write an essay on the architecture of mughals

Exploring Mughal Architecture: A Blend of Persian, Indian, and Islamic Styles

Table of Contents

Mughal Architecture

(relevant for historical section of general   studies paper prelims/mains).

This architectural style thrived in the northern and central regions of India during the rule of the Mughal emperors from the mid-16th century to the late 17th century. The Mughal era brought about a notable resurgence of Islamic architecture in northern India. With the support of Mughal emperors, a fusion of Persian, Indian, and regional styles gave rise to exceptional and refined creations. This architectural trend became so pervasive, particularly in northern India, that its influences extended even into the colonial architecture of the Indo-Saracenic style.

• Eclectic Architecture : This style emerged as a fusion of Indian, Persian, and Turkish architectural elements .
• Variety : A diverse range of structures including grand entrances, forts, tombs, palaces, mosques, and rest houses.
• Construction Materials: The predominant use of red sandstone and white marble.
• Distinctive Features: Notable characteristics encompassed the Charbagh layout for tombs, prominent bulbous domes, slim corner turrets, expansive gateways, intricate calligraphy, and arabesque motifs, geometric designs on pillars and walls, and palace chambers supported by columns. Archways, chhatris (domed pavilions), and assorted dome styles gained immense popularity in Indo-Islamic architecture and underwent further advancements during the Mughal era.

Taj Mahal: Commissioned by Shah Jahan between 1632 and 1653 as a tribute to his beloved wife Mumtaz Mahal. Acknowledged by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site in 1983, the Taj Mahal is situated in Agra.

Red Fort: Constructed by Shah Jahan in 1618 as part of his decision to relocate the capital from Agra to Delhi. It functioned as the residence for Mughal rulers. Designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2007.

Jama Masjid : Erected by Shah Jahan in Delhi, with completion achieved in 1656.

Badshahi Mosque : Raised during Aurangzeb’s reign, the Badshahi Mosque held the record as the world’s largest mosque upon its completion in 1673. It is situated in Lahore, the capital of the Pakistani province of Punjab.

• It is a fortification in Agra.
• It was one of the earliest structures to be built during Akbar’s rule.
• The majority of the constructions inside the fort, however, were built during Shah Jahan’s reign. The following are some of the notable structures in the area:
• Moti Masjid by Shah Jahan.
• Diwan-i-aam (Hall of Public Audience) and Diwan-i-khas (Hall of Private Audience) by Shah Jahan.
• The Jahangiri Mahal.
• Sheesh Mahal (Turkish Bath).

Humayun’s Tomb

• This mausoleum, constructed in 1570, holds particular cultural significance due to being the inaugural garden-tomb on the Indian subcontinent.
• It served as an inspiration for several significant architectural advancements, ultimately culminating in the creation of the Taj Mahal.
• Its construction was sponsored by Humayun’s son , the renowned Emperor Akbar. Referred to as the ‘dormitory of the Mughals,’ it contains the remains of more than 150 members of the Mughal family.
• Exemplifying the charbagh style (featuring a four-part garden symbolizing the rivers of the Quranic paradise ), it incorporates pools interconnected by water channels. The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) bestowed World Heritage Site status upon it in 1993.

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Mughal Architecture, Islamic Architecture, Persian Influence, Taj Mahal, Red Fort, Jama Masjid, Badshahi Mosque, Agra Fort, Humayun’s Tomb, Charbagh Layout, UNESCO World Heritage Sites, Indian History, Architectural Styles, Shah Jahan, Akbar, Aurangzeb, Best Sociology Optional Coaching, Sociology Optional Syllabus.

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• IAS Preparation
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• Post Mughal Style Architecture

Mughal Style Architecture [UPSC Medieval History Notes]

Mughals brought in Persian style into Indian Architecture. The character and structure of Mughal buildings displayed a uniform character and structure. Some of the main features of Mughal architecture are mentioned below.

• Large halls
• Very large vaulted gateways
• Delicate ornamentation
• Bulbous domes
• Slender Minarets with cupolas at the 4 corners

Aspirants can find information on the structure and other important details related to the IAS Exam , in the linked article.

What was the New Indian Architecture of the Mughal period called?

The Mughals constructed excellent Forts, Mosques, Mausoleums, Gardens and Cities. Mughal architecture begins with Akbar who displayed great passion for buildings with meticulous planning and constructing splendid edifices. He made the best use of the Hindu and Persian style of architecture. The salient features of Akbar’s buildings are the use of red sandstone inlaid with white marble and painted designs on walls and ceiling.

The new Indian Architecture of the Mughal period is called Mughal Architecture. The Mughal architecture was an amalgamation of Persian, Turkic, Timurid Iranian, Central Asian, and Indian Hindu style of architecture. Mughal architecture first developed and flourished during the reign of Akbar. In this period there was extensive use of red sandstone as a building material. Mughal architecture reached its peak during the rule of Shah Jahan. The decline of Mughal architecture began during the rule of Aurangazeb and post his death. The Mughals were known for building beautiful quadrilateral gardens.

What Great Buildings did the Mughals Create?

Some of the most famous buildings created during the Mughal era are given below.

• Taj Mahal – It was built by Shah Jahan between 1632 and 1653, in memory of his wife Mumtaz Mahal. The United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO) recognized the Taj Mahal as a World Heritage Site in 1983. It is located in Agra.
• Red Fort – UNESCO designated it as the World Heritage Site in 2007. It was built by Shah Jahan when he decided to move the capital from Agra to Delhi. It was the residence of Mughal rulers.
• Shalimar Gardens – It is a 40-acre garden built by Shah Jahan in 1642. It was declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 1981.
• Jama Masjid – Built by Shah Jahan. The construction was completed in 1656. 
• Badshahi Mosque – At the time of completion in 1673, it was the largest mosque in the world. It was built during the reign of Aurangazeb.
• Humayun’s Tomb – It was built in 1570 in memory of Emperor Humayun, it was declared as the world heritage site in 1993.

Who Built Buland Darwaza?

Buland Darwaza was built by Mughal Emperor Akbar, to commemorate his victory over Gujarat. It can be translated as Door to Victory. It was built in 1601 A.D and acts as an entrance to the Jama Masjid at Fatehpur Sikri. 

Candidates can find the general pattern of the UPSC Civil Service Exam by visiting the IAS Syllabus page.

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Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History Essays

The art of the mughals before 1600.

"Rama Receives Sugriva and Jambavat, the Monkey and Bear Kings", Folio from a Ramayana

Carpet with Palm Trees, Ibexes, and Birds

"The Spy Zambur Brings Mahiya to the City of Tawariq", Folio from a Hamzanama (Book of Hamza)

Attributed to Kesav Das

"Krishna Holds Up Mount Govardhan to Shelter the Villagers of Braj", Folio from a Harivamsa (The Legend of Hari (Krishna))

"Alexander Visits the Sage Plato in his Mountain Cave", Folio from a Khamsa (Quintet) of Amir Khusrau Dihlavi

Amir Khusrau Dihlavi

Buffaloes in Combat

Attributed to Miskin

Talismanic Shirt

Pierced Window Screen

Department of Islamic Art , The Metropolitan Museum of Art

October 2002

The dynasty founded by Babur, the Mughal dynasty, ruled over the greatest Islamic state of the Indian subcontinent. As a youth, Babur, a prince of the house of Timur , was unable to maintain his sovereignty over the small Central Asian state bequeathed to him by his father. Instead, he turned his attention to the southeast, where he occupied Kabul in 1504, and almost immediately thereafter embarked on his conquest of India. By 1527, Babur had defeated both the forces of the Lodi sultan and those of the Hindu confederacy. However, at the time of his death, in 1530, he had not yet transformed his territorial acquisitions into an empire. This task was left to Humayun, Babur’s son and successor, who unfortunately lacked the military genius of his father and soon forfeited the Mughal foothold in India. Only through Persian military intervention did he manage to regain the capital cities of Agra and Delhi in 1555. Yet it is Humayun’s son Akbar who can be credited with the real foundation of the Mughal empire.

During his reign, which lasted nearly fifty years (1556–1605), Akbar established dominion over northern and central India, as far east as Bengal. He secured the northwestern frontier, gateway to India for so many previous invasions, through his control of Kabul. Akbar’s most important territorial gain was the sultanate of Gujarat, in the west, which provided the Mughal empire with enormous wealth from its commercial centers, as well as access to the Arabian Sea and hence opportunity for lucrative trade with both the Europeans and the Ottoman empire . Unlike his grandfather, Akbar succeeded in consolidating the empire and establishing a strong administrative system. He was deeply interested in spiritual and religious issues, and in 1582 formulated a new code of religious behavior. Weekly discussions at court included not only representatives of various Muslim religious communities but also non-Muslim theologians including Hindus , Jains, Christians, Jews , and Zoroastrians.

Akbar was also the first great Mughal patron of the arts. Of his various building projects, the most ambitious was the new capital city of Fatehpur Sikri , near Agra. Built mostly between 1571 and 1585, when Akbar adopted Lahore as his principal residence, the palace buildings at Fatehpur Sikri reflect a synthesis of Timurid traditions of Iran and Central Asia with indigenous traditions of Hindu and Muslim India.

Although he is said to have been illiterate, Akbar assembled a royal atelier, first at Fatehpur Sikri, then at Lahore, from which he commissioned numerous illustrated manuscripts that incorporate Persian, Indian, and even European elements. In fact, the artists who worked for Akbar, the first great Mughal patron of the arts of the book, included Persians as well as Indian Muslims and Hindus. This collaborative process helped to foster the development of a specifically Mughal style, which was initiated under Akbar and is demonstrated by pages from diverse late-sixteenth-century manuscripts. This style of painting was further developed and refined during the reigns of Jahangir and Shah Jahan during the seventeenth century.

Department of Islamic Art. “The Art of the Mughals before 1600.” In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History . New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–. http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/mugh/hd_mugh.htm (October 2002)

Further Reading

Beach, Milo Cleveland. Mughal and Rajput Painting . New York: Cambridge University Press, 1992.

Koch, Ebba Mughal. Art and Imperial Ideology: Collected Essays . New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2001.

Additional Essays by Department of Islamic Art

• Department of Islamic Art. “ The Art of the Almoravid and Almohad Periods (ca. 1062–1269) .” (October 2001)
• Department of Islamic Art. “ Turkmen Jewelry .” (August 2011)
• Department of Islamic Art. “ The Art of the Umayyad Period in Spain (711–1031) .” (October 2001)
• Department of Islamic Art. “ The Nature of Islamic Art .” (October 2001)
• Department of Islamic Art. “ Vegetal Patterns in Islamic Art .” (October 2001)
• Department of Islamic Art. “ Calligraphy in Islamic Art .” (October 2001)
• Department of Islamic Art. “ Figural Representation in Islamic Art .” (October 2001)
• Department of Islamic Art. “ Geometric Patterns in Islamic Art .” (October 2001)
• Department of Islamic Art. “ The Art of the Nasrid Period (1232–1492) .” (October 2002)

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History Grade 10 - Topic 1 The Mughal Empire

The Mughals were a powerful Turkic-Mongol tribe that originated from Central Asia. [1]   The Mughal Empire controlled most of Northern India from the 16th to the 18th century. [2]   The Mughal’s are well known for their effective administrative organization that aided them in ruling much of India for more than two centuries. [3]   They are also notable for their attempt to integrate Muslims and Hindus under one united Indian state [4] (more information on this aspect of the Mughal Empire will follow).  This article will discuss:  the Rise of the Mughal Empire, Government and Society, the Role of Women, Architecture and Culture, Astronomy and Technology, Travel and Trade, and finally, the Decline of the Mughal Empire.

Mughal Sultans:

• Babur (1526-1530)
• Humayun (1530-1540 and 1555-1556)
• Akbar (1556-1605)
• Jahangir (1605-1627)
• Shah Jahan (1628-1658)
• Aurangzeb (1658-1707)
• Muhammad Shah (1719-48)
• Bahadur Shah II (1837-1857)

The Rise of the Mughal Empire:

In 1526 a Turkic Prince, Babur (who was a descendent of the Turkic conqueror, Timur, and the Mongol ruler, Genghis Khan), set out to take control over the Punjab region in India.  From his base in Kabul, Afghanistan, Babur took control of the Punjab region and was able to defeat Ibrahim Lodi, the Delhi Sultan. [5]   This battle is known as the First Battle of Panipat.  Babur’s thirst for the conquest of India is said to have been inspired by Timur’s raids on India during the 14th century. [6]   Babur military success is significantly owned to his use of firearms and the superiority and experience of his cavalry. [7]   Consequently, by Babur’s death in 1530, the Mughal’s controlled most of Northern India. [8]

After Babur’s death his son, Humayun reigned over the Mughal Empire.  However, by 1540 he lost control over the region to Afghan rebels and was sent to exile by the Afghan ruler, Sher Shah Sur. [9]   In 1555, with the help of the Persians and his son, Akbar, who defeated Hemu (a Hindu usurper) at the Second Battle of Panipat in 1556, the Moghul Empire was re-established. [10]   Akbar took control over the empire after his father’s death in 1556.  He was to become known as Akbar the Great and considered as the greatest Mughal emperor. [11]   It was under his reign that the Mughal Empire started to reach its full potential.  During Akbar’s control, the Mughal Empire expanded from “Kashmir in the north and Afghanistan in the northwest to Bengal in the east and the Deccan plateau in the south”. [12]   Akbar also implemented significant political, military and administrative structures that were used for generations to come. [13]

Government and Society:

During Akbar’s rule (1556-1605) significant political, administrative and military changes were made to the existing structures of the Mughal Empire.  Akbar decided to impose a centralized system of administration and governance, where mansabdars (warrior-aristocrats) could be appointed to rule from various bureaucratic or military positions. [14]   This system of governance was also accompanied by religious tolerance where people from various religious or cultural backgrounds could enlist and take part in the military or government services. [15]   Furthermore, Akbar decided to abolish the poll tax that non-Muslims had to pay and he refused to attempt to convert his region’s Hindu population to  Islam. [16]   The decision for tolerance and openness to other religions played a significant role in the attempt to unite the different regions of his empire, as it ensured loyalty and a sense of coexistence among the different cultural and religious groups. [17]   This was highly important for the Mughal Empire’s survival and reign as the majority of the empire were citizens who followed the Hindu faith. [18]   Furthermore, these changes ensured the empire’s survival for another century and also led to various cultural and artistic revolutions. [19]

Role of Women:

In Indian society men usually had the political and economic power, where women were usually regarded as inferior. [20]   Women who formed a part of the nobility or were of wealthier backgrounds were usually kept out of the public eye and housed in separate areas called harems. [21]   However, it should be noted that during the Mughal rule, the Sultan’s wives were usually highly respected and some were encouraged and free to receive or seek education. [22]   Some of the women who formed a part of the nobility attempted to help other women from poorer communities by giving them financial aid as these women were reduced to the control of their husbands and were forced to work in the rural areas. [23]   One of the most influential women from the Moghul Empire is Meher-un-Nissa (commonly known as Nur Jahan), the wife of Jahangir (the son of Akbar the Great), who in many cases considered her as his equal. [24]   Nur Jahan, for example, started various campaigns that attempted to support disadvantaged citizens of the empire. [25]

Architecture and the Arts:

Humayun’s Period:  After Humayun’s exile (1540-1555) in Persia, he was accompanied back to India by a famous Persian painter named Mir Sayid Ali. [26]   Shortly after Humayun’s death, under the reign of Akbar, Mir Sayid Ali and other Persian painters brought to India by Humanyun, established the first Moghul painting studio in Fatehpur Sikri. [27]   After this establishment, Mughal paintings started to revolutionize into a distinctive style that combined sophisticated Persian painting techniques with the rich and bold colours used by local Indian painters and artists. [28]   Although Humayun’s influence on the arts was shortly lived due to his lengthy exile and timely death, his tomb in Delhi is considered as an early symbol of Moghul architecture, that showcased elements of large domes, slender minarets and large decorated gateways. [29]

Akbar’s Period:  Although Akbar’s reign is best known for the effectiveness of his changes in administrative and military structures of his empire, Akbar also had significant influences on the cultural and artistic aspects of the Mughal Empire.  For example, Akbar decided to build ibadar-khana (a “house of worship”) near his palace in Agra, where debates with various cultural or religious representation could be hosted. [30]   Furthermore, Akbar hosted various intellectuals, poets, musicians, philosophers and engineers in his various courts across Delhi, Agra and Fatehphur Sikri. [31]   Significantly, it is during Akbar’s reign that a Mughal architectural style developed – this style is known for its combination of Islamic, Persian and Hindu elements of design. [32]

An interesting note of the development of art during Akbar’s rule, is his encouragement of portraiture.  This is interesting because portraiture was considered taboo as a form or art by the Islamic faith because it is contrary to Koranian faith. [33]   However, with Akbar’s openness to various cultural and religious expressions, he described to his courtiers that although, "There are many people who despise painting: I myself cannot abide this type of person. I feel that painters are endowed with exceptional means of knowing God; a painter in drawing a living person is forced to admit that he is unable to bring his subject to life. He is led to think of God as the sole creator of all life, and in this way learns to know Him better". [34]   Consequently, with Akbar’s influence and encouragement, portraiture became a significant aspect in the Mughal school of art and was commonly associated with the rich.

Shah Jahan’s Period:  Shah Jahan was commonly known for his “insatiable passion” for architecture and the time of his rule is considered the cultural zenith of the Mughal Empire. [35]   In fact the famed Taj Mahal (which was named “the jewel of Muslim art in India” by UNESCO World Heritage and declared one of the ‘New 7 Wonders of the World’) was built for his late wife, Mumtaz Mahal, who died during childbirth. [36]   It is also during Shah Juhan’s reign when the Red Fort in Delhi was built. [37]   Although Shah Jahan’s passion for architecture was unquenchable, he did not share the same thirst for art and paintings and therefore, during Shah Jahan’s rule there were very few significant additions to Mughal art. [38]

Aurangzeb’s Period:  Although Aurangzeb’s period of rule marked a broad expansion of the Mughal Empire through various annexations (for example:  the Deccan Kingdoms of Vijayapura and Golconda), this period was also marked with the drastic decline of the Mughal Empire (the reasons and factors for the Mughal decline will be thoroughly discussed in the last section, ‘the decline of the Mughal Empire). [39]   Aurangzeb’s rule and personality was characterized by highly orthodoxic practices within the Muslim religion. [40]   This meant that most luxuries such as music and art were banned in court. [41]   Furthermore, various schools, temples, works of art and especially portraits were destroyed.  Consequently, many artists fled the capital and took refuge in various local courts. [42]

Astronomy and Technology:

Due to the openness and encouragement of various subjects such as art, literature and engineering from different cultures and regions under Akbar’s rule, the Mughal Empire experienced an epicenter of academic discussion and learning. [43]   In fact, it was Indian scientists who invented the concept of zero – which revolutionized modern mathematics. [44]   Furthermore, Indian metallurgists (people who work with and reshape melted metal) invented the metal seamless celestial globe which aided astronomers to map the various stars and constellations. [45]   Remarkably, these globes were completely seamless and only 21 of globes were made.  Modern scientists and technology are unable to reproduce the same seamless metal globes. [46]

Travel and Trade:

During the Mughal Empire, Indian trade became a significant player in world trade.  Various European companies (especially Portugal and Great Britain) sought to dominate Indian Trade. [47]   In 1700 English merchants established the English East India Company that traded from main ports incentres such as Madras, Bombay and Calcutta. [48]   However, before European dominance in the later centuries, India’s trade flourished under certain principles.  For example, each village had its own smaller markets whose commodities reached large ports. [49]   Furthermore, there was a great extent of professionalism among Moghul Indian traders who specialized in various trades (most notably the production and trading of cotton and silk). [50]   Towards the end of the 17th century, Indian textile exports dominated more than 25% of the world’s market share. [51]

The Decline of the Mughal Empire:

The beginning of the Mughal Empire’s decline started to show during the reign of Sultan Shah Jahan.  Due his excessive building and some of his military expansions, the empire started to show some signs of bankruptcy. [52]   After Shah Juhan’s death, his youngest son, Aurangzeb conquered the throne by eliminating his brothers. [53]   As briefly mentioned, Aurangzeb’s rule was categorized by the strict following of Islam.  Therefore, Aurangzeb demolished the enlightenment that followed Akbar’s rule, by eliminating almost all tolerance of the Hindu religion. [54]   This was done through excluding all Hindus from governance and public offices, as well as the persecution of the Sikhs and Punjab. [55]   Consequently, hope for a continued united Indian state - which was created by decades of mutual religious and cultural tolerance and acceptance during Akbar, Jahangir and Shah Jahan’s reign – was lost.  This also meant that certain regions that followed other religion started questioning Aurangzeb’s, and the Rajputs, Sikhs and Marathas launched various rebellions against the Moghul Empire. [56]   By Aurangzeb’s death in 1707, the Marathas controlled authority in most of the Mughal regions. 

Aurangzeb’s death marked the Mughal Empire with a period of abrupt and inconsistent lapses of Mughal control.  For example, only in 1719 did Muhammad Shah take control over a now fragmented empire that was experiencing numerous dynastic warfare and internal rivalries. [57]   However, in 1739 the Mughals lost control once more with Iranian conqueror, Nadir Shah’s launch of a disruptive invasion on northern India, where his military sacked Delhi and took control over various Mughal treasures. [58]   This victory over the once powerful Mughals highlighted the lapse in their power and vulnerability in their rule.  Consequently, the Mughal Empire was reduced to a small region near Delhi. [59]   After various exchanges of control over this small region between the Mughals, the Marathas and even the British imperial rule, the last of the Mughal leaders, Bahadur Shah II, took control of the region – only to be exiled by the British after the Mughal’s involvement in the Indian Mutiny of 1857-1858. [60]   It became evident that the Mughals were unable to retain their power and compete with the strong internal forces, as well as the now ever growing European imperial and colonial influence and power.

This content was originally produced for the SAHO classroom by Ilse Brookes, Amber Fox-Martin & Simone van der Colff

[1] Author Unknown, “The Age of the Mughals,” Victoria and Albert Museum [online], available at http://www.vam.ac.uk/content/articles/a/the-age-of-the-mughals/ (Accessed:  20 June 2020).

[2] Author Unknown, “Mughal Empire,” Britannica [online], available at https://www.britannica.com/topic/Mughal-dynasty (Accessed:  20 June 2020).

[3] Author Unknown, “Mughal Dynasty,” Britannica [online], available at https://www.britannica.com/topic/Mughal-dynasty (Accessed:  20 June 2020).

[4] Author Unknown, “Mughal Dynasty,” Britannica [online], available at https://www.britannica.com/topic/Mughal-dynasty (Accessed:  20 June 2020).

[5] Author Unknown, “Mughal Dynasty,” Britannica [online], available at https://www.britannica.com/topic/Mughal-dynasty (Accessed:  20 June 2020).

[6] Author Unknown, “The Age of the Mughals,” Victoria and Albert Museum [online], available at http://www.vam.ac.uk/content/articles/a/the-age-of-the-mughals/ (Accessed:  20 June 2020).

[7] A. Hart-Davis, History:  Definitive Visual Guide, Dorling Kindersley Limited, Great Britain, 2007, p. 244.

[8] Author Unknown, “Mughal Dynasty,” Britannica [online], available at https://www.britannica.com/topic/Mughal-dynasty (Accessed:  20 June 2020).

[9] A. Hart-Davis, History:  Definitive Visual Guide, Dorling Kindersley Limited, Great Britain, 2007, p. 244.

[10] Author Unknown, “Mughal Dynasty,” Britannica [online], available at https://www.britannica.com/topic/Mughal-dynasty (Accessed:  20 June 2020).

[11] Author Unknown, “Mughal Dynasty,” Britannica [online], available at https://www.britannica.com/topic/Mughal-dynasty (Accessed:  20 June 2020).

[12] A. Hart-Davis, History:  Definitive Visual Guide, Dorling Kindersley Limited, Great Britain, 2007, p. 244.

[13] Author Unknown, “Mughal Dynasty,” Britannica [online], available at https://www.britannica.com/topic/Mughal-dynasty (Accessed:  20 June 2020).

[14] A. Hart-Davis, History:  Definitive Visual Guide, Dorling Kindersley Limited, Great Britain, 2007, p. 244.

[15] Author Unknown, “Mughal Dynasty,” Britannica [online], available at https://www.britannica.com/topic/Mughal-dynasty (Accessed:  20 June 2020).

[16] Author Unknown, “Akbar the Great,” Biography [online], available at https://www.biography.com/political-figure/akbar-the-great (Accessed:  22 June 2020).

[17] Author Unknown, “Akbar the Great,” Biography [online], available at https://www.biography.com/political-figure/akbar-the-great (Accessed:  22 June 2020).

[18] A. Hart-Davis, History:  Definitive Visual Guide, Dorling Kindersley Limited, Great Britain, 2007, p. 245.

[19] Author Unknown, “Mughal Dynasty,” Britannica [online], available at https://www.britannica.com/topic/Mughal-dynasty (Accessed:  20 June 2020).

[20] J. Bottaro & P. Visser & N. Worden, Oxford in Search of History:  Grade 1o Learner’s Book, Oxford University Press, South Africa.

[21] J. Bottaro & P. Visser & N. Worden, Oxford in Search of History:  Grade 1o Learner’s Book, Oxford University Press, South Africa.

[22] M. Fatima, “Powerful Women of the Mughal Empire,” Youlin Magazine:  A Cultural Journal [online], available at https://www.youlinmagazine.com/article/powerful-women-of-the-mughal-empire/MTY5Nw== (Accessed:  22 June 2020).

[23] J. Bottaro & P. Visser & N. Worden, Oxford in Search of History:  Grade 1o Learner’s Book, Oxford University Press, South Africa.

[24] M. Fatima, “Powerful Women of the Mughal Empire,” Youlin Magazine:  A Cultural Journal [online], available at https://www.youlinmagazine.com/article/powerful-women-of-the-mughal-empire/MTY5Nw== (Accessed:  22 June 2020).

[25] M. Fatima, “Powerful Women of the Mughal Empire,” Youlin Magazine:  A Cultural Journal [online], available at https://www.youlinmagazine.com/article/powerful-women-of-the-mughal-empire/MTY5Nw== (Accessed:  22 June 2020).

[26] Author Unknown, “Mughal Painting, India,” Visual Arts [online], available at http://www.visual-arts-cork.com/east-asian-art/mughal-painting.htm (Accessed:  22 June 2020).

[27] Author Unknown, “Mughal Painting, India,” Visual Arts [online], available at http://www.visual-arts-cork.com/east-asian-art/mughal-painting.htm (Accessed:  22 June 2020).

[28] Author Unknown, “The Age of the Mughals,” Victoria and Albert Museum [online], available at http://www.vam.ac.uk/content/articles/a/the-age-of-the-mughals/ (Accessed:  20 June 2020).

[29] Author Unknown, “The Mughals,” UCF Web courses [online], available at https://webcourses.ucf.edu/courses/1274391/pages/the-mughals (Accessed:  22 June 2020).

[30] A. Hart-Davis, History:  Definitive Visual Guide, Dorling Kindersley Limited, Great Britain, 2007, p. 245.

[31] Author Unknown, “Akbar the Great,” Biography [online], available at https://www.biography.com/political-figure/akbar-the-great (Accessed:  22 June 2020).

[32] Author Unknown, “Akbar the Great,” Biography [online], available at https://www.biography.com/political-figure/akbar-the-great (Accessed:  22 June 2020).

[33] Author Unknown, “Mughal Painting, India,” Visual Arts [online], available at http://www.visual-arts-cork.com/east-asian-art/mughal-painting.htm (Accessed:  22 June 2020).

[34] Author Unknown, “Mughal Painting, India,” Visual Arts [online], available at http://www.visual-arts-cork.com/east-asian-art/mughal-painting.htm (Accessed:  22 June 2020).

[35] Author Unknown, “Mughal Dynasty,” Britannica [online], available at https://www.britannica.com/topic/Mughal-dynasty (Accessed:  20 June 2020).

[36] Author Unknown, “Mughal Dynasty,” Britannica [online], available at https://www.britannica.com/topic/Mughal-dynasty (Accessed:  20 June 2020).

[37] J. Bottaro & P. Visser & N. Worden, Oxford in Search of History:  Grade 1o Learner’s Book, Oxford University Press, South Africa.

[38] Author Unknown, “Mughal Painting, India,” Visual Arts [online], available at http://www.visual-arts-cork.com/east-asian-art/mughal-painting.htm (Accessed:  22 June 2020).

[39] Author Unknown, “Mughal Dynasty,” Britannica [online], available at https://www.britannica.com/topic/Mughal-dynasty (Accessed:  20 June 2020).

[40] Author Unknown, “Mughal Painting, India,” Visual Arts [online], available at http://www.visual-arts-cork.com/east-asian-art/mughal-painting.htm (Accessed:  22 June 2020).

[41] Author Unknown, “Mughal Painting, India,” Visual Arts [online], available at http://www.visual-arts-cork.com/east-asian-art/mughal-painting.htm (Accessed:  22 June 2020).

[42] Author Unknown, “Mughal Painting, India,” Visual Arts [online], available at http://www.visual-arts-cork.com/east-asian-art/mughal-painting.htm (Accessed:  22 June 2020).

[43] J. Bottaro & P. Visser & N. Worden, Oxford in Search of History:  Grade 1o Learner’s Book, Oxford University Press, South Africa.

[44] J. Bottaro & P. Visser & N. Worden, Oxford in Search of History:  Grade 1o Learner’s Book, Oxford University Press, South Africa.

[45] J. Bottaro & P. Visser & N. Worden, Oxford in Search of History:  Grade 1o Learner’s Book, Oxford University Press, South Africa.

[46] J. Bottaro & P. Visser & N. Worden, Oxford in Search of History:  Grade 1o Learner’s Book, Oxford University Press, South Africa.

[47] J. Bottaro & P. Visser & N. Worden, Oxford in Search of History:  Grade 1o Learner’s Book, Oxford University Press, South Africa.

[48] J. Bottaro & P. Visser & N. Worden, Oxford in Search of History:  Grade 1o Learner’s Book, Oxford University Press, South Africa.

[49] Author Unknown, “Inland and Foreign Trade during the Mughal Period,” History Discussion [online], available at https://www.historydiscussion.net/history-of-india/inland-and-foreign-trade-during-the-mughal-period/2832 (Accessed:  22 June 2020).

[50] Author Unknown, “Inland and Foreign Trade during the Mughal Period,” History Discussion [online], available at https://www.historydiscussion.net/history-of-india/inland-and-foreign-trade-during-the-mughal-period/2832 (Accessed:  22 June 2020).

[51] Author Unknown, “Inland and Foreign Trade during the Mughal Period,” History Discussion [online], available at https://www.historydiscussion.net/history-of-india/inland-and-foreign-trade-during-the-mughal-period/2832 (Accessed:  22 June 2020).

[52] Author Unknown, “Mughal Dynasty,” Britannica [online], available at https://www.britannica.com/topic/Mughal-dynasty (Accessed:  20 June 2020).

[53] Author Unknown, “Mughal Painting, India,” Visual Arts [online], available at http://www.visual-arts-cork.com/east-asian-art/mughal-painting.htm (Accessed:  22 June 2020).

[54] Author Unknown, “Mughal Dynasty,” Britannica [online], available at https://www.britannica.com/topic/Mughal-dynasty (Accessed:  20 June 2020).

[55] Author Unknown, “Mughal Dynasty,” Britannica [online], available at https://www.britannica.com/topic/Mughal-dynasty (Accessed:  20 June 2020).

[56] Author Unknown, “Mughal Dynasty,” Britannica [online], available at https://www.britannica.com/topic/Mughal-dynasty (Accessed:  20 June 2020).

[57] Author Unknown, “Mughal Dynasty,” Britannica [online], available at https://www.britannica.com/topic/Mughal-dynasty (Accessed:  20 June 2020).

[58] A. Hart-Davis, History:  Definitive Visual Guide, Dorling Kindersley Limited, Great Britain, 2007, p. 245.

[59] Author Unknown, “Mughal Dynasty,” Britannica [online], available at https://www.britannica.com/topic/Mughal-dynasty (Accessed:  20 June 2020).

[60] Author Unknown, “Mughal Dynasty,” Britannica [online], available at https://www.britannica.com/topic/Mughal-dynasty (Accessed:  20 June 2020).

• Author Unknown, “Akbar the Great,” Biography [online], Published on 2 April 2014, Available at https://www.biography.com/political-figure/akbar-the-great (Accessed:  22 June 2020).
• Author Unknown, “Inland and Foreign Trade during the Mughal Period,” History Discussion [online], available at https://www.historydiscussion.net/history-of-india/inland-and-foreign-trade-during-the-mughal-period/2832 (Accessed:  22 June 2020).
• Author Unknown, “Mughal Dynasty,” Britannica [online], available at https://www.britannica.com/topic/Mughal-dynasty (Accessed:  20 June 2020).
• Author Unknown, “Mughal Painting, India,” Visual Arts [online], available at http://www.visual-arts-cork.com/east-asian-art/mughal-painting.htm (Accessed:  22 June 2020).
• Author Unknown, “The Age of the Mughals,” Victoria and Albert Museum [online], available at http://www.vam.ac.uk/content/articles/a/the-age-of-the-mughals/ (Accessed:  20 June 2020).
• Author Unknown, “The Mughals,” UCF Web courses [online], Published in 2018, Available at https://webcourses.ucf.edu/courses/1274391/pages/the-mughals (Accessed:  22 June 2020).
• Bottaro, J. & Visser, P. & Worden, N., Oxford in Search of History:  Grade 10 Learner’s Book, Oxford University Press, South Africa.
• Fatima, M., “Powerful Women of the Mughal Empire,” Youlin Magazine:  A Cultural Journal [online], Published on 18 March 2020, Available at https://www.youlinmagazine.com/article/powerful-women-of-the-mughal-empire/MTY5Nw== (Accessed:  22 June 2020).
• Hart-Davis, A., History:  Definitive Visual Guide, Dorling Kindersley Limited, Great Britain, 2007.

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Features and Developments of Architecture during Mughal Period

Golden Period of Architecture:

Although all the Mughal rulers except Aurangzeb took great interest in architecture, yet Shah Jahan surpasses all in the field of architecture.

There is no doubt that architecture reached the pinnacle of its glory during the period of Shah Jahan.

The period of Shah Jahan (1627-1658) witnessed a glorious outburst of activity in the development of architecture.

image source: archhistdaily.files.wordpress.com/2012/01/humayun.jpg

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At the same time it must also be accepted that a period of 100 years (1556-1658) covered by the reign of Akbar, Jahangir and Shah Jahan has a special significance for the promotion of architecture. Likewise there was some activity in this area in the period of Babur and Humayun. Therefore, it is said that the Mughal period was the golden period of Indian architecture.

Main features of Mughal Architecture:

1. Variety of buildings:

The Mughal rulers built magnificent gates, forts, mausoleums, mosques, palaces, public buildings and tombs etc.

2. Synthesis of Persian and Indian style:

The specimens of architecture created under the Mughals have become the common heritage of both the Hindus and the Muslims. It is a happy blend of Hindu and Muslim architecture.

3. Specific characteristic:

A common characteristic of the Mughal buildings is “the pronounced domes, the slender turrets at the corners, the palace halls supported on pillars and the broad/gateways.”

4. Costly decorations:

The Mughal emperors in general but Shah Jahan in particular decorated his buildings with costly articles. One of the important distinguishing features of the Mughal buildings is their ornamentation as compared with the simple buildings of the previous Muslim rulers of India.

5. Building material:

During the Mughal period, buildings were constructed mostly of red sandstone and white marble.

Development of architecture under different Mughal rulers:

Babur and architecture:

Babur was not impressed by Indian architecture. At the same time he was busy in waging wars. Nevertheless he sent for the pupils of Sinan the noted Albanian architect to work with Indian craftsmen whose skills he had appreciated. But this did not materialise. As Babur recorded in his ‘Memories’, he employed 680 workmen and 1491 stone cutters daily on his various buildings in India. He constructed several buildings but only two mosques—one at Panipat and the other at Sambhal have survived.

Humayun and architecture:

Humayun’s troubled reign did not allow him enough opportunity to give full play to his artistic temperament. Even then he constructed the palace of ‘Din-i-Panah’ in Delhi which was probably destroyed by Sher Shah. Humayun constructed some mosques at Agra and Hissar.

Akbar and architecture:

The history of Mughal architecture really starts with Akbar. Just as Akbar built up an extensive empire on the goodwill of the Hindus, in the same way he utilised local talent and took inspiration from Indian architecture. One of the earliest buildings built is the Tomb of Humayun, in Delhi. It was built after Humayun’s death by his first wife Hamida Banu Begam. This splendid tomb, designed by a Persian Architect Malik Mirza Ghiyas and executed by Indian craftsmen and masons, is a fine example of the synthesis of Indian-Persian traditions.

Important buildings built during Akbar’s time include the following:

(1) Red Fort at Agra.

(2) City of Fatehpur Sikri

(3) Lahore fort,

(4) Tomb at Sikandra.

During Akbar’s time, it is said that about 500 beautiful buildings were constructed in the Red Fort at Agra but only a few of them now survive.

Main features of Akbar’s buildings are:

(i) Synthesis of Hindu- Muslim art tradition

(ii) Extensive use of red stone

(iii) Construction of buildings for civilian purposes.

Jahangir and architecture:

Jahangir had fine artistic sense but he was more fond of painting than architecture. Two important buildings were raised. One was the completion of the Tomb of Akbar at Sikandra and the other was the Tomb of Itmad-ul-Daula built by Nur Jahan over the grave of her father. The most important feature of this tomb is that it is decorated with ‘pietra dura’ i.e. in-laid with semi-precious stones of different colours.

Shah Jahan and architecture:

Shah Jahan’s period is usually called the ‘Golden Age of Mughal Architecture’ and he is given the titles of ‘Prince among the Builders’ and ‘Engineer King’. His most important and impressive buildings are the Taj Mahal, Red Fort and Jama Masjid. These buildings are extremely beautiful and soft.

Shah Jahan mostly made use of marble in place of red stone. With a view to enhance the beauty and effect of the ceilings, he made full use of gold, silver, precious and coloured stones. At several places, the pictures of trees, animal scenes and other flora and fauna have been depicted. (See next question).

Aurangzeb and architecture:

Aurangzeb’s accession to the throne marks the end of rich harvest in building art. His puritanism gave little encouragement to the development of art. He is usually discredited with the destruction of two most important Hindu temples at Banaras and Mathura and raising mosques upon them. He built the Shahi Masjid at Lahore.

Related Articles:

• Architecture of Few Buildings Constructed during the Sultanate Period
• Shah Jahan’s Golden Period of Architecture in India
• Characteristics of the Architecture During the Sultanate Period
• Literature during the Mughal Period

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The development of art and architecture under the mughals in india.

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Architecture: The imperial Mughals were great patrons of art and architecture. They look keen interest in the planning of forts, places, mosques, tombs and even the new townships.

They had their own ideas about the construction of build ins by the free amalgamation of what was called the Mughal architecture which was in fact, the national Indian architecture of that age. In architecture, the Mughal period was not entirely an age of innovation and renaissance, but a continuation and culmination of processes that had their beginning in the later Turko- Afghan Period.

Image Courtesy : upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e9/Humayun_architecture.JPG

Hindu influence on architectural style lasted throughout the Mughal period and expressed itself in the narrow columns; Pilasters, corbel and other expressed itself in the narrow columns, pilasters, corbel and other ornamental features of Mughal buildings.

The salient features of the Mughal architecture, writes Sarkar’ are the pronounced dome, slender turrets and the corners, the bells supported on pillars and the Indo-Savaunic gate which takes the form of a huge semi-dome sunk in the front wall and bearing an admirable proportion to the building while the actual entrance is a small rectangular opening under the arch’.

The history Mughal architecture begins with Babur, who is said to have undertaken many building projects at Agra, Dholpur, Gwalior and other places. The adverse political circumstances didnot afford much opportunity to Humayun to undertake any significant architectural activity.

In the early years of his reign, he built a city at Delhi called the Dinpanah (world Refugee) but no remains are available of this first Mughal city. Speaking in general, the buildings of Akbar’s reign combine both Hindu and Muslim features, and therefore, are correctly described as being of Hindu-Muslim style. Fatehpur Sikri which he built around the hermitage of the pious Shaikh Salim Chishti and which was the seat of the imperial court from 1569-84 constitutes perhaps the most remarkbale evidence of Akbar’s genius.

Perhaps the greatest feature of this city is the Buland Darwaza- the great portal built of marble and sandstone which forms the second gateway of the mosque. An authority described it ‘as one of the most perfect architectural an achievements in the whole of India.’

Though long abandoned and bearing the sears of time, Fatehpur Sikri forms the most impressive revelation of a mighty personality. Revelation of a mightily personality, in the words of Fergusson: ‘It is simply a reflex of the mind of a great man who built it’.

Akbar built many more edifices besides the master pieces of architecture mentioned above, as for example, the Sikandra, the Akbari Mahal, and the Allahabad Fort. ‘Everywhere’, writes Abul Fazl’. Sarais have been built which are the comforts of travelers and the asylum of poor strangers.

The new style of architecture (representing the combination of the best features of the indigenous and foreign styles) which may be called by the name of Mughal architecture had produced a profound effect on buildings all over the country, including those of the Rajput rulers of Rajasthan.

The places built during the reign of Akbar at Amber, Jhodhpur, Droha and Dafia indicate unsuitable Mughal influence. The number of edifices erected during the Jahangir’s reign appears to be poor in comparison to the architectural record of his father. Built of white marble, the Itemad-ud-Daula mausoleum at Agra is decorated with pietra-dura work which emulates, if not surpasses, the style of decoration in Shahjahan’s reign.

The style of Shahjahan’s principal edifices though based on session heritage is at the same time clearly distinguishable from Persian works by the lavish use of white marble and incomparable decoration. Another salient feature of his structures is the openwork tracery which ornaments the finest buildings, and the ‘apt combination of spacious designs with an almost feminine elegance’.

The Taj Mahal which took 23 years to be built is certainly one of the unrivalled beauties of the world. Another monument is the Red Fort. The Diwan-e-khas in it with its original ceilings of silver and its decorative scheme of marble gold and precious stones fully justified the Persian inscription which it bears:

‘If one the earth be an Edem of Bliss

It is this, it is this, none but this’.

Perhaps the most perfect architectural legacy of Shahjahan’s reign is the Moti Masjid or Pearl Mosque in Agra Fort in which the style of purity and elegance introduced by the great Mughals reached its zenith. With the accession of Aurangzeb, the style of Mughal architecture rapidly degenerate Aurangzeb built little as compared to his predecessors and the Indo-Persian architecture is marked by steady deterioration which ends with the crude buildings erected by the rulers of Awadh in the 18th century.

Paintings: The Mughals made a distinctive contribution in the field of painting. They introduced new themes depicting the court, battle scenes and the chase, and added new colours and forms. The revival began under Akbar. He organised painting in one of the imperial establishments (Karkhanas).

Here painters from different parts of the country came together; Jaswant and Dasawan were two of the famous painters at Akbar’s court. Indian themes and Indian landscapes became very popular, helping to free the school from Persian influence. Indian colours like peacock blue, Indian red, began to be used. Above all, the somewhat flat effect of the persian style began to be replaced by the roundness of the Indian brush, giving the pictures a three-dimensional effect.

European painting was introduced at Akbar’s court by the Portuguese priests. Soon principles of fore-shortening, whereby near and distant images could be placed in perspective, were adopted. Mughal paintings especially portrait painting reached a climax under Jahangir. His court patronized many of the best artists of the time like Bishan Das, Murad, Mansur and Bahazd.

While the tradition continued under Shah Jahan, Aurangzeb’s lack of interest forced the artists to disperse to various provincial capitals where local governors employed them. They helped in the development of painting in the states of Rajasthan and the Punjab hills. Another school of paintings which flourished at this time was the Deccan school which was encouraged by the Bijapuri kings.

Music: Tansen, the famous singer at Akbar’s court, is credited with having enriched the Hindustani school or north Indian style of music by composing many new melodies or rages. One of the most popular of these was the raja Darbari, believed to be Tansen’s special composition for Akbar. The Hindustani school of music had, by now, taken many features from Persian music.

Jahangir and Shah Jahan continued patronizing this branch of cultural life. However, Aurangzeb in his later years, banished singing from his court. New styles of singing such as the khayal which had been developed in the Mughal court and the thermo became popular in the new centers which sprang up in the province and small kingdoms. However, music in all forms continued to be patronized by Aurangzeb’s queens in the harem and by the nobles.

Related Articles:

• The Zenith of Mughal Architecture under Shahajahan
• Paintings of Mughals: Details about Mughal Paintings

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Writing the Mughal World

Studies on culture and politics.

• Muzaffar Alam and Sanjay Subrahmanyam
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• Language: English
• Publisher: Columbia University Press
• Copyright year: 2011
• Audience: Professional and scholarly;
• Main content: 536
• Published: August 30, 2011
• ISBN: 9780231527903

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• Social Science
• The Mughal empire

8. Art and Architecture of Mughals.

• The Early Mughal rulers were great patrons of architecture who during their reign constructed numerous architectural splendours that still stands the test of time.
• These buildings are built with numerous styles which were infused in India after the Mughal’s advent. Every ruler of the Mughal empire contributed to architecture in one or the other forms.
• Being the founder of the Mughal empire in India, Babur is also credited for introducing the “ Charbagh Style of Gardens ”, in which buildings are built at the centre and the four sides are surrounded by Gardens.

• Babur is also praised for the introduction of the “ Persian Style of Architecture in India ” during his reign.
• As Humayun was constantly embroiled in a tussle with Sher Shah during his period he cannot undertake any construction activities. Humayun laid the foundation stone for his city “ Dinpanah ” but could not complete it.

• Hamida Begum the widow of Humayun constructed “ Humayun’s tomb ” in memory of his late husband, which was touted as the precursor to Taj Mahal. This tomb was built under the style of Indo – Persian.

• He also built the “ Buland Darwaza ” to commemorate the victory over the ruler of Gujarat. Usage of Red Sand Stone was highly prevalent during his period.
• Tomb of Salim Chisti.
• Diwan-i-Khaas.
• Birbal’s House.
• Ibadat Khana.
• Diwan-i-aam
• Jama Masjid.
• The Ruler had the highest penchant for arts among the Mughal rulers. His period witnessed the culture of Building aesthetic gardens, Shalimar Bagh in Kashmir can be quoted as one of the finest examples of Jahangir period architecture.
• He was the first Mughal ruler who introduced the method of “ Portrait Painting ” of the rulers, and the Halo around the Kings head was drawn for the first time during his reign.

• The tomb of Itmaad-ud-Daula was built by Jahangir in memory of his father-in-law and he also completed Akbar’s tomb in Sikandara.
• Shah Jahan’s reign was the period during which the architectural epithets of Mughals reached their Zenith. He was fondly called by the artisans as the “ Prince of Builders ”.

• Shah Jahan also built “ Shahjahanabad ” which served as his capital during his regime. The “ Golden Peacock throne ” was specially made for the King where he sat and undertook his administration.
• Other structures like Moti Masjid , Agra Fort , Red Fort , Sheesh Mahal were built under his rule.
• The last great ruler of the Mughal empire, he was the contrast of his predecessors as his thoughts were more inclined towards territorial expansion and didn’t give importance to Arts and Architecture.
• “ Bibi-ka-Maqbara ”, a white pearl Mosque was built in Aurangabad in memory of his wife was the only architectural splendour of his period.
• It was built by his son, Prince Asam Shah , which carried the nickname “ Taj of the Deccan ”.
• The Mughal ruler of the earlier periods had a softer stand towards people of other sects. Emperor Akbar embraced many cultures and patrons during his regime which earned him high respect among his contemporaries.
• His successors Jahangir and Shah Jahan also had liberal stand towards other sects, during later period Aurangaseb didn’t encourage religions other than Islam which gained him more enemies.