Institute has yet to follow up with schools on their implementation of the playbook’s strategies, but they plan to, according to Solomon. For now, the institute will continue to promote its strategies and highlight the work of those that are bringing the organization’s vision to life.

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How to Write a Non-Cliche College Essay About Sports + Examples

What’s covered:, what makes a sports essay cliche.

• How To Make Your Sports Essay Unique

Great Examples of College Essays About Sports

Where to get your college essay edited for free, or by an expert.

You’ve been brainstorming essay topics for your college applications, and you think you’ve finally found the right one: an extended metaphor likening your experience on the field with overcoming personal struggles. The problem: many other students have this same thought. 

The purpose of a college essay is to make yourself stand out as a unique individual, but when students write about sports, they often blend in. Because of that, students are usually advised to pick a different topic.

That being said, it is possible to write a non-cliche college essay about sports if you put in a little extra effort. Read along to learn how to make your sports essay different from all the other sports essays.

Sports essays are cliche when they follow a standard trajectory. Some of these trajectories include writing a story about:

• An agonizing defeat
• Forging bonds with teammates
• Overcoming adversity
• Overcoming an injury
• Refusing to quit
• Victory during a big game

Because sports essays have very similar themes and “lessons learned,” it can be difficult to make your story stand out. These trajectories also often focus too much on the sport or storyline, and not enough on the writer’s reflections and personality.

As you write your essay, try to think about what your experience says about you rather than what you learned from your experience. You are more than just one lesson you learned!

(Keep in mind that the sports essay is not the only college essay cliche. Learn about other essay cliches and how to fix them in our complete guide).

How to Make Your Sports Essay Unique

1. focus on a specific moment or reflection..

The college essay is a way for students to humanize themselves to admissions officers. You do not feel human if you are describing yourself as just another player on the field!

One important way to make your essay about you (not just about sports) is by focusing on a specific moment in time and inviting the reader to join you in that moment. Explain to the reader what it would be like to be sitting in that locker room as you questioned the values of the other players on your team. Ask your reader to sit with you on the cot in the trainer’s room as your identity was stripped away from you when they said “your body can’t take this anymore.” Bring your reader to the dinner table and involve them in your family’s conversation about how sports were affecting your mental health and your treatment of those around you.

Intense descriptions of a specific experience will evoke emotions in your reader and allow them to connect with you and feel for you.

When in doubt, avoid anything that can be covered by ESPN. On ESPN, we see the games, we see the benches, we even see the locker rooms and training rooms. Take your reader somewhere different and show them something unique.

2. Use sports to point out broader themes in your life.

The main risk when writing about sports is neglecting to write about yourself. Before you get started, think about the main values that you want to express in your sports essay. Sports are simply your avenue for telling the reader what makes you unique. 

As a test, imagine if you were a pianist. Would you be able to talk about these same values? What if you were a writer? Or a chemist? Articulating your values is the end, and sports should simply be your means.

Some values that you might want to focus on:

• Autonomy (you want to be able to set your mind to anything and achieve it on your own)
• Growth (you seek improvement constantly)
• Curiosity (you are willing to try anything once)
• Vulnerability (you aren’t afraid to fail, as long as you give it your all)
• Community (you value the feedback of others and need camaraderie to succeed)
• Craft (you think that with deliberate care, anything can be perfected)
• Responsibility (you believe that you owe something to those around you and perhaps they also owe something to you)

You can use the ESPN check again to make sure that you are using sports as an avenue to show your depth.

Things ESPN covers: how a player reacts to defeat, how injuries affect a player’s gameplay/attitude, how players who don’t normally work well together are working together on their new team.

Things ESPN doesn’t cover: the conversation that a player had with their mother about fear of death before going into a big surgery (value: family and connection), the ways that the intense pressure to succeed consumed a player to the point they couldn’t be there for the people in their life (value: supporting others and community), the body image issues that weigh on a player’s mind when playing their sport and how they overcame those (value: health and growth).

3. Turn a cliche storyline on its head.

There’s no getting around the fact that sports essays are often cliche. But there is a way to confront the cliche head-on. For example, lots of people write essays about the lessons they learned from an injury, victory, and so on, but fewer students explain how they are embracing those lessons. 

Perhaps you learned that competition is overwhelming for you and you prefer teamwork, so you switched from playing basketball to playing Dungeons & Dragons. Maybe, when your softball career ended abruptly, you had to find a new identity and that’s when you became obsessed with your flower garden and decided to pursue botany. Or maybe, you have stuck with football through it all, but your junior-year mental health struggle showed you that football should be fun and you have since started a nonprofit for local children to healthily engage with sports.

If your story itself is more cliche, try bringing readers to the present moment with you and show why the cliche matters and what it did for you. This requires a fair amount of creativity. Ensure you’re not parroting a frequently used topic by really thinking deeply to find your own unique spin.

Night had robbed the academy of its daytime colors, yet there was comfort in the dim lights that cast shadows of our advances against the bare studio walls. Silhouettes of roundhouse kicks, spin crescent kicks, uppercuts and the occasional butterfly kick danced while we sparred. She approached me, eyes narrowed with the trace of a smirk challenging me. “Ready spar!” Her arm began an upward trajectory targeting my shoulder, a common first move. I sidestepped — only to almost collide with another flying fist. Pivoting my right foot, I snapped my left leg, aiming my heel at her midsection. The center judge raised one finger. 

There was no time to celebrate, not in the traditional sense at least. Master Pollard gave a brief command greeted with a unanimous “Yes, sir” and the thud of 20 hands dropping-down-and-giving-him-30, while the “winners” celebrated their victory with laps as usual. 

Three years ago, seven-thirty in the evening meant I was a warrior. It meant standing up straighter, pushing a little harder, “Yes, sir” and “Yes, ma’am”, celebrating birthdays by breaking boards, never pointing your toes, and familiarity. Three years later, seven-thirty in the morning meant I was nervous. 

The room is uncomfortably large. The sprung floor soaks up the checkerboard of sunlight piercing through the colonial windows. The mirrored walls further illuminate the studio and I feel the light scrutinizing my sorry attempts at a pas de bourrée, while capturing the organic fluidity of the dancers around me. “Chassé en croix, grand battement, pique, pirouette.” I follow the graceful limbs of the woman in front of me, her legs floating ribbons, as she executes what seems to be a perfect ronds de jambes. Each movement remains a negotiation. With admirable patience, Ms. Tan casts me a sympathetic glance.   

There is no time to wallow in the misery that is my right foot. Taekwondo calls for dorsiflexion; pointed toes are synonymous with broken toes. My thoughts drag me into a flashback of the usual response to this painful mistake: “You might as well grab a tutu and head to the ballet studio next door.” Well, here I am Master Pollard, unfortunately still following your orders to never point my toes, but no longer feeling the satisfaction that comes with being a third degree black belt with 5 years of experience quite literally under her belt. It’s like being a white belt again — just in a leotard and ballet slippers. 

But the appetite for new beginnings that brought me here doesn’t falter. It is only reinforced by the classical rendition of “Dancing Queen” that floods the room and the ghost of familiarity that reassures me that this new beginning does not and will not erase the past. After years spent at the top, it’s hard to start over. But surrendering what you are only leads you to what you may become. In Taekwondo, we started each class reciting the tenets: honor, courtesy, integrity, perseverance, self-control, courage, humility, and knowledge, and I have never felt that I embodied those traits more so than when I started ballet. 

The thing about change is that it eventually stops making things so different. After nine different schools, four different countries, three different continents, fluency in Tamil, Norwegian, and English, there are more blurred lines than there are clear fragments. My life has not been a tactfully executed, gold medal-worthy Taekwondo form with each movement defined, nor has it been a series of frappés performed by a prima ballerina with each extension identical and precise, but thankfully it has been like the dynamics of a spinning back kick, fluid, and like my chances of landing a pirouette, unpredictable. 

Why it works:

What’s especially powerful about this essay is that the author uses detailed imagery to convey a picture of what they’re experiencing, so much so that the reader is along for the ride. This works as a sports essay not only because of the language and sensory details, but also because the writer focuses on a specific moment in time, while at the same time exploring why Taekwondo is such an important part of their life.

After the emotional image is created, the student finishes their essay with valuable reflection. With the reflection, they show admissions officers that they are mature and self-aware. Self-awareness comes through with statements like “surrendering what you are only leads you to what you may become” and maturity can be seen through the student’s discussion of values “honor, courtesy, integrity, perseverance, self-control, courage, humility, and knowledge, and I have never felt that I embodied those traits more so than when I started ballet.” These are the kinds of comments that should find their way into a sports essay!

“Advanced females ages 13 to 14 please proceed to staging with your coaches at this time.” Skittering around the room, eyes wide and pleading, I frantically explained my situation to nearby coaches. The seconds ticked away in my head; every polite refusal increased my desperation.

Despair weighed me down. I sank to my knees as a stream of competitors, coaches, and officials flowed around me. My dojang had no coach, and the tournament rules prohibited me from competing without one.

Although I wanted to remain strong, doubts began to cloud my mind. I could not help wondering: what was the point of perfecting my skills if I would never even compete? The other members of my team, who had found coaches minutes earlier, attempted to comfort me, but I barely heard their words. They couldn’t understand my despair at being left on the outside, and I never wanted them to understand.

Since my first lesson 12 years ago, the members of my dojang have become family. I have watched them grow up, finding my own happiness in theirs. Together, we have honed our kicks, blocks, and strikes. We have pushed one another to aim higher and become better martial artists. Although my dojang had searched for a reliable coach for years, we had not found one. When we attended competitions in the past, my teammates and I had always gotten lucky and found a sympathetic coach. Now, I knew this practice was unsustainable. It would devastate me to see the other members of my dojang in my situation, unable to compete and losing hope as a result. My dojang needed a coach, and I decided it was up to me to find one. 

I first approached the adults in the dojang – both instructors and members’ parents. However, these attempts only reacquainted me with polite refusals. Everyone I asked told me they couldn’t devote multiple weekends per year to competitions. I soon realized that I would have become the coach myself.

At first, the inner workings of tournaments were a mystery to me. To prepare myself for success as a coach, I spent the next year as an official and took coaching classes on the side. I learned everything from motivational strategies to technical, behind-the-scenes components of Taekwondo competitions. Though I emerged with new knowledge and confidence in my capabilities, others did not share this faith.

Parents threw me disbelieving looks when they learned that their children’s coach was only a child herself. My self-confidence was my armor, deflecting their surly glances. Every armor is penetrable, however, and as the relentless barrage of doubts pounded my resilience, it began to wear down. I grew unsure of my own abilities.

Despite the attack, I refused to give up. When I saw the shining eyes of the youngest students preparing for their first competition, I knew I couldn’t let them down. To quit would be to set them up to be barred from competing like I was. The knowledge that I could solve my dojang’s longtime problem motivated me to overcome my apprehension.

Now that my dojang flourishes at competitions, the attacks on me have weakened, but not ended. I may never win the approval of every parent; at times, I am still tormented by doubts, but I find solace in the fact that members of my dojang now only worry about competing to the best of their abilities.

Now, as I arrive at a tournament with my students, I close my eyes and remember the past. I visualize the frantic search for a coach and the chaos amongst my teammates as we compete with one another to find coaches before the staging calls for our respective divisions. I open my eyes to the exact opposite scene. Lacking a coach hurt my ability to compete, but I am proud to know that no member of my dojang will have to face that problem again.

In the beginning, you might think this is another cliche sports essay about overcoming adversity. But instead, it becomes a unique statement and coming-of-age tale that reads as a suspenseful narrative. 

The author connects their experience with martial arts to larger themes in their life but manages to do so without riffing off of tried-and-true themes. Through statements like “I knew I couldn’t let them down. To quit would be to set them up to be barred from competing like I was” we learn about the students values and their desire to be there for those who depend on them. 

The student also brings it full circle, demonstrating their true transformation. By using the “Same, but Different” ending technique , the student places themself in the same environment that we saw in the intro, but experiences it differently due to their actions throughout the narrative. This is very compelling!

“1…2…3…4 pirouettes! New record!” My friends cheered as I landed my turns. Pleased with my progress, I gazed down at my worn-out pointe shoes. The sweltering blisters, numbing ice-baths, and draining late-night practices did not seem so bad after all. Next goal: five turns.

For as long as I can remember, ballet, in all its finesse and glamor, had kept me driven day to day. As a child, the lithe ballerinas, donning ethereal costumes as they floated across the stage, were my motivation. While others admired Messi and Adele, I idolized Carlos Acosta, principal dancer of the Royal Ballet. 

As I devoted more time and energy towards my craft, I became obsessed with improving my technique. I would stretch for hours after class, forcing my leg one inch higher in an effort to mirror the Dance Magazine cover girls. I injured my feet and ruined pair after pair of pointe shoes, turning on wood, cement, and even grass to improve my balance as I spun. At competitions, the dancers with the 180-degree leg extensions, endless turns, and soaring leaps—the ones who received “Bravos!” from the roaring audience—further pushed me to refine my skills and perfect my form. I believed that, with enough determination, I would one day attain their level of perfection. Reaching the quadruple-pirouette milestone only intensified my desire to accomplish even more. 

My efforts seemed to have come to fruition two summers ago when I was accepted to dance with Moscow’s Bolshoi Ballet at their renowned New York City summer intensive. I walked into my first session eager to learn from distinguished ballet masters and worldly dancers, already anticipating my improvement. Yet, as I danced alongside the accomplished ballerinas, I felt out of place. Despite their clean technique and professional training, they did not aim for glorious leg extensions or prodigious leaps. When they performed their turn combinations, most of them only executed two turns as I attempted four. 

“Dancers, double-pirouettes only.” 

Taken aback and confused, I wondered why our teacher expected so little from us. The other ballerinas seemed content, gracing the studio with their simple movements. 

As I grew closer with my Moscow roommates, I gradually learned that their training emphasized the history of the art form instead of stylistic tricks. Rather than show off their physical ability, their performances aimed to convey a story, one that embodied the rich culture of ballet and captured both the legacy of the dancers before them and their own artistry. As I observed my friends more intently in repertoire class, I felt the pain of the grief-stricken white swan from Swan Lake, the sass of the flirtatious Kitri from Don Quijote, and I gradually saw what I had overlooked before. My definition of talent had been molded by crowd-pleasing elements—whirring pirouettes, gravity-defying leaps, and mind-blowing leg extensions. This mindset slowly stripped me from the roots of my passion and my personal connection with ballet. 

With the Bolshoi, I learned to step back and explore the meaning behind each step and the people behind the scenes. Ballet carries history in its movements, from the societal values of the era to each choreographer’s unique flair. As I uncovered the messages behind each pirouette, kick, and jump, my appreciation for ballet grew beyond my obsession with raw athleticism and developed into a love for the art form’s emotive abilities in bridging the dancers with the audience. My journey as an artist has allowed me to see how technical execution is only the means to a greater understanding between dancer and spectator, between storyteller and listener. The elegance and complexity of ballet does not revolve around astonishing stunts but rather the evocative strength and artistry manifested in the dancer, in me. It is the combination of sentiments, history, tradition, and passion that has allowed ballet and its lessons of human connection to become my lifestyle both on and off stage.

This essay is about lessons. While the author is a dancer, this narrative isn’t really about ballet, per se — it’s about the author’s personal growth. It is purposefully reflective as the student shows a nice character arc that begins with an eager young ballerina and ends with a reflection on their past. The primary strength of this essay is the honesty and authenticity that the student approaches it with.

In the end, the student turns a cliche on its head as they embrace the idea of overcoming adversity and demonstrate how the adversity, in this case, was their own stereotypes about their art. It’s beautiful!

“Getting beat is one thing – it’s part of competing – but I want no part in losing.” Coach Rob Stark’s motto never fails to remind me of his encouragement on early-morning bus rides to track meets around the state. I’ve always appreciated the phrase, but an experience last June helped me understand its more profound, universal meaning.

Stark, as we affectionately call him, has coached track at my high school for 25 years. His care, dedication, and emphasis on developing good character has left an enduring impact on me and hundreds of other students. Not only did he help me discover my talent and love for running, but he also taught me the importance of commitment and discipline and to approach every endeavor with the passion and intensity that I bring to running. When I learned a neighboring high school had dedicated their track to a longtime coach, I felt that Stark deserved similar honors.

Our school district’s board of education indicated they would only dedicate our track to Stark if I could demonstrate that he was extraordinary. I took charge and mobilized my teammates to distribute petitions, reach out to alumni, and compile statistics on the many team and individual champions Stark had coached over the years. We received astounding support, collecting almost 3,000 signatures and pages of endorsements from across the community. With help from my teammates, I presented this evidence to the board.

They didn’t bite. 

Most members argued that dedicating the track was a low priority. Knowing that we had to act quickly to convince them of its importance, I called a team meeting where we drafted a rebuttal for the next board meeting. To my surprise, they chose me to deliver it. I was far from the best public speaker in the group, and I felt nervous about going before the unsympathetic board again. However, at that second meeting, I discovered that I enjoy articulating and arguing for something that I’m passionate about.

Public speaking resembles a cross country race. Walking to the starting line, you have to trust your training and quell your last minute doubts. When the gun fires, you can’t think too hard about anything; your performance has to be instinctual, natural, even relaxed. At the next board meeting, the podium was my starting line. As I walked up to it, familiar butterflies fluttered in my stomach. Instead of the track stretching out in front of me, I faced the vast audience of teachers, board members, and my teammates. I felt my adrenaline build, and reassured myself: I’ve put in the work, my argument is powerful and sound. As the board president told me to introduce myself, I heard, “runners set” in the back of my mind. She finished speaking, and Bang! The brief silence was the gunshot for me to begin. 

The next few minutes blurred together, but when the dust settled, I knew from the board members’ expressions and the audience’s thunderous approval that I had run quite a race. Unfortunately, it wasn’t enough; the board voted down our proposal. I was disappointed, but proud of myself, my team, and our collaboration off the track. We stood up for a cause we believed in, and I overcame my worries about being a leader. Although I discovered that changing the status quo through an elected body can be a painstakingly difficult process and requires perseverance, I learned that I enjoy the challenges this effort offers. Last month, one of the school board members joked that I had become a “regular” – I now often show up to meetings to advocate for a variety of causes, including better environmental practices in cafeterias and safer equipment for athletes.

Just as Stark taught me, I worked passionately to achieve my goal. I may have been beaten when I appealed to the board, but I certainly didn’t lose, and that would have made Stark proud.

This essay uses the idea of sports to explore a more profound topic—growing through relationships. They really embrace using sports as an avenue to tell the reader about a specific experience that changed the way they approach the world. 

The emphasis on relationships is why this essay works well and doesn’t fall into a cliche. The narrator grows not because of their experience with track but because of their relationship with their coach, who inspired them to evolve and become a leader.

Have a draft of your college essay? We’re here to help you polish it. Students can participate in a free Peer Review, or they can sign up for a paid review by CollegeVine’s experts. Sign up for your free CollegeVine account today to start improving your essay and your chances of acceptance!

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500+ Word Essay on the Importance of Sports

Sports keep us healthy and active. We can have a healthy mind only when we have a healthy body. We can achieve anything in our lives if we have a healthy body and a peaceful mind. Physical and mental well-being comes naturally when we involve ourselves in sports activities. Sports help in improving our overall personality and make us more active and attentive. Here, students can find a 500+ Words Essay on the Importance of Sports where we will be discussing how important a role sports plays in our life.

Essay on the Importance of Sports

The topic of sports is very broad. It can serve as a form of therapy and a tool in different aspects of life, which can help change the world. Through sports, children develop physical skills, exercise, be team players, and improve their self-esteem. Sports play a significant role in advancing education and in enhancing knowledge.

Playing sports means regular exercising, jogging, going to the fitness centres or playing any game. There are different types of games involved in sports activities. Each game has its own specific rules. These sports activities are done either by individuals or teams for leisure, and entertainment as well as to compete against one another. Playing sports improves the physiological functions of the body organs and improves the functionality of the entire body system. Through sports, we learn different skills like leadership, patience, coordination, motivation, and team effort.

Sport has great importance in building personality, too. For some people, it is not only the body movement or playing strategy, but it’s a life philosophy. In the modern world, a positive attitude to sports is becoming a trend and style. Young people try to look sporty, fit and full of energy. A sports career in India was considered less lucrative in the past. However, now it has become one of the gainful professional options for students. Sometimes students take an interest in sports merely for adventure and a tension-free life. Now, sports games are gaining popularity. Various sports competitions are played at the international level, such as the Olympics. Apart from it, multiple matches and inter-city competitions are organised to promote the field of sports.

Benefits of Sports and Games

Nowadays, we can see problems related to unhealthy lifestyles. We sit more and more on the couch, surrounded by modern technologies. We don’t realise the importance and benefits of sports and physical activities. The lack of physical activity in our body leads to obesity and many other health problems such as heart disease and so. It has become a necessity of today’s world that all of us do daily physical activities or play any sports for a minimum of 30 minutes.

Regular physical activity benefits health in many ways. It helps build and maintain healthy bones, muscles and joints, controls weight, reduces fat, and prevents high blood pressure. Children who participate in physical activities such as sports, experience positive health benefits. These health benefits include a decreased risk of high blood pressure, obesity, heart disease, diabetes and cancer. Also, these children are less likely to smoke or use drugs and alcohol than children who don’t participate in sports.

Keep learning and stay tuned with BYJU’S for the latest update on CBSE/ICSE/State Board/Competitive Exams. Also, download the BYJU’S App for interactive study videos.

Frequently asked Questions on the Importance of Sports Essay

Why is playing sports important for us.

Playing sports not only helps in the active functioning of our body but also helps in flexibility and reduces the chances of falling sick.

Which was the first sport to be played in the world?

Wrestling is said to have been the first sport played in the world, depictions of the same can be found in the caves of France.

Which is the most famous sport in the world?

Football is ranked as the top sport with 3.5 billion followers, seconded by Cricket.

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Counselling

How Sports Benefit A Student’s Life and Why Is It Important?

Donna paula.

• August 19, 2023

The popularity of sports in schools has been on the rise, with an increasing number of children actively participating in various athletic activities. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), in 2020, an encouraging 54.1% of children engaged in sports. This growing trend highlights the importance of fostering discussions about physical well-being in students, as sports play a vital role in promoting their overall health and development.

This article will delve into the reasons behind the surge in sports participation and the significance of prioritizing physical well-being in the lives of young learners.

Why are sports important for students’ lives?

Sports are crucial for students’ lives as they instill discipline, time management, and resilience – essential qualities for academic and professional success. Through rigorous training and commitment, students learn discipline, a valuable skill in balancing studies and extracurriculars. Managing practice sessions, competitions, and academics teaches effective time management.

Moreover, facing challenges, victories, and defeats in sports fosters resilience, preparing students to handle setbacks in their academic and future professional pursuits. These experiences build character, confidence, and teamwork, shaping well-rounded individuals capable of navigating obstacles, adapting to change, and excelling in various spheres of life.

What are the physical health benefits of sports for students?

Sports offer numerous physical health benefits for students. Regular participation improves cardiovascular health, enhances muscular strength and endurance, and promotes flexibility and coordination. Engaging in physical activities helps maintain a healthy weight , reducing the risk of obesity-related issues. It also boosts bone density, reducing the likelihood of osteoporosis later in life.

Sports contribute to better immune function , reducing the occurrence of illnesses. Additionally, students who participate in sports are more likely to adopt a physically active lifestyle, which can lead to long-term health benefits and a decreased risk of chronic diseases such as diabetes and heart disease.

How do sports contribute to students’ mental and emotional well-being?

Beyond physical fitness, engaging in sports offers a myriad of psychological benefits that contribute to their overall mental health and emotional resilience.

Positive Impact of Sports on Mental Health and Stress Reduction

Participating in sports positively impacts students’ mental health by releasing endorphins , reducing stress hormones, and promoting a sense of achievement and self-worth. Regular physical activity in sports can alleviate symptoms of anxiety and depression, improve mood, and enhance cognitive function. Furthermore, the camaraderie and social support within sports teams foster a sense of belonging and emotional well-being, empowering students to navigate life’s challenges with greater resilience and a positive outlook.

Do sports have an impact on student’s academic performance?

The relationship between sports and academic performance has been a subject of interest among educators and researchers alike. Many studies suggest that sports can positively impact students’ academic achievements , as engagement in physical activities fosters skills and traits that are transferable to the academic realm.

How sports can enhance concentration, discipline, and time management skills

Participating in sports demands focus and concentration, which can improve students’ ability to concentrate during study sessions and exams. The commitment and dedication required in sports instill discipline, enabling students to adhere to study schedules and deadlines. Moreover, managing sports practice and academic commitments cultivates practical time management skills, helping students balance their athletic pursuits and academic responsibilities. These acquired skills and traits contribute to improved academic performance and overall success in their educational journey.

What social skills and personal development opportunities do sports provide for students?

Engaging in team sports and competitive activities can foster a range of interpersonal abilities essential for building solid relationships and navigating social situations effectively.

Exploring the social benefits of sports, such as teamwork, communication, and leadership

Participating in team sports cultivates essential social skills like teamwork, where students learn to collaborate and work cohesively toward a common goal. Effective communication is honed as players interact on and off the field, fostering understanding and cooperation.

Additionally, sports present leadership opportunities, empowering students to take charge, motivate others, and guide their teammates toward success. These social attributes not only enhance the sports experience but also carry over to various aspects of student’s personal and professional lives.

Fostering interpersonal relationships and community engagement through sports

Sports provide a platform for students to build lasting friendships and bonds, creating a sense of belonging and support within their teams. As they compete against other schools or communities, students develop a broader perspective, understanding diverse viewpoints and embracing inclusivity.

Furthermore, sports events and tournaments promote community engagement, bringing together families, friends, and supporters, fostering a collective spirit and a shared passion for sports. These experiences help students appreciate the value of community involvement and contribute to their personal development as empathetic, socially conscious individuals.

How can participating in sports teach students important values and life skills?

The experiences gained in sports, such as perseverance, sportsmanship, and goal setting, play a pivotal role in shaping their character and preparing them for future challenges.

Highlighting the values and life skills learned through sports, such as perseverance, sportsmanship, and goal setting

Sports provide a fertile ground for cultivating important values and life skills. Perseverance is developed as students encounter setbacks and learn to bounce back stronger. Sportsmanship instills respect for opponents and fair play, promoting integrity and empathy. Goal setting teaches students to work with dedication and discipline, fostering a growth mindset and determination to achieve both on and off the field. These invaluable qualities prepare students for success in various aspects of life, laying a strong foundation for personal growth and achievement.

How sports contribute to character development and preparing students for future challenges

Engaging in sports not only enhances physical abilities but also plays a significant role in character development. The challenges and triumphs experienced in sports teach students resilience, teaching them to overcome obstacles with fortitude. Learning to win gracefully and accept defeat with humility nurtures sportsmanship and a sense of fair competition.

Furthermore, the camaraderie and teamwork fostered through sports build social skills and the ability to collaborate effectively. These character-building experiences equip students with the tools needed to face future challenges, instilling confidence and a positive mindset that will serve them well in their academic, professional, and personal endeavors.

How can students balance sports and education effectively?

Balancing sports and education is a common challenge faced by students, as both demand significant time and dedication. Effectively managing these commitments is crucial to ensure academic success while reaping the numerous benefits that sports offer.

Tips and strategies for students to manage their time effectively between sports and academics

• Create a schedule: Develop a well-structured timetable that includes dedicated study hours and sports practice sessions. Organizing tasks in advance helps students allocate time efficiently, preventing last-minute rushes and reducing stress.
• Prioritize tasks: Identify academic assignments and exams that require immediate attention and focus on completing them first. Learning to prioritize helps students manage their time effectively, ensuring they fulfill their academic obligations without compromising their sports commitments.
• Utilize downtime efficiently: Make use of breaks between classes or during travel to review notes or complete quick academic tasks. These pockets of time add up and allow students to stay on top of their studies even during busy sports seasons.
• Communicate with coaches and teachers: Open communication with coaches and teachers is vital. Informing them about academic commitments and sports schedules can lead to better support and flexibility when necessary.
• Set realistic goals: Establish achievable short-term and long-term goals for both academics and sports. Realistic objectives keep students motivated and focused, leading to a more balanced approach.
• Learn time management techniques: Adopt effective time management techniques, such as the Pomodoro Technique, to improve productivity during study sessions and maintain energy levels during sports activities.
• Stay organized: Keep academic materials and sports gear well-organized to save time and reduce distractions when transitioning between sports and study sessions.
• Get enough rest and nutrition: Proper rest and a balanced diet are essential for peak performance in both sports and academics. Adequate sleep and nutrition help students stay alert, focused, and perform at their best in all areas of life.
• Seek support: Reach out to peers, coaches, or academic advisors for support and advice on managing sports and education. Sharing experiences and seeking guidance can be beneficial in finding effective solutions.

The importance of maintaining a healthy balance between sports and other responsibilities

Finding an equilibrium between sports and education is vital for students’ holistic development. While sports contribute to physical fitness, teamwork, and character-building, academic success remains a crucial foundation for future opportunities and career prospects.

Striking a balance ensures that students not only excel in sports but also perform well academically, opening doors to a wider range of possibilities. Furthermore, maintaining a healthy balance teaches students valuable life skills, such as time management, discipline, and adaptability, which are transferable to various aspects of their personal and professional lives. This balance also helps students avoid burnout and excessive stress, promoting overall well-being and fostering a positive outlook toward both their educational and athletic endeavors.

Ultimately, a harmonious blend of sports and education prepares students for future challenges, equipping them with a well-rounded skill set and a strong foundation for success.

What are the long-term benefits of sports in students’ lives?

Participating in sports during their formative years can have a lasting impact on student’s lives, extending far beyond their school days. The skills and values acquired through sports play a significant role in shaping their character and influencing their personal and professional journeys.

How the skills and values acquired through sports continue to benefit students in their personal and professional lives

• Discipline and Time Management: The discipline and time management skills cultivated in sports become ingrained habits that students carry forward into adulthood. Whether it’s meeting work deadlines, balancing family responsibilities, or pursuing personal goals, the ability to manage time efficiently proves invaluable in maintaining a successful and fulfilling life.
• Resilience and Perseverance: Sports often involve facing challenges, setbacks, and failures. Learning to bounce back, stay motivated, and strive for improvement instills resilience and perseverance. These traits enable individuals to navigate the ups and downs of life, tackle obstacles with determination, and ultimately achieve their ambitions.
• Teamwork and Leadership: The teamwork and leadership experiences gained through sports carry over into various aspects of professional life. Working collaboratively, communicating effectively, and motivating others are all vital skills in a team-oriented workplace. For those in leadership positions, the ability to inspire, delegate, and make strategic decisions stems from the foundations laid in their sports endeavors.
• Stress Management and Well-being: Sports offer a healthy outlet for stress relief, promoting mental well-being. Engaging in physical activity as a lifelong practice contributes to better physical health, reducing the risk of chronic illnesses. Regular exercise releases endorphins, fostering a positive mood and overall emotional balance.
• Networking and Social Skills: Participating in sports introduces students to a diverse range of individuals, from teammates to coaches, opponents, and spectators. Building strong interpersonal relationships and networking are essential in both personal and professional life, opening doors to opportunities and connections.
• Healthy Lifestyle: The value of maintaining a healthy lifestyle, learned through sports, remains relevant throughout life. Students who develop a love for physical activity are more likely to continue engaging in exercise and recreational sports as adults, reducing the risk of health issues and promoting longevity.

Participating in sports offers a wealth of long-term benefits that extend well beyond the playing field. For students, the skills and values acquired through sports form a strong foundation for personal and professional growth, fostering resilience, discipline, and teamwork. As parents and students, embracing the opportunities sports provide can pave the way for a healthier, more fulfilling life, promoting overall well-being and a brighter future filled with countless possibilities. Embrace the power of sports, and embark on a journey of holistic development and lasting success.

Frequently Asked Questions

How do sports and fitness affect students’ life.

Sports and fitness positively impact students’ lives by promoting physical health, building discipline, enhancing teamwork, fostering mental well-being, and instilling valuable life skills.

Why sports are important in youth development?

Sports are crucial in youth development as they promote physical fitness, teamwork, discipline, resilience, and social skills, nurturing well-rounded individuals for a successful future.

What is the importance of sports development programs in schools?

Sports development programs in schools are essential as they enhance physical fitness, teach life skills, build teamwork, boost confidence, and cultivate a healthy competitive spirit, contributing to students’ overall growth and success.

How can you encourage youth to participate in sports?

Encourage youth to participate in sports by highlighting the fun, camaraderie, health benefits, and opportunities for personal growth and achievement that sports offer.

Why is physical fitness important to students, and how will it impact your academic performance?

Physical fitness is vital for students as it improves concentration, memory, and cognitive function, leading to better academic performance. Regular exercise also reduces stress, enhances mood, and boosts overall well-being, creating a positive impact on learning and achievement.

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Gender and cultural diversity in sport, exercise, and performance psychology.

• Diane L. Gill Diane L. Gill University of North Carolina at Greensboro
• https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190236557.013.148
• Published online: 26 April 2017

Gender and cultural diversity are ever-present and powerful in sport, exercise, and performance settings. Our cultural identities affect our behaviors and interactions with others. As professionals, we must recognize and value cultural diversity. Gender and culture are best understood within a multicultural framework that recognizes multiple, intersecting identities; power relations; and the action for social justice. Physical activity participants are culturally diverse in many ways, but in other ways cultural groups are excluded from participation, and especially from power (e.g., leadership roles).

Sport, exercise, and performance psychology have barely begun to address cultural diversity, and the limited scholarship focuses on gender. Although the participation of girls and women has increased dramatically in recent years, stereotypes and media representations still convey the message that sport is a masculine activity. Stereotypes and social constraints are attached to other cultural groups, and those stereotypes affect behavior and opportunities. Race, ethnicity, socioeconomic status, and physical characteristics all limit opportunities in physical activity settings. People who are overweight or obese are particularly subject to bias and discrimination in sport and physical activity. Cultural competence, which refers to the ability to work effectively with people of a different culture, is essential for professionals in sport, exercise, and performance psychology. Not only is it important for individuals to develop their own cultural awareness, understanding, and skills, but we must advocate for inclusive excellence in our programs and organizations to expand our reach and promote physical activity for the health and well-being of all.

• cultural competence
• stereotypes
• weight bias

Introduction

Cultural diversity is a hallmark of society and a powerful influence in sport, exercise, and performance psychology. Participants are diverse in many ways, and physical activity takes place in a culturally diverse world. People carry their gender and cultural identities everywhere. Importantly, culture affects our behaviors and interactions with others. Thus, it is essential that professionals recognize and value cultural diversity.

This article takes a broad view of culture, including gender and extending beyond race, ethnicity, and social class to include physicality (physical abilities and characteristics). The article begins with a guiding framework, then reviews scholarship on gender and culture, and concludes with guidelines for cultural competence.

Culture: Basics and a Guiding Framework

This first section draws from psychology and cultural studies to provide a guiding framework for understanding culture and moving toward cultural competence in professional practice. Culture , however, is complex and not easily defined. Narrow definitions emphasize ethnicity, but we will adopt the common practice and broaden the definition to shared values, beliefs, and practices of an identifiable group of people . Thus, culture includes gender as well as race and ethnicity, and extends to language, spirituality, sexuality, physicality, and so on. Multicultural psychology further emphasizes intersections of identities and the totality of cultural experiences and contexts, which leads to the guiding framework for this article.

Psychology, cultural studies, and related areas all emphasize multiple, intersecting cultural identities; highlight power relations; and call for social action and advocacy. First, we all have multiple, intersecting cultural identities . The mix of identities is unique to each person. For example, two young women may both identify as black, Christian women athletes. One may very strongly identify as a Christian athlete, whereas the other more strongly identifies as a black woman. Moreover, the salience of those identities may vary across contexts. For example, religious identity may be salient in family gatherings but not in athletics. Also, when you are the only person with your identity (e.g., the only girl on the youth baseball team, the only athlete in class), that aspect of your identity is more salient.

The second theme of our framework involves power relations . Culture is more than categories; culture is relational, and cultural relations involve power and privilege. That is, one group has privilege, and other groups are oppressed. Privilege refers to power or institutionalized advantage gained by virtue of valued social identities. Oppression refers to discrimination or systematic denial of resources to those with inferior or less valued identities. Given that we all have many cultural identities, most people have some identities that confer privilege and other identities that lead to oppression. If you are white, male, heterosexual, educated, or able-bodied, you have privilege in that identity; you are more likely to see people who look like you in positions of power and to see yourself in those roles. At the same time, you likely have other identities that lack privilege. Most of us find it easier to recognize our oppression and more difficult to recognize our own privilege.

Recognizing privilege is a key to understanding cultural relations, and that understanding leads to the third theme— action and advocacy . Action and advocacy calls for professionals to develop their own cultural competencies and to work for social justice in our programs and institutions.

Understanding cultural diversity and developing cultural competence is not easy. As well as recognizing multiple, intersecting cultural identities, power relations and action for social justice, sport, exercise, and performance psychologists also must retain concern for the individual. The importance of individualizing professional practice is rightfully emphasized. Cultural competence involves contextualizing professional practice and specifically recognizing cultural context. The ability to simultaneously recognize and consider both the individual and the cultural context is the essence of cultural competence.

Gender and Cultural Diversity in Sport and Physical Activity

Physical activity participants are diverse, but not as diverse as the broader population. Competitive athletics are particularly limited in terms of cultural diversity. School physical education and community sport programs may come closer to reflecting community diversity, but all sport and physical activities reflect cultural restrictions. Gender is a particularly visible cultural influence, often leading to restrictions in sport, exercise and performance settings.

In the United States, the 1972 passage of Title IX prohibiting sex discrimination in educational institutions marked the beginning of a move away from the early women’s physical education model toward the competitive women’s sport programs of today. Participation of girls and women in youth and college sport has exploded in the last generation, particularly in the United States and western European nations. Still, the numbers of female and male participants are not equal. Sabo and Veliz ( 2012 ), in a nationwide study of U.S. high schools, found that overall boys have more sport opportunities than girls, and furthermore, progress toward gender equity, which had advanced prior to 2000 , had reversed since then, resulting in a wider gender gap. Following a 2013 conference in Europe ( http://ec.europa.eu/sport/news/2014/gender_equality_sport_en.htm ), a group of experts developed the report: Gender Equality in Sport: Proposal for Strategic Actions 2014–2020 ( http://ec.europa.eu/sport/events/2013/documents/20131203-gender/final-proposal-1802_en.pdf ).

In considering cultural diversity, it is important to go beyond participation numbers to consider power and privilege. Richard Lapchick’s Racial and Gender Report Card shows racial and gender inequities with little progress. For example, the 2015 report card (Lapchick, 2015 ) indicates that African Americans are slightly overrepresented in U.S. Division I athletics, but other racial and ethnic minorities are very underrepresented (see more statistics and reports at the Institute for Diversity and Ethnics in Sport website: www.tidesport.org ). Reports also show clear power relations. Before Title IX ( 1972 ), more than 90 percent of women’s athletic teams in the United States were coached by women and had a woman athletic director. Today less than half of women’s teams are coached by women (Acosta & Carpenter, 2014 ). White men dominate coaching, even of women’s teams, and administration remains solidly white male. The 2015 racial report card indicated that whites hold 90 percent of the athletic director positions, and less than 10 percent are women.

Although data are limited, the international coaching trends are similar (Norman, 2008 ) and suggest even fewer women coaches at the youth level than at the collegiate and elite levels (Messner, 2009 ). The 2012 London Olympics showcased women athletes and also demonstrated intersecting cultural relations. The United States sent more female than male athletes to London, but women were vastly underrepresented in several delegations; coaching positions are heavily dominated by men, and Olympic officials are not as diverse as the athletes.

Considering exercise, recreation, and the wider range of activities, we see more diversity, but all physical activity is limited by gender, race, socioeconomic status, and especially physical attributes. Lox, Martin Ginis, and Petruzzello ( 2014 ) summarized research and large national surveys on physical activity trends from several countries, predominantly in North America and Europe, noting that evidence continues to show that physical activity decreases across the adult life span, with men more active than women, while racial and ethnic minorities and low-income groups are less active. Physical activity drops dramatically during adolescence, more so for girls than boys, and especially for racial or ethnic minorities and lower income girls (Kimm et al., 2002 ; Pate, Dowda, O’Neill, & Ward, 2007 ).

The World Health Organization (WHO, 2014 ) identifies physical inactivity as a global health problem, noting that about 31 percent of adults are insufficiently active. Inactivity rates are higher in the Americas and Eastern Mediterranean and lowest in Southeast Asia, and men are more active than women in all regions. Abrasi ( 2014 ) reviewed research on barriers to physical activity with women from unrepresented countries, as well as immigrants and underrepresented minorities in North America and Europe. Social responsibilities (e.g., childcare, household work), cultural beliefs, lack of social support, social isolation, lack of culturally appropriate facilities, and unsafe neighborhoods were leading sociocultural barriers to physical activity. Observing others in the family or neighborhood participating had a positive influence.

Despite the clear influence of gender and culture on physical activity behavior, sport, exercise and performance psychology has been slow to recognize cultural diversity. Over 25 years ago, Duda and Allison ( 1990 ) called attention to the lack of research on race and ethnicity, reporting that less than 4 percent of published papers considered race or ethnicity, and most of those were sample descriptions. In an update, Ram, Starek, and Johnson ( 2004 ) reviewed sport and exercise psychology journal articles between 1987 and 2000 for both race and ethnicity and sexual orientation content. They confirmed the persistent void in the scholarly literature, finding only 20 percent of the articles referred to race/ethnicity and 1.2 percent to sexual orientation. Again, most were sample descriptions, and Ram et al. concluded that there is no systematic attempt to include the experiences of marginalized groups.

Considering that conference programs might be more inclusive than publications, Kamphoff, Gill, Araki, and Hammond ( 2010 ) surveyed the Association for Applied Sport Psychology (AASP) conference program abstracts from the first conference in 1986 to 2007 . Only about 10 percent addressed cultural diversity, and most of those focused on gender differences. Almost no abstracts addressed race, ethnicity, sexual orientation, social class, physical disabilities, or any other cultural diversity issue.

Just as publications and conference programs reflect little diversity, our journal editorial boards and professional organizations have been dominated by men, with few women leaders until very recently. The International Society of Sport Psychology (ISSP), which was the first organization founded in 1965 , had all men presidents for over 25 years. AASP began in 1985 with John Silva as president, followed by seven male presidents before Jean Williams became president in 1993 . Similarly, APA Division 47 (Exercise & Sport Psychology) had all male presidents from 1986 until Diane Gill became president more than 10 years later. Nearly all of those presidents have been North American or European and white.

An additional consideration is that our major journals have little international reach. Papaioannou, Machaira, and Theano ( 2013 ) found that the vast majority (82 percent) of articles over 5 years in six major journals were from English-speaking countries, and the continents of Asia, Africa, and South America combined had less than 4 percent. Papaionnau et al. noted a high correlation between continents’ representation on editorial boards and publications, suggesting possible systematic errors or bias in the review process.

The International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology (IJSEP) recently (Schinke, Papaioannou, & Schack, 2016 ) addressed this issue with a special issue on sport psychology in emerging countries. Sørensen, Maro, and Roberts ( 2016 ) reported on gender differences in an HIV/AIDS education intervention through soccer in Tanzania. The program is community-based and delivered by young peer coaches. Their findings highlight cultural intersections and the importance of considering gender along with local culture in programs. Other articles in that special issue report on Botswana’s active sport psychology in both educational programs and with national teams (Tshube & Hanrahan, 2016 ), and the established and continuing sport psychology in Brazil, which includes major research programs on physical activity and well-being as well as applied sport psychology (Serra de Queiroz, Fogaça, Hanrahan, & Zizzi, 2016 ).

Gender Scholarship in Sport, Exercise, and Performance Psychology

In reviewing the scholarship on cultural diversity, we first focus on gender, which is especially prominent in sport and physical activity, and thus, particularly relevant for sport, exercise, and performance psychology. Gender scholarship in psychology has shifted from early research on sex differences to more current social perspectives emphasizing intersecting identities and cultural relations.

Sex Differences

In their classic review of the early psychology research on sex differences, Maccoby and Jacklin ( 1974 ) concluded that few conclusions could be drawn from the literature on sex differences. Ashmore ( 1990 ) later concluded that average differences are elusive, and the evidence does not support biological dichotomous sex-linked connections. More recent reviews confirm those conclusions.

Hyde ( 2005 ) reviewed 46 meta-analyses of the extensive literature on sex differences and concluded that results support the gender similarities hypothesis. That is, males and females are more alike than different on psychological variables, and overstated claims of gender differences cause harm and limit opportunities. Zell, Krizan, and Teeter ( 2015 ) used metasynthesis to evaluate the many meta-analyses on sex differences. They found that the vast majority of differences were small and constant across age, culture, and generations, and concluded that the findings provide compelling support for the gender similarities hypothesis.

Social Perspectives and Stereotypes

Today, most psychologists look beyond the male–female dichotomy to social-cognitive models and cultural relations. As sociologist Bernard ( 1981 ) proposed over 30 years ago, the social worlds for females and males are different even when they appear similar. Today, the social worlds are still not the same for girls and boys in youth sport, male and female elite athletes, or women and men in exercise programs.

Gender stereotypes are particularly pervasive in sport and physical activity. Metheny ( 1965 ) identified gender stereotypes in her classic analysis, concluding that it was not appropriate for women to engage in activities involving bodily contact, force, or endurance. Despite women’s increased participation, those gender stereotypes persist 50 years later. Continuing research (e.g., Hardin & Greer, 2009 ; Riemer & Visio, 2003 ) confirms that expressive activities (e.g., dancing, gymnastics) are seen as feminine; combative, contact sports as masculine; and other activities (e.g., tennis, swimming) as neutral.

Sport studies scholars have continued that research, with emphasis on sport media. Early research (e.g., Messner, Duncan, & Jensen, 1993 ) showed that female athletes receive much less and different coverage, with the emphasis on athletic ability and accomplishments for men and on femininity and physical attractiveness for women. Despite the increased participation of girls and women at all levels, the media coverage has not changed much. In the most recent update of a 25-year longitudinal study, Cooky, Messner, and Musto ( 2015 ) found televised coverage of women’s sport “dismally low” with no progress. Media representations are a major source of stereotypes, and evidence indicates that all forms of the media send the message that sport is for men.

Stereotypes are a concern because we act on them, restricting opportunities for everyone. Fredericks and Eccles ( 2004 , 2005 ) found that parents held gender-stereotyped beliefs and provided more opportunities and encouragement for sons than for daughters. Chalabaev, Sarrazin, and Fontayne ( 2009 ) found that stereotype endorsement (girls perform poorly in soccer) negatively predicted girls’ performance, with perceived ability mediating the relationship.

Chalabaev, Sarrazin, Fontayne, Boiche, and Clément-Guillotin ( 2013 ) reviewed the literature on gender stereotypes and physical activity, confirming the persistent gender stereotypes in sport and the influence of stereotypes on participation and performance. They further suggested that stereotypes may influence participation and behavior even if they are not internalized and believed. We know the stereotypes, and when situations call attention to the stereotype (e.g., there are only three girls on the co-ed team), it is especially likely to affect us. Beilock, Jellison, Rydell, McConnell, and Carr ( 2006 ) showed that telling male golfers the females performance better on a golf-putting task decreased their performance, and a follow-up study (Stone & McWhinnie, 2008 ) found females similarly susceptible to stereotype threat.

Gender and Physical Self-Perceptions . As part of Eccles’s continuing developmental research on gender and achievement, Eccles and Harrold ( 1991 ) confirmed that gender influences children’s sport achievement perceptions and behaviors and that these gender differences reflect gender-role socialization. Gender differences are larger in sport than in other domains, and as Eccles and Harold noted, even in sport the perceived gender differences are much larger than actual gender differences in sport-related skills.

Considerable research also shows that self-perceptions affect sport and physical activity behavior. For example, Jensen and Steele ( 2009 ) found that girls who experienced weight criticism and body dissatisfaction engaged in less vigorous physical activity. No similar results were found for boys, and so the researchers concluded that body dissatisfaction is important in girls’ physical activity. Slater and Tiggemann ( 2011 ) looked at gender differences in teasing, body self-perceptions, and physical activity with a large sample of adolescents and concluded that teasing and body image concerns may contribute to girls’ lower rates of participation in physical activity.

Physical activity also has the potential to enhance girls’ and women’s physical self-perceptions and activity. Several studies (e.g., Craft, Pfeiffer, & Pivarnik, 2003 ) confirm that exercise programs can enhance self-perceptions, and Hausenblas and Fallon’s ( 2006 ) meta-analysis found that physical activity leads to improved body image. Greenleaf, Boyer, and Petrie ( 2009 ) looked at the relationship of high school sport participation to psychological well-being and physical activity in college women. They found that body image, physical competence, and instrumentality mediated the relationship for both activity and well-being, suggesting that benefits accrue as a result of more positive self-perceptions.

Related research suggests that sport and physical activity programs can foster positive youth development, particularly for girls. A report for the Women’s Sports Foundation— Her Life Depends on It III (Staurowsky et al., 2015 )—updated previous reports and confirmed that physical activity helps girls and women lead healthy, strong, and fulfilled lives. That report, which reviewed over 1500 studies, documented the important role of physical activity in reducing the risk of major health issues (e.g., cancer, coronary heart disease, dementias) as well as depression, substance abuse, and sexual victimization. The report further concluded that all girls and women are shortchanged in realizing the benefits of physical activity and that females of color or with disabilities face even greater barriers.

Sexuality and Sexual Prejudice

Sexuality and sexual orientation are often linked with gender, but biological sex, gender identity, and sexual orientation are not necessarily related. Furthermore, male–female biological sex and homosexual–heterosexual orientations are not the clear, dichotomous categories that we often assume them to be. Individuals’ gender identities and sexual orientations are varied and not necessarily linked. Gender identity is one’s internal sense of being male or female. For transgender people, gender identity is not consistent with their biological sex (Krane & Mann, 2014 ).

Sexual orientation refers to one’s sexual or emotional attraction to others and is typically classified as heterosexual, homosexual, or bisexual. Herek ( 2000 ) suggests that sexual prejudice is the more appropriate term for discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation, but related scholarship typically refers to homophobia . As Krane and Mann ( 2014 ) point out, heterosexism , which refers to privilege of heterosexual people, is common in sport—we assume people are heterosexual, and we discriminate against those who do not fit heterosexist stereotypes. Also, we clearly discriminate on the basis of gender identity against transgender people.

Messner ( 2002 ) argues that homophobia leads boys and men to conform to a narrow definition of masculinity and bonds men together as superior to women. We expect to see men, but not women, take active, dominant roles expected of athletes. Despite the visibility of a few prominent gay and lesbian athletes and the very recent expansion of civil rights, sexual prejudice persists. Anderson ( 2011 ) suggests that men, and particularly gay men, have more latitude in sports today, but sport is still a space of restricted masculinity and sexual prejudice.

The limited data-based research confirms that sport is a hostile climate for lesbian/gay/bisexual and transgender (LGBT) people. In one of the few empirical studies, Morrow and Gill ( 2003 ) reported that both physical education teachers and students witnessed high levels of homophobic and heterosexist behaviors in public schools. Gill, Morrow, Collins, Lucey, and Schultz ( 2006 ) subsequently examined attitudes toward racial and ethnic minorities, older adults, people with disabilities, and sexual minorities. Overall, attitudes were markedly more negative for both gay men and lesbians than for other minority groups, with males especially negative toward gay men. Vikki Krane ( 2001 ) (Barber & Krane, 2005 ; Krane & Barber, 2003 ; Krane & Mann, 2014 ; Krane & Symons, 2014 ) have done much of the related work in sport and exercise psychology, and that research indicates that sexual prejudice is common in sport at all levels. Most of that research is from North America and Europe, but hostile climates have been reported around the world. For example, Shang and Gill ( 2012 ) found the climate in Taiwan athletics hostile for those with nonconventional gender identity or sexual orientation, particularly for male athletes.

In a review of research on LGBT issues in sport psychology, Krane, Waldron, Kauer, and Semerjian ( 2010 ) found no articles focused on transgender athletes. Lucas-Carr and Krane ( 2011 ) noted that transgender athletes are largely hidden. Hargie, Mitchell, and Somerville ( 2015 ) interviewed 10 transgender athletes and found common themes of intimidation, alienation, fear of public spaces, and overall effects of being deprived of the social, health, and well-being aspects of sport. As Lucas-Carr and Krane concluded, creation of safe and compassionate sport settings for all athletes, including trans athletes, is an ethical responsibility. On a promising note, Krane and Symons ( 2014 ) described several programs that promote inclusive sport climates, including Fair go, sport! an Australian social inclusion project focusing on gender and sexual diversity.

Sexual Harassment

Sexual harassment, which has clear gender and sexuality connotations, has received considerable attention in psychology (e.g., Koss, 1990 ). Kari Fasting and Celia Brackenridge have led much of the related research and programs on sexual harassment in sport. The related scholarship indicates that the sport climate fosters sexual harassment and abuse; that young, elite female athletes are particularly vulnerable; that neither athletes nor coaches have education or training about the issues; and that both research and professional development are needed in sport and exercise psychology to address the issues (Brackenridge, 2001 ; Brackenridge & Fasting, 2002 ; Fasting, Brackenridge, & Sundgot-Borgen, 2004 ; Fasting, Brackenridge, & Walseth, 2007 ). That research comes from several European countries and Australia. Rodriguez and Gill ( 2011 ) subsequently reported similar findings with former Puerto Rican women athletes.

The International Olympic Committee (IOC, 2007 ) recognizes the problem and defines sexual harassment as “behavior towards an individual or group that involves sexualized verbal, non-verbal or physical behavior, whether intended or unintended, legal or illegal, that is based on an abuse of power and trust and that is considered by the victim or a bystander to be unwanted or coerced” (p. 3). Fasting ( 2015 ) recently reviewed the research and suggested building on the recent policies of major organizations such as the IOC to curb harassment, as well as continued research to advance systematic knowledge.

Race, Ethnicity, and Social Class

Race and ethnicity are just as salient as gender in sport and physical activity but have largely been ignored in our literature. As noted in the earlier section on gender and cultural diversity in sport and exercise psychology, there is a striking void in our journals on race and ethnicity, and virtually no research has been published on social class in sport, exercise, and performance psychology.

Although race and ethnicity are often conflated, they are not the same, and race is not a clear, biologically determined category. As Markus ( 2008 ) argued, race and ethnicity are not objective, identifying characteristics, but the meanings that we associate with those characteristics carry power or privilege. The psychology scholarship on race and ethnicity most relevant to sport, exercise, and performance psychology involves health disparities and stereotypes.

Race, Ethnicity, and Health Disparities

Health disparities are well documented, showing that racial and ethnic minorities and low-income people receive suboptimal health care (see 2011 National Health Quality and Disparities Reports; available at www.ahrq.gov ). Health disparities are relevant to sport, exercise, and performance psychology in that physical activity is a key health behavior.

Few studies have looked at race and ethnicity or social class disparities in relation to sport and physical activity. Heesch, Brown, and Blanton ( 2000 ) examined exercise barriers with a large sample of women over age 40, including African American, Hispanic, Native American, and white women. They found several common barriers, but they also reported variations by racial and ethnic group, and cautioned that their results and specific community needs precluded definitive guidelines for interventions. Crespo ( 2005 ) outlined the cultural barriers to physical activity for minority populations, including those with lower socioeconomic status, and called for professionals to consider unique needs and cultural constraints when giving advice on exercise. Ethnicity and social class are particularly relevant when considering migrant and refugee populations in Western countries. For example, Frisby ( 2011 ) interviewed Chinese immigrant women in Canada to better understand barriers and guidance for promising inclusion practices in sport and recreation. Promising practices included promoting citizen engagement, working from a broader social ecological framework, improving access policies, and fostering community partnerships to facilitate cross-cultural connections.

Stereotypes and Stereotype Threat

Steele’s ( 1997 ; Steele, Spencer, & Aronson, 2002 ) extensive research on stereotype threat , which is the fear of confirming negative stereotypes, has been extended to sport. Steele’s research indicates that stereotype threat particularly affects those minority group members who have abilities and are motivated to succeed. Steele also suggests that simple manipulations (e.g., telling students test scores are not related to race) can negate the effects. Beilock and McConnell ( 2004 ) reviewed the stereotype threat in sport literature, concluding that negative stereotypes are common in sport and lead to performance decrements, especially when the performers are capable and motivated.

Racial and ethnic stereotypes are well documented. For example, Devine and Baker ( 1991 ) found that the terms unintelligent and ostentatious were associated with black athlete , and Krueger ( 1996 ) found that both black and white participants perceived black men to be more athletic than white men. Johnson, Hallinan, and Westerfield ( 1999 ) asked participants to rate attributes of success in photos of black, white, Hispanic, and composite male athletes. Success for the black athlete was attributed to innate abilities, but the white athlete’s success was reported to come from hard work and leadership ability. Interestingly, no stereotyping was evident for the Hispanic athlete.

More important, these stereotypes affect behavior. When Stone, Perry, and Darley ( 1997 ) had people listen to a college basketball game and evaluate players, they found that both white and black students rated black players as more athletic and white players as having more basketball intelligence. Stone, Lynch, Sjomeling, and Darley ( 1999 ) found that black participants performed worse on a golf task when told the test was of sport intelligence, whereas white participants performed worse when told the test was of natural ability.

Although much of the work on stereotype threat involves race and ethnicity, gender and athlete stereotype threat effects have also been found. Heidrich and Chiviacowsky ( 2015 ) found that female participants in the stereotype threat condition (they were told women do worse than men) had lower self-efficacy and performed worse on a soccer task than those in the nonstereotype threat condition. Feltz, Schneider, Hwang, and Skogsberg ( 2013 ) found that student-athletes perceive stereotype threat in the classroom, and those with higher athletic identity perceived more threat. They also found that perceived coach’s regard for their academic ability affected athletes’ susceptibility and could serve as a buffer to stereotype threat.

Physicality and Weight Bias

Sport, exercise, and performance are physical activities, and thus physical characteristics are prominent. Moreover, opportunity is limited by physical abilities, skills, size, fitness, and appearance. Exclusion on the basis of physicality is nearly universal in sport and physical activity, and this exclusion is a public health and social justice issue.

Physical Abilities and Disabilities . Rimmer ( 2005 ) notes that people with physical disabilities are one of the most inactive segments of the population, and argues that organizational policies, discrimination, and social attitudes are the real barriers. Gill, Morrow, Collins, Lucey, and Schultz ( 2010 ) examined the climate for minority groups (racial and ethnic minorities, LGB people, older adults, and people with disabilities) in organized sport, exercise, and recreational settings. Notably, the climate was rated as most exclusionary for people with disabilities.

Semerjian ( 2010 ), one of the few scholars who has addressed disability issues in sport and exercise psychology, highlights the larger cultural context as well as the intersections of race, gender, and class with physicality. Physical skill, strength, and fitness, or more correctly, the lack of skill, strength, and fitness, are key sources of restrictions and overt discrimination in sport and exercise. Physical size, particularly obesity, is a prominent source of social stigma, and weight bias is a particular concern.

Obesity and Weight Bias

Considerable research (e.g., Brownell, 2010 ; Puhl & Heuer, 2011 ) has documented clear and consistent stigmatization and discrimination of the obese in employment, education, and health care. Obese individuals are targets for teasing, more likely to engage in unhealthy eating behaviors, and less likely to engage in physical activity (Faith, Leone, Ayers, Heo, & Pietrobelli, 2002 ; Puhl & Wharton, 2007 ; Storch et al., 2007 ). Check the Rudd Center website ( www.uconnruddcenter.org ) for resources and information on weight bias in health and educational settings.

Weight discrimination is associated with stress and negative health outcomes. Sutin, Stephan, and Terracciano ( 2015 ), using data from two large U.S. national studies, found that weight discrimination was associated with increased mortality risk and that the association was stronger than that between mortality and other forms of discrimination. Vartanian and Novak ( 2011 ) found experiences with weight stigma had negative impact on body satisfaction and self-esteem, and importantly, weight stigma was related to avoidance of exercise.

Exercise and sport science students and professionals are just as likely as others to hold negative stereotypes. Chambliss, Finley, and Blair ( 2004 ) found a strong anti-fat bias among exercise science students, and Greenleaf and Weiller ( 2005 ) found that physical education teachers held anti-fat bias and believed obese people were responsible for their obesity. O’Brien, Hunter, and Banks ( 2007 ) found that physical education students had greater anti-fat bias than students in other health areas, and also had higher bias at year 3 than at year 1; this finding suggests that their bias was not countered in their pre-professional programs. Robertson and Vohora ( 2008 ) found a strong anti-fat bias among fitness professionals and regular exercisers in England. Donaghue and Allen ( 2016 ) found that personal trainers recognized that their clients had unrealistic weight goals but still focused on diet and exercise to reach goals.

Weight Stigma and Health Promotion

Anti-fat bias and weight discrimination among professionals has important implications for physical activity and health promotion programs. Thomas, Lewis, Hyde, Castle, and Komesaroff ( 2010 ) conducted in-depth interviews with 142 obese adults in Australia about interventions for obesity. Participants supported interventions that were nonjudgmental and empowering, whereas interventions that were stigmatizing or blamed and shamed individuals for being overweight were not viewed as effective. They called for interventions that supported and empowered individuals to improve their lifestyle. Hoyt, Burnette, and Auster-Gussman ( 2014 ) reported that the “obesity as disease” message may help people feel more positive about their bodies, but they are less likely to engage in health-promoting behaviors. More positive approaches that take the emphasis off weight and highlight health gains are more promising.

Cultural Competence

Cultural competence, which refers to the ability to work effectively with people who are of a different culture, takes cultural diversity directly into professional practice. Culturally competent professionals act to empower participants, challenge restrictions, and advocate for social justice.

Cultural Sport and Exercise Psychology

A few dedicated scholars have called for a cultural sport psychology in line with our guiding framework (e.g., Fisher, Butryn, & Roper, 2003 ; Ryba & Wright, 2005 ). Schinke and Hanrahan’s ( 2009 ) Cultural Sport Psychology , and Ryba, Schinke, and Tenenbaum’s ( 2010 ) The Cultural Turn in Sport Psychology , brought together much of the initial scholarship. Special issues devoted to cultural sport psychology were published in the International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology (Ryba & Schinke, 2009 ) and the Journal of Clinical Sport Psychology special issue (Schinke & Moore, 2011 ). These works provide a base and call for cultural competence and social justice.

Cultural Competence for Professionals

Cultural competence is a required professional competency in psychology and many health professions, and is essential for anyone working with others, including sport, exercise, and performance psychology professionals. Cultural competence includes understanding and action, at both the individual and organizational level.

Most psychology resources follow Sue’s ( 2006 ) model of cultural competence with three key components: awareness of one’s own cultural values and biases, understanding of other worldviews, and development of culturally appropriate skills . In line with Sue’s model, the American Psychological Association (APA) developed the APA ( 2003 ) multicultural guidelines that call for psychologists to develop awareness of their own cultural attitudes and beliefs, understanding of other cultural perspectives, and culturally relevant skills. Furthermore, the guidelines call for action at the organizational level for social justice.

The ISSP developed a position stand (Ryba, Stambulova, Si, & Schinke, 2013 ) that describes three major areas of cultural competence: cultural awareness and reflexivity , culturally competent communication , and culturally competent interventions . Awareness and reflectivity refers to recognition of between- and within-culture variations as well as reflection on both the client and one’s own cultural background. Culturally competent communication involves meaningful dialogue and shared language. Culturally competent interventions recognize culture while avoiding stereotyping, take an idiosyncratic approach, and stand for social justice.

Cultural Competence and Inclusive Excellence

Cultural competence extends beyond individual competencies to all levels, including instruction, program development, hiring practices, and organizational policies and procedures. The APA multicultural guidelines call for professionals to recognize and value cultural diversity, continually seek to develop their multicultural knowledge and skills, translate those understandings into practice, and extend their efforts to advocacy by promoting organizational change and social justice. Cultural competence at the individual level is a professional responsibility. Inclusive excellence moves cultural competence to the institutional level. That is, we work for changes in organizations and policies that make our programs accessible and welcoming for diverse people. Taking inclusive excellence into sport, exercise, and performance psychology calls for recognizing and valuing diversity and social justice as goals that will enhance our programs and institutions, as well as bring the benefits of physical activity to participants. Therefore, we work not only to develop our individual cultural competencies, but also to effect change at the institutional level to ensure that our programs are inclusive and excellent.

Gender and culture are highly visible and influential in sport, exercise, and performance settings. Gender, race, ethnicity, social class, and physical characteristics often limit opportunities, sometimes through segregation and discrimination, but often through perceptions and stereotype influence. Sport, exercise, and performance psychology research confirms the influence of culture and offers explanations, but sport, exercise and performance psychology has made little progress in promoting cultural competence and social justice.

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Essay on Value of Sports

Students are often asked to write an essay on Value of Sports in their schools and colleges. And if you’re also looking for the same, we have created 100-word, 250-word, and 500-word essays on the topic.

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100 Words Essay on Value of Sports

Introduction.

Sports are more than just games. They teach important life lessons and values. They instill discipline, teamwork, and perseverance.

Importance of Sports

Sports help in building physical strength and stamina. They make us active and improve our overall health.

Life Lessons from Sports

Sports teach us about teamwork, discipline, and perseverance. They teach us to work together to achieve common goals.

In conclusion, sports play a crucial role in our lives. They not only keep us physically fit but also mentally strong.

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• 10 Lines on Value of Sports

250 Words Essay on Value of Sports

Sports are an integral part of society, offering a plethora of benefits to individuals and communities. They are not just about physical activity; they encompass a broader spectrum of values such as teamwork, discipline, and respect.

The Physical and Mental Benefits

Engaging in sports promotes physical health, enhancing cardiovascular endurance, muscular strength, and flexibility. Beyond the physical, sports also offer significant mental benefits. They foster resilience, as players learn to navigate wins and losses, and boost self-esteem through skill development and accomplishment.

Lessons in Teamwork and Discipline

Sports, particularly team-based ones, teach valuable lessons in teamwork. Players learn to strategize, collaborate, and communicate effectively to achieve a common goal. Additionally, sports instill discipline, as regular practice and adherence to rules are essential for success.

Respect and Sportsmanship

Sports also cultivate respect and sportsmanship. Players learn to respect their opponents, officials, and the rules of the game. They gain an understanding of fair play and the importance of ethical conduct.

Social Impact and Unity

On a societal level, sports can foster unity and camaraderie. Major sporting events often bring diverse groups together, promoting cultural exchange and mutual understanding.

In conclusion, the value of sports extends beyond the playing field. They contribute to the holistic development of individuals and can positively impact society. Therefore, sports should be encouraged and integrated into educational systems and community programs.

500 Words Essay on Value of Sports

Sports have been an integral part of human society since time immemorial. They signify the importance of fitness, discipline, teamwork, and perseverance in our lives. The values that sports instill in individuals are not just limited to the playing field but permeate all aspects of life, shaping one’s character and worldview.

The Physical Value of Sports

Engaging in sports activities provides a plethora of physical benefits. They enhance cardiovascular health, improve muscle strength, flexibility, and coordination, and help maintain a healthy weight. Regular participation in sports bolsters the immune system and reduces the risk of chronic diseases. The physical value of sports, however, extends beyond mere fitness. It fosters an appreciation for the capabilities of the human body, encouraging individuals to take better care of their health and well-being.

The Psychological Value of Sports

Sports also offer significant psychological benefits. They foster a strong sense of self-esteem and self-confidence, as individuals recognize their abilities and achievements. Sports can also serve as a stress reliever, providing an outlet for negative emotions and promoting mental well-being. Moreover, they instill resilience and the ability to handle pressure, skills that are invaluable in the face of life’s challenges.

The Social Value of Sports

From a social perspective, sports encourage teamwork, cooperation, and mutual respect. They provide a platform for individuals to interact, fostering relationships based on shared interests and experiences. Sports can bridge cultural and societal gaps, promoting understanding and tolerance among diverse groups. They teach individuals to respect rules, authority, and opponents, cultivating a sense of sportsmanship.

The Educational Value of Sports

Sports are also a vital educational tool. They teach critical life skills such as problem-solving, strategic thinking, and time management. The competitive nature of sports instills a drive to excel, fostering a growth mindset. Moreover, balancing academics and sports teaches students about prioritization and the importance of a balanced lifestyle.

In conclusion, the value of sports transcends the boundaries of the playing field. It shapes individuals physically, psychologically, socially, and educationally. The lessons learned from sports participation can be applied to various aspects of life, fostering well-rounded individuals capable of facing life’s challenges with resilience, determination, and a positive attitude. Therefore, the importance of sports in fostering personal growth and societal harmony cannot be overstated.

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