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Assessment of Drinking Water Quality Using Water Quality Index: A Review

• Review Paper
• Published: 30 January 2023
• Volume 8 , article number  6 , ( 2023 )

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• Atanu Manna 1 &
• Debasish Biswas   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-8747-0934 2  

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Nowadays, declining water quality is a significant concern for the world because of rapid population growth, agricultural and industrial activity enhancement, global warming, and climate change influencing hydrological cycles. Assessing water quality becomes necessary by using a suitable method to reduce the risk of geochemical contaminants. Water’s physical and chemical properties are compared to a standard guideline to determine its quality. The water quality index (WQI) model is a commonly helpful technique for evaluating surface and groundwater quality. The model mainly employs aggregation techniques to diminish large amounts of data to a sole value. The WQI model has been used across the globe to assess ground and surface water using regional standards. The model has become popular for its ease of use and general structure. Typically, WQI models include five stages: (1) choosing water quality indicators, (2) generating sub-parameters for each variable, (3) calculating variable weighting numbers, (4) aggregating sub-parameters to finding the total WQI value, and (5) classification of WQI value to highlight the category of water quality. In addition, the model creates ambiguity when converting vast volumes of data into a single value. The study considered 2011–2021 blinded peer-reviewed articles and book chapters to assess WQI models and their application in evaluating drinking water quality. This study mainly concentrated on the comparison of WQI models and their applications. The study also focused on the selection of parameters and problems associated with the accuracy of the models.

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The authors are thankful to Vidyasagar University for providing good research environment.

The authors state that they did not receive any funding, grants, or other forms of support in the development of this paper.

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Centre for Environmental Studies, Vidyasagar University, Midnapore, 721102, India

Atanu Manna

Department of Business Administration, Vidyasagar University, Midnapore, West Bengal, 721102, India

Debasish Biswas

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The study’s conception and design were aided by all of the authors. The first author [Atanu Manna] conducted the literature search and data presentation in this review article, which was drafted and critically revised by the corresponding author [Dr. Debasish Biswas].

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Manna, A., Biswas, D. Assessment of Drinking Water Quality Using Water Quality Index: A Review. Water Conserv Sci Eng 8 , 6 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s41101-023-00185-0

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Received : 22 September 2022

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Published : 30 January 2023

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s41101-023-00185-0

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Evaluation of sampling and monitoring designs for water quality

Haggarty, Ruth Alison (2012) Evaluation of sampling and monitoring designs for water quality. PhD thesis, University of Glasgow.

Assessing water quality is of crucial importance to both society and the environment. Deterioration in water quality through issues such as eutrophication presents substantial risk to human health, plant and animal life, and can have detrimental effects on the local economy. Long-term data records across multiple sites can be used to investigate water quality and risk factors statistically, however, identification of underlying changes can only be successful if there is a sufficient quantity of data available. As vast amounts of resources are required for the implementation and maintenance of a monitoring network, logistically and financially it is not possible to employ continuous monitoring of all water environments. This raises the question as to the optimal design for long-term monitoring networks which are capable of capturing underlying changes. Two of the main design considerations are clearly where to sample, and how frequently to sample. The principal aim of this thesis is to use statistical analysis to investigate frequently used environmental monitoring networks, developing new methodology where appropriate, so that the design and implementation of future networks can be made as effective and cost efficient as possible. Using data which have been provided by the Scottish Environment Protection Agency, several data from Scottish lakes and rivers and a range of determinands are considered in order to explore water quality monitoring in Scotland. Chapter 1 provides an introduction to environmental monitoring and both existing statistical techniques, and potential challenges which are commonly encountered in the analysis of environmental data are discussed. Following this, Chapter 2 presents a simulation study which has been designed and implemented in order to evaluate the nature and statistical power for commonly used environmental sampling and monitoring designs for surface waters. The aim is to answer questions regarding how many samples to base the chemical classification of standing waters, and how appropriate the currently available data in Scotland are for detecting trends and seasonality. The simulation study was constructed to investigate the ability to detect the different underlying features of the data under several different sampling conditions. After the assessment of how often sampling is required to detect change, the remainder of the thesis will attempt to address some of the questions associated with where the optimal sampling locations are. The European Union Water Framework Directive (WFD) was introduced in 2003 to set compliance standards for all water bodies across Europe, with an aim to prevent deterioration, and ensure all sites reach `good' status by 2015. One of the features of the WFD is that water bodies can be grouped together and the classification of all members of the group is then based on the classification of a single representative site. The potential misclassification of sites means one of the key areas of interest is how well the existing groups used by SEPA for classification capture differences between the sites in terms of several chemical determinands. This will be explored in Chapter 3 where a functional data analysis approach will be taken in order to investigate some of the features of the existing groupings. An investigation of the effect of temporal autocorrelation on our ability to distinguish groups of sites from one another will also be presented here. It is also of interest to explore whether fewer, or indeed more groups would be optimal in order to accurately represent the trends and variability in the water quality parameters. Different statistical approaches for grouping standing waters will be presented in Chapter 4, where the question of how many groups is statistically optimal is also addressed. As in Chapter 3, these approaches for grouping sites will be based on functional data in order to include the temporal dynamics of the variable of interest within any analysis of group structure obtained. Both hierarchical and model based functional clustering are considered here. The idea of functional clustering is also extended to the multivariate setting, thus enabling information from several determinands of interest to be used within formation of groups. This is something which is of particular importance in view of the fact that the WFD classification encompasses a range of different determinands. In addition to the investigation of standing waters, an entirely different type of water quality monitoring network is considered in Chapter 5. While standing waters are assumed to be spatially independent of one another there are several situations where this assumption is not appropriate and where spatial correlation between locations needs to be accounted for. Further developments of the functional clustering methods explored in Chapter 4 are presented here in order to obtain groups of stations that are not only similar in terms of mean levels and temporal patterns of the determinand of interest, but which are also spatially homogenous. The river network data explored in Chapter 5 introduces a set of new challenges when considering functional clustering that go beyond the inclusion of Euclidean distance based spatial correlation. Existing methodology for estimating spatial correlation are combined with functional clustering approaches and developed to be suitable for application on sites which lie along a river network. The final chapter of this thesis provides a summary of the work presented and discussion of limitations and suggestions for future directions.

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Tardif, Geneviève. "Multivariate Analysis of Canadian Water Quality Data." Thesis, Université d'Ottawa / University of Ottawa, 2015. http://hdl.handle.net/10393/32245.

Hansen, Allison Jean. "Water quality analysis of the piped water supply in Tamale, Ghana." Thesis, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 2014. http://hdl.handle.net/1721.1/90019.

Cheung, Ngai-pang. "Statistical analysis of marine water quality data in Hong Kong /." Hong Kong : University of Hong Kong, 2001. http://sunzi.lib.hku.hk/hkuto/record.jsp?B23424953.

Byrd, Julia Frances. "Applications of Sensory Analysis for Water Quality Assessment." Thesis, Virginia Tech, 2018. http://hdl.handle.net/10919/81969.

McIntyre, Neil Robert. "Analysis of uncertainty in river water quality modelling." Thesis, Imperial College London, 2004. http://hdl.handle.net/10044/1/11828.

Pasha, Md Fayzul Kabir. "Uncertainty Analysis and Calibration of Water Distribution Quality Models." Diss., The University of Arizona, 2006. http://hdl.handle.net/10150/194289.

Khalil, Arya Farid. "Temporal and Spatial Analysis of Water Quality Time Series." University of Akron / OhioLINK, 2015. http://rave.ohiolink.edu/etdc/view?acc_num=akron1446027770.

Ellis, Kathryn. "Improving root cause analysis of bacteriological water quality failures." Thesis, University of Sheffield, 2013. http://etheses.whiterose.ac.uk/5701/.

English, April Renee Atkinson Samuel F. "Stream water quality corridor assessment and management using spatial analysis techniques introduction, evaluation and implementation of the WQCM model /." [Denton, Tex.] : University of North Texas, 2007. http://digital.library.unt.edu/permalink/meta-dc-3976.

Khakipoor, Banafsheh. "Applied Science for Water Quality Monitoring." University of Akron / OhioLINK, 2020. http://rave.ohiolink.edu/etdc/view?acc_num=akron1595858677325397.

岑永昌 and Wing-cheong Sham. "The determination of mercury in sediment, river water and seawater samples, and the determination of Cr(VI) in river water." Thesis, The University of Hong Kong (Pokfulam, Hong Kong), 1991. http://hub.hku.hk/bib/B31210533.

Maral, Nuh. "Soil And Water Analysis Techniques For Agricultural Production." Master's thesis, METU, 2010. http://etd.lib.metu.edu.tr/upload/12611829/index.pdf.

Hoover, Mark A. "Analysis of water quality in Lake Erie using GIS methods." Ohio : Ohio University, 1997. http://www.ohiolink.edu/etd/view.cgi?ohiou1177438679.

Poff, Boris, and Aregai Tecle. "Bacteriological Water Quality Trend Analysis in Oak Creek Canyon, Arizona." Arizona-Nevada Academy of Science, 2000. http://hdl.handle.net/10150/296561.

Cheung, Ngai-pang, and 張毅鵬. "Statistical analysis of marine water quality data in Hong Kong." Thesis, The University of Hong Kong (Pokfulam, Hong Kong), 2001. http://hub.hku.hk/bib/B31254846.

Savio, Kristi Nichole. "Analysis of Water Quality for Lake Tarpon, Pinellas County, Florida." Scholar Commons, 2014. https://scholarcommons.usf.edu/etd/5389.

Tillman, Dorothy Hamlin. "Coupling of ecological and water quality models for improved water resource and fish management." [College Station, Tex. : Texas A&M University, 2008. http://hdl.handle.net/1969.1/ETD-TAMU-2334.

JIA, Xuexiu. "EXTENDED METHODOLOGY FOR WATER RESOURCES AND WATER-RELATED ENERGY ASSESSMENT ADDRESSING WATER QUALITY." Doctoral thesis, Vysoké učení technické v Brně. Fakulta strojního inženýrství, 2020. http://www.nusl.cz/ntk/nusl-433451.

Wong, Ho-chuen. "Analysis and prediction of beach water quality in Hong Kong with special reference to Big Wave Bay Beach /." Click to view the E-thesis via HKUTO, 2009. http://sunzi.lib.hku.hk/hkuto/record/B43278619.

Shao, Wanyun. "An analysis of water quality policy and management in China an examination of water planning at the national and local level /." Laramie, Wyo. : University of Wyoming, 2009. http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?did=1939339341&sid=1&Fmt=2&clientId=18949&RQT=309&VName=PQD.

Ali, Md Kamar. "Stream water quality management a stochastic mixed-integer programming model /." Morgantown, W. Va. : [West Virginia University Libraries], 2002. http://etd.wvu.edu/templates/showETD.cfm?recnum=2450.

Stronge, Katrina Margaret. "Applied time series analysis of the Lough Neagh ecosystem." Thesis, Queen's University Belfast, 1997. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.388194.

Gipey, Collins D. "Manganese analysis and speciation in freshwater lakes and reservoirs /." [St. Lucia, Qld.], 2001. http://www.library.uq.edu.au/pdfserve.php?image=thesisabs/absthe16202.pdf.

Newham, Lachlan Thomas Hopkins, and lachlan newham@anu edu au. "Catchment Scale Modelling of Water Quality and Quantity." The Australian National University. Centre for Resource and Environmental Studies, 2002. http://thesis.anu.edu.au./public/adt-ANU20050919.144548.

Maple, Patrick T. "Survey of Storm Water Quality in an Urban Environment." Youngstown State University / OhioLINK, 2012. http://rave.ohiolink.edu/etdc/view?acc_num=ysu1364826192.

Rapp, Joshua. "Spatial analysis of catchment characteristics in relation to water quality using remote sensing and geographic information systems /." Spatial analysis of catchment characteristics in relation to water quality using remote sensing and geographic information systemsRead the abstract of the thesis, 2003. http://www.library.uq.edu.au/pdfserve.php?image=thesisabs/absthe17469.pdf.

Ibrahim, Naaim M. A. "Analytical studies on alkylphenol ethoxylate non-ionic sufactants." Thesis, Brunel University, 1995. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.260291.

Grabs, Thomas. "Water quality modeling based on landscape analysis: importance of riparian hydrology." Doctoral thesis, Stockholms universitet, Institutionen för naturgeografi och kvartärgeologi (INK), 2010. http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:su:diva-42729.

Hackett, Keith. "Statistical Analysis and Mechanistic Modeling of Water Quality: Hillsborough Bay, Florida." Scholar Commons, 2011. http://scholarcommons.usf.edu/etd/3139.

Hejna, MaryAnne. "Nutrient and Water Quality Analysis of a Lake Erie Headwater Tributary." University of Akron / OhioLINK, 2020. http://rave.ohiolink.edu/etdc/view?acc_num=akron1594576287454459.

Coelho, Sergio Carvalho de Matos Teixeira. "Performance assessment in water supply and distribution." Thesis, Heriot-Watt University, 1996. http://hdl.handle.net/10399/1297.

Fashina, Lukman. "WATER QUALITY ASSESSMENT OF KARST SPRINGWATER AS A PRIVATE WATER SUPPLY SOURCE IN NORTHEAST TENNESSEE." Digital Commons @ East Tennessee State University, 2021. https://dc.etsu.edu/asrf/2021/presentations/14.

Harper, Stephen Ray. "Evaluation of hydrogen management during anaerobic wastewater treatment." Diss., Georgia Institute of Technology, 1989. http://hdl.handle.net/1853/23127.

Oliveira, Anabela Pacheco de Pacheco de Oliveira Anabela De Oliveira Anabela Pacheco. "A comparison of Eulerian-Lagrangian methods for the solution of the transport equation /." Full text open access at:, 1994. http://content.ohsu.edu/u?/etd,208.

Hernandez-Romo, Adriana. "An analysis of nitrate contaminated water in Cherry Valley." CSUSB ScholarWorks, 2005. https://scholarworks.lib.csusb.edu/etd-project/2726.

Kilpatrick, Gerrod Wayne. "Watershed Based Analysis For Water Quality Management Within The Escatawpa River System." MSSTATE, 2001. http://sun.library.msstate.edu/ETD-db/theses/available/etd-04052001-123036/.

Mathipa, Morongwa Mary. "Analysis of the bio-physicochemical quality of surface and ground water in the Tubatse Municipality." Thesis, University of Limpopo, 2016. http://hdl.handle.net/10386/1663.

Lin, Daorui. "Global Sensitivity of Water Quality Modeling in the Gulf of Finland." Thesis, KTH, Mark- och vattenteknik, 2015. http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:kth:diva-180285.

Abou-Ali, Hala. "Water and health in Egypt : an empirical analysis /." Göteborg : Dept. of Economics, School of Economics and Commercial Law [Nationalekonomiska institutionen, Handelshögsk.], 2003. http://www.handels.gu.se/epc/archive/00003482/01/Thesis_Hala_Abou-Ali.pdf.

Becnel, Audrey R. "Land Use and Water Quality Correlations in Miami-Dade, Florida." FIU Digital Commons, 2014. http://digitalcommons.fiu.edu/etd/1549.

Oliveira, Fernada Adelina Anselmo Soares Rodrigues. "Mass transfer analysis for the leaching of water soluble components from food." Thesis, University of Leeds, 1988. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.328196.

Holland, Jennifer M. "An Exploration of the Ground Water Quality of the Trinity Aquifer Using Multivariate Statistical Techniques." Thesis, University of North Texas, 2011. https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc84218/.

Pham, Minh Phung Thi. "Water quality guidelines and water quantity analysis with application to construction of a pilot-scale wetland treatment system." Connect to this title online, 2009. http://etd.lib.clemson.edu/documents/1246565997/.

Cantoni, Jacopo. "Non- Linear Canonical Correlation Analysis Between Water Flows and Water Quality: a case study on the Mälaren basin." Thesis, Uppsala universitet, Institutionen för geovetenskaper, 2018. http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:uu:diva-359658.

Sayed, Ahmed Mazen. "Micro-Opto-Fluidics : Addressing Nanomaterials Fundamentals and Water Quality." Thesis, Paris Est, 2019. http://www.theses.fr/2019PESC2051.

Lin, Yu, and 林鈺. "Uncertainty Analysis in Water Quality Modeling." Thesis, 1996. http://ndltd.ncl.edu.tw/handle/98507903538690895814.

HUANG, KUEI-CHUN, and 黃奎竣. "Application of Water Quality Analysis Simulation Program (WASP) of water quality modeling of Mei-Lun River." Thesis, 2017. http://ndltd.ncl.edu.tw/handle/ycec73.

Yulianti, Jeanne S. "Uncertainty analysis in nonpoint source water quality management." 1996. http://hdl.handle.net/1993/19373.

Chiang, Chih-Cheng, and 蔣志政. "Taiwan Hot Spring Survey and Water Quality Analysis." Thesis, 2011. http://ndltd.ncl.edu.tw/handle/55911565587317781427.

Wang, shengyun, and 王聖允. "Water quality analysis in a campus artificial lake." Thesis, 2012. http://ndltd.ncl.edu.tw/handle/46508002743003366609.

Comparison of Soil Carbon Dynamics Between Restored Prairie and Agricultural Soils in the U.S. Midwest

Globally, soils hold more carbon than both the atmosphere and aboveground terrestrial biosphere combined. Changes in land use and land cover have the potential to alter soil carbon cycling throughout the soil profile, from the surface to meters deep, yet most studies focus only on the near surface impact ( 3 and C 4 photosynthetic pathway plant community composition. Comparative analysis of edaphic properties and soil carbon suggests that deep loess deposits in Nebraska permit enhanced water infiltration and SOC deposition to depths of ~100 cm in 60 years of prairie restoration. In Illinois, poorly drained, clay/lime rich soils on glacial till and a younger restored prairie age (15 years) restricted the influence of prairie restoration to the upper 30 cm. Comparing the δ 13 C values of SOC and SIC in each system demonstrated that SIC at each site is likely of lithogenic origin. This work indicates that the magnitude of influence of restoration management is dependent on edaphic properties inherited from geological and geomorphological controls. Future work should quantify root structures and redox properties to better understand the influence of rooting depth on soil carbon concentrations. Fast-cycling C dynamics can be assessed using continuous, in-situ CO 2 and O 2 soil gas concentration changes. The secondary objective of my thesis was to determine if manual, low temporal resolution gas sampling and analysis are a low cost and effective means of measuring soil O 2 and CO 2 , by comparing it with data from in-situ continuous (hourly) sensors. Manual analysis of soil CO 2 and O 2 from field replicates of buried gas collection cups resulted in measurement differences from the continuous sensors. Measuring CO2 concentration with manual methods often resulted in higher concentrations than hourly, continuous measurements across all sites. Additionally, O 2 concentrations measured by manual methods were higher than hourly values in the restored prairie and less in agricultural sites. A variety of spatial variability, pressure perturbations, calibration offsets, and system leakage influences on both analysis methods could cause the discrepancy.

NSF Grant 1331906

Degree type.

• Master of Science
• Earth, Atmospheric and Planetary Sciences

Campus location

• West Lafayette

Advisor/Supervisor/Committee Chair

Additional committee member 2, additional committee member 3, additional committee member 4, additional committee member 5, usage metrics.

• Environmental biogeochemistry
• Soil chemistry and soil carbon sequestration (excl. carbon sequestration science)