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Air Pollution: Everything You Need to Know

How smog, soot, greenhouse gases, and other top air pollutants are affecting the planet—and your health.

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What is air pollution?

What causes air pollution, effects of air pollution, air pollution in the united states, air pollution and environmental justice, controlling air pollution, how to help reduce air pollution, how to protect your health.

Air pollution  refers to the release of pollutants into the air—pollutants that are detrimental to human health and the planet as a whole. According to the  World Health Organization (WHO) , each year, indoor and outdoor air pollution is responsible for nearly seven million deaths around the globe. Ninety-nine percent of human beings currently breathe air that exceeds the WHO’s guideline limits for pollutants, with those living in low- and middle-income countries suffering the most. In the United States, the  Clean Air Act , established in 1970, authorizes the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to safeguard public health by regulating the emissions of these harmful air pollutants.

“Most air pollution comes from energy use and production,” says  John Walke , director of the Clean Air team at NRDC. Driving a car on gasoline, heating a home with oil, running a power plant on  fracked gas : In each case, a fossil fuel is burned and harmful chemicals and gases are released into the air.

“We’ve made progress over the last 50 years in improving air quality in the United States, thanks to the Clean Air Act. But climate change will make it harder in the future to meet pollution standards, which are designed to  protect health ,” says Walke.

Air pollution is now the world’s fourth-largest risk factor for early death. According to the 2020  State of Global Air  report —which summarizes the latest scientific understanding of air pollution around the world—4.5 million deaths were linked to outdoor air pollution exposures in 2019, and another 2.2 million deaths were caused by indoor air pollution. The world’s most populous countries, China and India, continue to bear the highest burdens of disease.

“Despite improvements in reducing global average mortality rates from air pollution, this report also serves as a sobering reminder that the climate crisis threatens to worsen air pollution problems significantly,” explains  Vijay Limaye , senior scientist in NRDC’s Science Office. Smog, for instance, is intensified by increased heat, forming when the weather is warmer and there’s more ultraviolet radiation. In addition, climate change increases the production of allergenic air pollutants, including mold (thanks to damp conditions caused by extreme weather and increased flooding) and pollen (due to a longer pollen season). “Climate change–fueled droughts and dry conditions are also setting the stage for dangerous wildfires,” adds Limaye. “ Wildfire smoke can linger for days and pollute the air with particulate matter hundreds of miles downwind.”

The effects of air pollution on the human body vary, depending on the type of pollutant, the length and level of exposure, and other factors, including a person’s individual health risks and the cumulative impacts of multiple pollutants or stressors.

Smog and soot

These are the two most prevalent types of air pollution. Smog (sometimes referred to as ground-level ozone) occurs when emissions from combusting fossil fuels react with sunlight. Soot—a type of  particulate matter —is made up of tiny particles of chemicals, soil, smoke, dust, or allergens that are carried in the air. The sources of smog and soot are similar. “Both come from cars and trucks, factories, power plants, incinerators, engines, generally anything that combusts fossil fuels such as coal, gasoline, or natural gas,” Walke says.

Smog can irritate the eyes and throat and also damage the lungs, especially those of children, senior citizens, and people who work or exercise outdoors. It’s even worse for people who have asthma or allergies; these extra pollutants can intensify their symptoms and trigger asthma attacks. The tiniest airborne particles in soot are especially dangerous because they can penetrate the lungs and bloodstream and worsen bronchitis, lead to heart attacks, and even hasten death. In  2020, a report from Harvard’s T.H. Chan School of Public Health showed that COVID-19 mortality rates were higher in areas with more particulate matter pollution than in areas with even slightly less, showing a correlation between the virus’s deadliness and long-term exposure to air pollution. 

These findings also illuminate an important  environmental justice issue . Because highways and polluting facilities have historically been sited in or next to low-income neighborhoods and communities of color, the negative effects of this pollution have been  disproportionately experienced by the people who live in these communities.

Hazardous air pollutants

A number of air pollutants pose severe health risks and can sometimes be fatal, even in small amounts. Almost 200 of them are regulated by law; some of the most common are mercury,  lead , dioxins, and benzene. “These are also most often emitted during gas or coal combustion, incineration, or—in the case of benzene—found in gasoline,” Walke says. Benzene, classified as a carcinogen by the EPA, can cause eye, skin, and lung irritation in the short term and blood disorders in the long term. Dioxins, more typically found in food but also present in small amounts in the air, is another carcinogen that can affect the liver in the short term and harm the immune, nervous, and endocrine systems, as well as reproductive functions.  Mercury  attacks the central nervous system. In large amounts, lead can damage children’s brains and kidneys, and even minimal exposure can affect children’s IQ and ability to learn.

Another category of toxic compounds, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), are by-products of traffic exhaust and wildfire smoke. In large amounts, they have been linked to eye and lung irritation, blood and liver issues, and even cancer.  In one study , the children of mothers exposed to PAHs during pregnancy showed slower brain-processing speeds and more pronounced symptoms of ADHD.

Greenhouse gases

While these climate pollutants don’t have the direct or immediate impacts on the human body associated with other air pollutants, like smog or hazardous chemicals, they are still harmful to our health. By trapping the earth’s heat in the atmosphere, greenhouse gases lead to warmer temperatures, which in turn lead to the hallmarks of climate change: rising sea levels, more extreme weather, heat-related deaths, and the increased transmission of infectious diseases. In 2021, carbon dioxide accounted for roughly 79 percent of the country’s total greenhouse gas emissions, and methane made up more than 11 percent. “Carbon dioxide comes from combusting fossil fuels, and methane comes from natural and industrial sources, including large amounts that are released during oil and gas drilling,” Walke says. “We emit far larger amounts of carbon dioxide, but methane is significantly more potent, so it’s also very destructive.” 

Another class of greenhouse gases,  hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) , are thousands of times more powerful than carbon dioxide in their ability to trap heat. In October 2016, more than 140 countries signed the Kigali Agreement to reduce the use of these chemicals—which are found in air conditioners and refrigerators—and develop greener alternatives over time. (The United States officially signed onto the  Kigali Agreement in 2022.)

Pollen and mold

Mold and allergens from trees, weeds, and grass are also carried in the air, are exacerbated by climate change, and can be hazardous to health. Though they aren’t regulated, they can be considered a form of air pollution. “When homes, schools, or businesses get water damage, mold can grow and produce allergenic airborne pollutants,” says Kim Knowlton, professor of environmental health sciences at Columbia University and a former NRDC scientist. “ Mold exposure can precipitate asthma attacks  or an allergic response, and some molds can even produce toxins that would be dangerous for anyone to inhale.”

Pollen allergies are worsening  because of climate change . “Lab and field studies are showing that pollen-producing plants—especially ragweed—grow larger and produce more pollen when you increase the amount of carbon dioxide that they grow in,” Knowlton says. “Climate change also extends the pollen production season, and some studies are beginning to suggest that ragweed pollen itself might be becoming a more potent allergen.” If so, more people will suffer runny noses, fevers, itchy eyes, and other symptoms. “And for people with allergies and asthma, pollen peaks can precipitate asthma attacks, which are far more serious and can be life-threatening.”

More than one in three U.S. residents—120 million people—live in counties with unhealthy levels of air pollution, according to the  2023  State of the Air  report by the American Lung Association (ALA). Since the annual report was first published, in 2000, its findings have shown how the Clean Air Act has been able to reduce harmful emissions from transportation, power plants, and manufacturing.

Recent findings, however, reflect how climate change–fueled wildfires and extreme heat are adding to the challenges of protecting public health. The latest report—which focuses on ozone, year-round particle pollution, and short-term particle pollution—also finds that people of color are 61 percent more likely than white people to live in a county with a failing grade in at least one of those categories, and three times more likely to live in a county that fails in all three.

In rankings for each of the three pollution categories covered by the ALA report, California cities occupy the top three slots (i.e., were highest in pollution), despite progress that the Golden State has made in reducing air pollution emissions in the past half century. At the other end of the spectrum, these cities consistently rank among the country’s best for air quality: Burlington, Vermont; Honolulu; and Wilmington, North Carolina. 

No one wants to live next door to an incinerator, oil refinery, port, toxic waste dump, or other polluting site. Yet millions of people around the world do, and this puts them at a much higher risk for respiratory disease, cardiovascular disease, neurological damage, cancer, and death. In the United States, people of color are 1.5 times more likely than whites to live in areas with poor air quality, according to the ALA.

Historically, racist zoning policies and discriminatory lending practices known as  redlining  have combined to keep polluting industries and car-choked highways away from white neighborhoods and have turned communities of color—especially low-income and working-class communities of color—into sacrifice zones, where residents are forced to breathe dirty air and suffer the many health problems associated with it. In addition to the increased health risks that come from living in such places, the polluted air can economically harm residents in the form of missed workdays and higher medical costs.

Environmental racism isn't limited to cities and industrial areas. Outdoor laborers, including the estimated three million migrant and seasonal farmworkers in the United States, are among the most vulnerable to air pollution—and they’re also among the least equipped, politically, to pressure employers and lawmakers to affirm their right to breathe clean air.

Recently,  cumulative impact mapping , which uses data on environmental conditions and demographics, has been able to show how some communities are overburdened with layers of issues, like high levels of poverty, unemployment, and pollution. Tools like the  Environmental Justice Screening Method  and the EPA’s  EJScreen  provide evidence of what many environmental justice communities have been explaining for decades: that we need land use and public health reforms to ensure that vulnerable areas are not overburdened and that the people who need resources the most are receiving them.

In the United States, the  Clean Air Act  has been a crucial tool for reducing air pollution since its passage in 1970, although fossil fuel interests aided by industry-friendly lawmakers have frequently attempted to  weaken its many protections. Ensuring that this bedrock environmental law remains intact and properly enforced will always be key to maintaining and improving our air quality.

But the best, most effective way to control air pollution is to speed up our transition to cleaner fuels and industrial processes. By switching over to renewable energy sources (such as wind and solar power), maximizing fuel efficiency in our vehicles, and replacing more and more of our gasoline-powered cars and trucks with electric versions, we'll be limiting air pollution at its source while also curbing the global warming that heightens so many of its worst health impacts.

And what about the economic costs of controlling air pollution? According to a report on the Clean Air Act commissioned by NRDC, the annual  benefits of cleaner air  are up to 32 times greater than the cost of clean air regulations. Those benefits include up to 370,000 avoided premature deaths, 189,000 fewer hospital admissions for cardiac and respiratory illnesses, and net economic benefits of up to $3.8 trillion for the U.S. economy every year.

“The less gasoline we burn, the better we’re doing to reduce air pollution and the harmful effects of climate change,” Walke explains. “Make good choices about transportation. When you can, ride a bike, walk, or take public transportation. For driving, choose a car that gets better miles per gallon of gas or  buy an electric car .” You can also investigate your power provider options—you may be able to request that your electricity be supplied by wind or solar. Buying your food locally cuts down on the fossil fuels burned in trucking or flying food in from across the world. And most important: “Support leaders who push for clean air and water and responsible steps on climate change,” Walke says.

• “When you see in the news or hear on the weather report that pollution levels are high, it may be useful to limit the time when children go outside or you go for a jog,” Walke says. Generally, ozone levels tend to be lower in the morning.
• If you exercise outside, stay as far as you can from heavily trafficked roads. Then shower and wash your clothes to remove fine particles.
• The air may look clear, but that doesn’t mean it’s pollution free. Utilize tools like the EPA’s air pollution monitor,  AirNow , to get the latest conditions. If the air quality is bad, stay inside with the windows closed.
• If you live or work in an area that’s prone to wildfires,  stay away from the harmful smoke  as much as you’re able. Consider keeping a small stock of masks to wear when conditions are poor. The most ideal masks for smoke particles will be labelled “NIOSH” (which stands for National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health) and have either “N95” or “P100” printed on it.
• If you’re using an air conditioner while outdoor pollution conditions are bad, use the recirculating setting to limit the amount of polluted air that gets inside. 

This story was originally published on November 1, 2016, and has been updated with new information and links.

This NRDC.org story is available for online republication by news media outlets or nonprofits under these conditions: The writer(s) must be credited with a byline; you must note prominently that the story was originally published by NRDC.org and link to the original; the story cannot be edited (beyond simple things such as grammar); you can’t resell the story in any form or grant republishing rights to other outlets; you can’t republish our material wholesale or automatically—you need to select stories individually; you can’t republish the photos or graphics on our site without specific permission; you should drop us a note to let us know when you’ve used one of our stories.

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ENCYCLOPEDIC ENTRY

Air pollution.

Air pollution consists of chemicals or particles in the air that can harm the health of humans, animals, and plants. It also damages buildings.

Biology, Ecology, Earth Science, Geography

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Air pollution consists of chemicals or particles in the air that can harm the health of humans, animals, and plants. It also damages buildings. Pollutants in the air take many forms. They can be gases , solid particles, or liquid droplets. Sources of Air Pollution Pollution enters the Earth's atmosphere in many different ways. Most air pollution is created by people, taking the form of emissions from factories, cars, planes, or aerosol cans . Second-hand cigarette smoke is also considered air pollution. These man-made sources of pollution are called anthropogenic sources . Some types of air pollution, such as smoke from wildfires or ash from volcanoes , occur naturally. These are called natural sources . Air pollution is most common in large cities where emissions from many different sources are concentrated . Sometimes, mountains or tall buildings prevent air pollution from spreading out. This air pollution often appears as a cloud making the air murky. It is called smog . The word "smog" comes from combining the words "smoke" and " fog ." Large cities in poor and developing nations tend to have more air pollution than cities in developed nations. According to the World Health Organization (WHO) , some of the worlds most polluted cities are Karachi, Pakistan; New Delhi, India; Beijing, China; Lima, Peru; and Cairo, Egypt. However, many developed nations also have air pollution problems. Los Angeles, California, is nicknamed Smog City. Indoor Air Pollution Air pollution is usually thought of as smoke from large factories or exhaust from vehicles. But there are many types of indoor air pollution as well. Heating a house by burning substances such as kerosene , wood, and coal can contaminate the air inside the house. Ash and smoke make breathing difficult, and they can stick to walls, food, and clothing. Naturally-occurring radon gas, a cancer -causing material, can also build up in homes. Radon is released through the surface of the Earth. Inexpensive systems installed by professionals can reduce radon levels. Some construction materials, including insulation , are also dangerous to people's health. In addition, ventilation , or air movement, in homes and rooms can lead to the spread of toxic mold . A single colony of mold may exist in a damp, cool place in a house, such as between walls. The mold's spores enter the air and spread throughout the house. People can become sick from breathing in the spores. Effects On Humans People experience a wide range of health effects from being exposed to air pollution. Effects can be broken down into short-term effects and long-term effects . Short-term effects, which are temporary , include illnesses such as pneumonia or bronchitis . They also include discomfort such as irritation to the nose, throat, eyes, or skin. Air pollution can also cause headaches, dizziness, and nausea . Bad smells made by factories, garbage , or sewer systems are considered air pollution, too. These odors are less serious but still unpleasant . Long-term effects of air pollution can last for years or for an entire lifetime. They can even lead to a person's death. Long-term health effects from air pollution include heart disease , lung cancer, and respiratory diseases such as emphysema . Air pollution can also cause long-term damage to people's nerves , brain, kidneys , liver , and other organs. Some scientists suspect air pollutants cause birth defects . Nearly 2.5 million people die worldwide each year from the effects of outdoor or indoor air pollution. People react differently to different types of air pollution. Young children and older adults, whose immune systems tend to be weaker, are often more sensitive to pollution. Conditions such as asthma , heart disease, and lung disease can be made worse by exposure to air pollution. The length of exposure and amount and type of pollutants are also factors. Effects On The Environment Like people, animals, and plants, entire ecosystems can suffer effects from air pollution. Haze , like smog, is a visible type of air pollution that obscures shapes and colors. Hazy air pollution can even muffle sounds. Air pollution particles eventually fall back to Earth. Air pollution can directly contaminate the surface of bodies of water and soil . This can kill crops or reduce their yield . It can kill young trees and other plants. Sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide particles in the air, can create acid rain when they mix with water and oxygen in the atmosphere. These air pollutants come mostly from coal-fired power plants and motor vehicles . When acid rain falls to Earth, it damages plants by changing soil composition ; degrades water quality in rivers, lakes and streams; damages crops; and can cause buildings and monuments to decay . Like humans, animals can suffer health effects from exposure to air pollution. Birth defects, diseases, and lower reproductive rates have all been attributed to air pollution. Global Warming Global warming is an environmental phenomenon caused by natural and anthropogenic air pollution. It refers to rising air and ocean temperatures around the world. This temperature rise is at least partially caused by an increase in the amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Greenhouse gases trap heat energy in the Earths atmosphere. (Usually, more of Earths heat escapes into space.) Carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas that has had the biggest effect on global warming. Carbon dioxide is emitted into the atmosphere by burning fossil fuels (coal, gasoline , and natural gas ). Humans have come to rely on fossil fuels to power cars and planes, heat homes, and run factories. Doing these things pollutes the air with carbon dioxide. Other greenhouse gases emitted by natural and artificial sources also include methane , nitrous oxide , and fluorinated gases. Methane is a major emission from coal plants and agricultural processes. Nitrous oxide is a common emission from industrial factories, agriculture, and the burning of fossil fuels in cars. Fluorinated gases, such as hydrofluorocarbons , are emitted by industry. Fluorinated gases are often used instead of gases such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). CFCs have been outlawed in many places because they deplete the ozone layer . Worldwide, many countries have taken steps to reduce or limit greenhouse gas emissions to combat global warming. The Kyoto Protocol , first adopted in Kyoto, Japan, in 1997, is an agreement between 183 countries that they will work to reduce their carbon dioxide emissions. The United States has not signed that treaty . Regulation In addition to the international Kyoto Protocol, most developed nations have adopted laws to regulate emissions and reduce air pollution. In the United States, debate is under way about a system called cap and trade to limit emissions. This system would cap, or place a limit, on the amount of pollution a company is allowed. Companies that exceeded their cap would have to pay. Companies that polluted less than their cap could trade or sell their remaining pollution allowance to other companies. Cap and trade would essentially pay companies to limit pollution. In 2006 the World Health Organization issued new Air Quality Guidelines. The WHOs guidelines are tougher than most individual countries existing guidelines. The WHO guidelines aim to reduce air pollution-related deaths by 15 percent a year. Reduction Anybody can take steps to reduce air pollution. Millions of people every day make simple changes in their lives to do this. Taking public transportation instead of driving a car, or riding a bike instead of traveling in carbon dioxide-emitting vehicles are a couple of ways to reduce air pollution. Avoiding aerosol cans, recycling yard trimmings instead of burning them, and not smoking cigarettes are others.

Downwinders The United States conducted tests of nuclear weapons at the Nevada Test Site in southern Nevada in the 1950s. These tests sent invisible radioactive particles into the atmosphere. These air pollution particles traveled with wind currents, eventually falling to Earth, sometimes hundreds of miles away in states including Idaho, Utah, Arizona, and Washington. These areas were considered to be "downwind" from the Nevada Test Site. Decades later, people living in those downwind areascalled "downwinders"began developing cancer at above-normal rates. In 1990, the U.S. government passed the Radiation Exposure Compensation Act. This law entitles some downwinders to payments of $50,000.

Greenhouse Gases There are five major greenhouse gases in Earth's atmosphere.

• water vapor
• carbon dioxide
• nitrous oxide

London Smog What has come to be known as the London Smog of 1952, or the Great Smog of 1952, was a four-day incident that sickened 100,000 people and caused as many as 12,000 deaths. Very cold weather in December 1952 led residents of London, England, to burn more coal to keep warm. Smoke and other pollutants became trapped by a thick fog that settled over the city. The polluted fog became so thick that people could only see a few meters in front of them.

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4 Causes and Effects of Air Pollution

Air pollution refers to the release of pollutants into the air, which can be harmful and impose significant health risks to the population, including increased chances of coronary and respiratory diseases, as well as preliminary deaths. Made up of chemicals and pollutant particles, air pollution is one of the biggest environmental problems of our lifetime . Read on to learn about the major causes and effects of air pollution. 

Sources of Air Pollution

1. burning fossil fuels.

The biggest contributors of air pollution are from industry sources and power plants to generate power, as well as fossil fuel motor vehicles. The continuous burning of fossil fuels releases air pollutants, emissions and chemicals into the air and atmosphere. 

In 2020, the Environmental Protection Agency reported that about 68 million tons of air pollution were emitted into the atmosphere in the US, contributing to the “formation of ozone and particles, the deposition of acids, and visibility impairment.”

The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates around 91% of the world’s population lives in places where air quality levels exceed limits. Developing and low-income countries experienced the greatest impacts from outdoor air pollution, particularly in the Western Pacific and South-East Asia regions. 

Climate change has an interrelated relationship with the environment and air pollution. As more air pollutants and greenhouse gases are released, this alters the energy balance between the atmosphere and the Earth’s surface , which leads to global warming. The global temperature increase in turns raises the production of allergenic air pollutants such as mold and extends pollen seasons. 

2. Ozone and Smog

Ozone is a gas that when it forms air pollution and reaches too close to the ground, it significantly reduces visibility. We call this smog. This form of air pollution occurs when sunlight reacts with nitrogen oxides released from car exhausts and coal power plants. The ozone typically forms a protective layer in the atmosphere to protect the population from ultraviolet radiation (UV), but as it transforms into smog, it is harmful to human health and poses higher risks of respiratory illnesses like asthma and lung cancer. 

3. Weather Conditions

Air pollution and poor air quality can be attributed to changing weather conditions. For example, dust storms in China would carry clouds of industrial pollutants and particulate pollution across the Gobi desert into neighbouring countries such as Korea and Japan during spring season. Likewise during periods of high air pressure, air becomes stagnant and pollutants are more concentrated over certain areas. 

4. Heatwaves and Wildfires

Heatwaves not only lead to an increase of temperature, but are some of the causes and effects of air pollution. Hotter, stagnant air during a heat wave increases the concentration of particle pollutants. Extreme heat wave events also have higher risks of large-scale wildfires, which in turn, releases more carbon emissions, smog and pollutants into the air. 

You might also like: 15 Most Polluted Cities in the World

Effects of Air Pollution 

Air pollution contributes to the death of 5 million every year and about 6% of the global population, according to Our World in Data . The lethal combination of outdoor air pollution and toxic emissions from burning fossil fuel has been one of the leading causes of chronic and often terminal health issues including heart disease, stroke, lung cancer, and lower respiratory infections. 

The WHO estimates that nine out of 10 people breathe air that contains high levels of pollutants. In 2017, close to 15% of population deaths in low income countries like South and East Asia are attributed to air pollution, while the higher income countries experience only about 2%. 

The drastic difference in mortality numbers can be linked to legislations such as the Clean Air Act implemented by high-income countries like the US. Such legislations usually establishes national air quality standards and regulations on hazardous air pollutants. The UK in particular, saw a sharp 60% decline in air pollutant emissions between the 1970 and 2016. 

The environmental effects of air pollution are also vast, ranging from acid rain to contributing to birth defects, reproductive failure, and diseases in wildlife animals. Agriculture is also a victim of air pollution as increased pollutants can affect crop and forest yields, reduce growth  and increased plant susceptibility to disease from increased UV radiation caused by ozone depletion.

In the wake of the COVID-19 pandemic, air pollution has once again returned to the spotlight in relation to its role in transmitting virus molecules. Preliminary studies have identified a positive correlation between COVID-19-related mortalities and air pollution. China, being one of the most polluted countries in the world, can potentially link its high death toll during the pandemic to its poor air quality. Although, more research needs to be conducted to make any substantive correlation.

You might also like: History of Air Pollution: Have We Reached the Point of No Return?

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• Air Pollution Essay

Essay on Air Pollution

Environmental changes are caused by the natural or artificial content of harmful pollutants and can cause instability, disturbance, or adverse effects on the ecosystem. Earth and its environment pose a more serious threat due to the increasing pollution of air, water, and soil. Environmental damage is caused by improper resource management or careless human activities. Therefore, any activity that violates the original nature of the environment and leads to degradation is called pollution. We need to understand the origin of these pollutants and find ways to control pollution. This can also be done by raising awareness of the effects of pollutants.

Air pollution is any physical, chemical, or biological change in the air. A certain percentage of the gas is present in the atmosphere. Increasing or decreasing the composition of these gasses is detrimental to survival. This imbalance in gas composition causes an increase in global temperature which is called global warming.

Introduction to air pollution 

The Earth and its environment are facing a serious threat by the increasing pollution of the air, water, and soil—the vital life support systems of the Earth. The damage to the environment is caused by improper management of resources or by careless human activity. Hence any activity that violates the original character of nature and leads to its degradation is called pollution. We need to understand the sources of these pollutants and find ways to control pollution. This can be also done by making people aware of the effects of pollutants. 

Air with 78% Nitrogen, 21% Oxygen, and 1% of all other gasses support life on Earth. Various processes take place to sustain the regular percentage of gasses and their composition in general. 

Atmospheric pollution can have natural sources, for example, volcanic eruptions. The gaseous by-products of man-made processes such as energy production, waste incineration, transport, deforestation and agriculture, are the major air pollutants.

Although air is made up of mostly Oxygen and Nitrogen, mankind, through pollution, has increased the levels of many trace gasses, and in some cases, released completely new gasses to the atmosphere. 

Air pollution can result in poor air quality, both in cities and in the countryside. Some air pollutants make people sick, causing breathing problems and increasing the likelihood of cancer. 

Some air pollutants are harmful to plants, animals, and the ecosystems in which they live. Statues, monuments, and buildings are being corroded by the air pollutants in the form of acid rain. It also damages crops and forests, and makes lakes and streams unsuitable for fish and other plant and animal life. 

Air pollution created by man-made resources is also changing the Earth’s atmosphere. It is causing the depletion of the ozone layer and letting in more harmful radiation from the Sun. The greenhouse gasses released into the atmosphere prevents heat from escaping back into space and leads to a rise in global average temperatures. Global warming affects the average sea-level and increases the spread of tropical diseases.

Air pollution occurs when large amounts of gas and tiny particles are released into the air and the ecological balance is disturbed. Each year millions of tons of gasses and particulate matter are emitted into the air. 

Primary air pollutants are pollutants, which are directly released into the air. They are called SPM, i.e., Suspended Particulate Matter. For example, smoke, dust, ash, sulfur oxide, nitrogen oxide, and radioactive compounds, etc.

Secondary Pollutants are pollutants, which are formed due to chemical interactions between the atmospheric components and primary pollutants. For example, Smog (i.e. Smoke and fog), ozone, etc.

Major gaseous air pollutants include Carbon Dioxide, Hydrogen Sulfide, Sulfur Dioxide and Nitrogen Oxide, etc.

Natural sources are volcanic eruptions, forest fires, dust storms, etc. 

Man-made sources include gasses released from the automobiles, industries, burning of garbage and bricks kilns, etc.

Effects of Air Pollution on Human Health

Air pollution has adverse effects on human health. 

Breathing polluted air puts you at higher risk of asthma.

When exposed to ground ozone for 6 to 7 hours, people suffer from respiratory inflammation.

Damages the immune system, endocrine, and reproductive systems.

A high level of air pollution has been associated with higher incidents of heart problems.

The toxic chemicals released into the air are affecting the flora and fauna immensely.

Preventive Measures to Reduce Air Pollution

We can prevent pollution by utilizing raw materials, water energy, and other resources more efficiently. When less harmful substances are substituted for hazardous ones, and when toxic substances are eliminated from the production process, human health can be protected and economic wellbeing can be strengthened. 

There are several measures that can be adopted by people to reduce pollution and to save the environment.

Carpooling.

Promotion of public transport.

No smoking zone.

Restricted use of fossil fuels.

Saving energy.

Encouraging organic farming.

The government has put restrictions on the amount of fossil fuels that can be used as well as restrictions on how much carbon dioxide and other pollutants can be emitted. Although the government is attempting to save our environment from these harmful gasses, it is not sufficient. We as a society need to keep the environment clean by controlling the pollution of air.

FAQs on Air Pollution Essay

1. State the Causes of Air Pollution ?

The following are the causes of air pollution.

Vehicular pollution consisting of Carbon Monoxide causes pollution.

Emission of Nitrogen oxide by a large number of supersonic transport airplanes causes deterioration of the Ozone layer and also causes serious damage to the flora and fauna.

The release of Chlorofluorocarbons into the Stratosphere causes depletion of Ozone, which is a serious concern to animals, microscopic, and aquatic organisms.

Burning garbage causes smoke, which pollutes the atmosphere. This smoke contains harmful gases such as Carbon dioxide and Nitrogen oxides.

In India, brick kilns are used for many purposes and coal is used to burn the bricks. They give out huge quantities of Carbon dioxide and particulate matter such as smoke, dust that are very harmful to people working there and the areas surrounding it. 

Many cleansing agents release poisonous gases such as Ammonia and Chlorine into the atmosphere. 

Radioactive elements emit harmful rays into the air.

Decomposed animals and plants emit Methane and Ammonia gas into the air.

2. What Does Global Warming Mean?

Global warming is the gradual rising average temperature of the Earth's atmosphere due to the concentration of methane in certain toxic gasses such as carbon dioxide. This has a major impact on the world climate. The world is warming. The land and the sea are now warmer than they were at the beginning and temperatures are still rising. This rise in temperature is, in short, global warming. This temperature rise is man-made. The burning of fossil fuels releases greenhouse gasses into the atmosphere which capture solar heat and raise surface and air temperatures.

3. Name the Alternative Modes of Transport. In What Way Does it Help to Reduce Air Pollution?

Public transport could be an alternative mode of transport. Public transport like trains, buses and trams, can relieve traffic congestion and reduce air pollution from road transport. The use of public transport must be encouraged in order to develop a sustainable transport policy.

4. Mention other means of transportation! How can I help reduce air pollution?

Public transportation can be another mode of transportation. Public transport such as trains, buses and trams can reduce traffic congestion and reduce air pollution from road transport. The use of public transport and to develop sustainable transport policies should be encouraged. While one passenger vehicle has the convenience factor, other modes of transportation reduce travel costs, spend less time, reduce stress, improve health, and reduce energy consumption and parking. Other trips for work include walking/cycling, public transport, hybrid travel and transport.

5. What are the effects of pollution?

Excessive air pollution can increase the risk of heart attack, wheezing, coughing and difficulty breathing, as well as irritation of the eyes, nose and throat. Air pollution can also cause heart problems, asthma, and other lung problems. Due to the emission of greenhouse gases, the composition of the air in the air is disturbed. This causes an increase in global temperature. The damaging ozone layer due to air pollution does not prevent harmful ultraviolet rays from the sun, which cause skin and eye problems in individuals. Air pollution has caused a number of respiratory and heart diseases among people. The incidence of lung cancer has increased in recent decades. Children living in contaminated areas are more likely to develop pneumonia and asthma. Many people die every year due to the direct or indirect effects of air pollution. When burning fossil fuels, harmful gases such as nitrogen oxides and sulfur oxides are released into the air. Water droplets combine with these pollutants and become acidic and fall as acid rain, which harms human, animal and plant life.

6. What is the solution to air pollution?

Production of renewable fuels and clean energy. The basic solution to air pollution is to get away from fossil fuels and replace them with other energies such as solar, wind and geothermal. The government limits the amount of fossil fuel that can be used and how much carbon dioxide and other pollutants it can emit. While the government is trying to save our environment from this harmful gas, it is not enough. We as a society need to keep the environment clean by controlling air pollution. To more in detail about air pollution and its causes. To learn more about air pollution and its impact on the environment, visit the Vedantu website.

Home — Essay Samples — Environment — Air Pollution — Air Pollution: Causes, Effects, and Proposed Solutions

Air Pollution: Causes, Effects, and Proposed Solutions

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Published: Feb 7, 2024

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Causes of air pollution, effects of air pollution, current measures to control air pollution, shortcomings of current measures, proposed solutions.

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by Chris Woodford . Last updated: November 22, 2022.

Photo: Air pollution is obvious when it pours from a smokestack (chimney), but it's not always so easy to spot. This is an old photo of the kind of smoke that used to come from coal-fired power plants and, apart from soot (unburned carbon particles), its pollutants include sulfur dioxide and the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide. Thanks to tougher pollution controls, modern power plants produce only a fraction as much pollution. Modern pollution made by traffic consists of gases like nitrogen dioxide and "particulates" (microscopic soot and dust fragments) that are largely invisible.

What is air pollution?

Air pollution is a gas (or a liquid or solid dispersed through ordinary air) released in a big enough quantity to harm the health of people or other animals, kill plants or stop them growing properly, damage or disrupt some other aspect of the environment (such as making buildings crumble), or cause some other kind of nuisance (reduced visibility, perhaps, or an unpleasant odor).

Natural air pollution

Photo: Forest fires are a completely natural cause of air pollution. We'll never be able to prevent them breaking out or stop the pollution they cause; our best hope is to manage forests, where we can, so fires don't spread. Ironically, that can mean deliberately burning areas of forest, as shown here, to create firebreaks. Forests are also deliberately burned to regenerate ecosystems. Photo by courtesy of US Fish and Wildlife Service .

Top-ten kinds of air pollution Photo: Flying molecules—if you could see air pollution close up, this is what it would look like. Image courtesy of US Department of Energy. Any gas could qualify as pollution if it reached a high enough concentration to do harm. Theoretically, that means there are dozens of different pollution gases. It's important to note that not all the things we think of as pollution are gases: some are aerosols (liquids or solids dispersed through gases). In practice, about ten different substances cause most concern: Sulfur dioxide : Coal, petroleum, and other fuels are often impure and contain sulfur as well as organic (carbon-based) compounds. When sulfur (spelled "sulphur" in some countries) burns with oxygen from the air, sulfur dioxide (SO 2 ) is produced. Coal-fired power plants are the world's biggest source of sulfur-dioxide air pollution, which contributes to smog, acid rain, and health problems that include lung disease. [5] Large amounts of sulfur dioxide are also produced by ships, which use dirtier diesel fuel than cars and trucks. [6] Carbon monoxide : This highly dangerous gas forms when fuels have too little oxygen to burn completely. It spews out in car exhausts and it can also build up to dangerous levels inside your home if you have a poorly maintained gas boiler , stove, or fuel-burning appliance. (Always fit a carbon monoxide detector if you burn fuels indoors.) [7] Carbon dioxide : This gas is central to everyday life and isn't normally considered a pollutant: we all produce it when we breathe out and plants such as crops and trees need to "breathe" it in to grow. However, carbon dioxide is also a greenhouse gas released by engines and power plants. Since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, it's been building up in Earth's atmosphere and contributing to the problem of global warming and climate change . [8] Nitrogen oxides : Nitrogen dioxide (NO 2 ) and nitrogen oxide (NO) are pollutants produced as an indirect result of combustion, when nitrogen and oxygen from the air react together. Nitrogen oxide pollution comes from vehicle engines and power plants, and plays an important role in the formation of acid rain, ozone and smog. Nitrogen oxides are also "indirect greenhouse gases" (they contribute to global warming by producing ozone, which is a greenhouse gas). [9] Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) : These carbon-based (organic) chemicals evaporate easily at ordinary temperatures and pressures, so they readily become gases. That's precisely why they're used as solvents in many different household chemicals such as paints , waxes, and varnishes. Unfortunately, they're also a form of air pollution: they're believed to have long-term (chronic) effects on people's health and they play a role in the formation of ozone and smog. VOCs are also released by tobacco smoke and wildfires. [10] Particulates : There are many different kinds of particulates, from black soot in diesel exhaust to dust and organic matter from the desert. Airborne liquid droplets from farm pollution also count as particulates. Particulates of different sizes are often referred to by the letters PM followed by a number, so PM 10 means soot particles of less than 10 microns (10 millionths of a meter or 10µm in diameter, roughly 10 times thinner than a thick human hair). The smaller ("finer") the particulates, the deeper they travel into our lungs and the more dangerous they are. PM 2.5 particulates are much more dangerous (they're less than 2.5 millionths of a meter or about 40 times thinner than a typical hair). In cities, most particulates come from traffic fumes. [11] Ozone : Also called trioxygen, this is a type of oxygen gas whose molecules are made from three oxygen atoms joined together (so it has the chemical formula O 3 ), instead of just the two atoms in conventional oxygen (O 2 ). In the stratosphere (upper atmosphere), a band of ozone ("the ozone layer") protects us by screening out harmful ultraviolet radiation (high-energy blue light) beaming down from the Sun. At ground level, it's a toxic pollutant that can damage health. It forms when sunlight strikes a cocktail of other pollution and is a key ingredient of smog (see box below). [12] Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) : Once thought to be harmless, these gases were widely used in refrigerators and aerosol cans until it was discovered that they damaged Earth's ozone layer. We discuss this in more detail down below. [13] Unburned hydrocarbons : Petroleum and other fuels are made of organic compounds based on chains of carbon and hydrogen atoms. When they burn properly, they're completely converted into harmless carbon dioxide and water ; when they burn incompletely, they can release carbon monoxide or float into the air in their unburned form, contributing to smog. Lead and heavy metals : Lead and other toxic "heavy metals" can be spread into the air either as toxic compounds or as aerosols (when solids or liquids are dispersed through gases and carried through the air by them) in such things as exhaust fumes and the fly ash (contaminated waste dust) from incinerator smokestacks. [14] What are the causes of air pollution?

Photo: Even in the age of electric cars, traffic remains a major cause of air pollution. Photo by Warren Gretz courtesy of US DOE National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) (NREL photo id#46361).

Photo: Brown smog lingers over Denver, Colorado. Photo by Warren Gretz courtesy of US DOE National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) (NREL photo id#56919).

Chart: Most of the world's major cities routinely exceed World Health Organization (WHO) air pollution guidelines, though progress is being made: you can see that the 2022 figures (green) show a marked improvement on the 2016 ones (orange) in almost every case. This chart compares annual mean PM 2.5 levels in 12 representative cities around the world with the recently revised (2021) WHO guideline value of 5μg per cubic meter (dotted line). PM 2.5 particulates are those smaller than 2.5 microns and believed to be most closely linked with adverse health effects. For more about this chart and the data sources used, see note [22] .

Photo: Smokestacks billowing pollution over Moscow, Russia in 1994. Factory pollution is much less of a problem than it used to be in the world's "richer" countries—partly because a lot of their industry has been exported to nations such as China, India, and Mexico. Photo by Roger Taylor courtesy of US DOE National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) .

What effects does air pollution have?

Photo: Air pollution can cause a variety of lung diseases and other respiratory problems. This chest X ray shows a lung disease called emphysema in the patient's left lung. A variety of things can cause it, including smoking and exposure to air pollution. Photo courtesy of National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute (NHLBI) and National Institutes of Health.

" In 2016, 91% of the world population was living in places where the WHO air quality guidelines levels were not met." World Health Organization , 2018

Photo: For many years, the stonework on the Parthenon in Athens, Greece has been blackened by particulates from traffic pollution, but other sources of pollution, such as wood-burning stoves, are increasingly significant. Photo by Michael M. Reddy courtesy of U.S. Geological Survey .

How air pollution works on different scales

Indoor air pollution.

Photo: Air freshener—or air polluter?

Further reading

Acid rain—a closer look.

Photo: Acid rain can turn lakes so acidic that fish no longer survive. Picture courtesy of U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Division of Public Affairs. Why does that matter? Pure water is neither acidic nor alkaline but completely neutral (we say it has an acidity level or pH of 7.0). Ordinary rainwater is a little bit more acidic than this with about the same acidity as bananas (roughly pH 5.5), but if rain falls through sulfur dioxide pollution it can turn much more acidic (with a pH of 4.5 or lower, which is the same acidity as orange or lemon juice). When acid rain accumulates in lakes or rivers, it gradually turns the entire water more acidic. That's a real problem because fish thrive only in water that is neutral or slightly acidic (typically with a pH of 6.5–7.0). Once the acidity drops below about pH 6.0, fish soon start to die—and if the pH drops to about 4.0 or less, all the fish will be killed. Acid rain has caused major problems in lakes throughout North America and Europe. It also causes the death of forests, reduces the fertility of soil, and damages buildings by eating away stonework (the marble on the US Capitol in Washington, DC has been eroded by acid-rain, for example). One of the biggest difficulties in tackling acid rain is that it can happen over very long distances. In one notable case, sulfur dioxide air pollution produced by power plants in the UK was blamed for causing acid rain that fell on Scandinavian countries such as Norway, producing widespread damage to forests and the deaths of thousands of fish in acidified lakes. The British government refused to acknowledge the problem and that was partly why the UK became known as the "dirty man of Europe" in the 1980s and 1990s. [18] Acid rain was a particular problem in the last 30–40 years of the 20th century. Thanks to the decline in coal-fired power plants, and the sulfur dioxide they spewed out, it's less of a problem for western countries today. But it's still a big issue in places like India, where coal remains a major source of energy. Global air pollution It's hard to imagine doing anything so dramatic and serious that it would damage our entire, enormous planet—but, remarkable though it may seem, we all do things like this everyday, contributing to problems such as global warming and the damage to the ozone layer (two separate issues that are often confused). Global warming Every time you ride in a car, turn on the lights, switch on your TV , take a shower, microwave a meal, or use energy that's come from burning a fossil fuel such as oil, coal, or natural gas, you're almost certainly adding to the problem of global warming and climate change: unless it's been produced in some environmentally friendly way, the energy you're using has most likely released carbon dioxide gas into the air. While it's not an obvious pollutant, carbon dioxide has gradually built up in the atmosphere, along with other chemicals known as greenhouse gases . Together, these gases act a bit like a blanket surrounding our planet that is slowly making the mean global temperature rise, causing the climate (the long-term pattern of our weather) to change, and producing a variety of different effects on the natural world, including rising sea levels. Read more in our main article about global warming and climate change . Ozone holes

How can we solve the problem of air pollution?

Photo: Pollution solution: an electrostatic smoke precipitator helps to prevent air pollution from this smokestack at the McNeil biomass power plant in Burlington, VT. Photo by Warren Gretz courtesy of US DOE National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL).

What can you do to help reduce air pollution?

Photo: Buying organic food reduces the use of sprayed pesticides and other chemicals, so it helps to reduce air (as well as water) pollution.

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• Climate change and global warming
• Environmentalism (introduction)
• Land pollution
• Organic food and farming
• Renewable energy
• Water pollution

• Breathless: Why Air Pollution Matters—and How it Affects You by Chris Woodford. Icon, 2021. My new book explores the problem in much more depth than I've been able to go into here. You can also read a bonus chapter called Angels with dirty faces: How air pollution blackens our buildings and monuments .
• The Invisible Killer: The Rising Global Threat of Air Pollution and How We Can Fight Back by Gary Fuller. Melville House, 2018.
• Reducing Pollution and Waste by Jen Green. Raintree/Capstone, 2011. A 48-page introduction for ages 9–12. The emphasis here is on getting children to think about pollution: where it comes from, who makes it, and who should solve the problem.
• Pollution Crisis by Russ Parker. Rosen, 2009. A 32-page guide for ages 8–10. It starts with a global survey of the problem; looks at air, water, and land pollution; then considers how we all need to be part of the solution.
• Earth Matters by Lynn Dicks et al. Dorling Kindersley, 2008. This isn't specifically about pollution. Instead, it explores how a range of different environmental problems are testing life to the limit in the planet's major biomes (oceans, forests, and so on). I wrote the section of this book that covers the polar regions.
• State of Global Air : One of the best sources of global air pollution data.
• American Lung Association: State of the Air Report : A good source of data about the United States.
• European Environment Agency: Air quality in Europe : A definitive overview of the situation in the European countries.
• World Health Organization (WHO) Ambient (outdoor) air pollution in cities database : A spreadsheet of pollution data for most major cities in the world (a little out of date, but a new version is expected soon).
• Our World in Data : Accessible guides to global data from Oxford University.
• The New York Times Topics: Air Pollution
• The Guardian: Pollution
• Wired: Pollution
• 'Invisible killer': fossil fuels caused 8.7m deaths globally in 2018, research finds by Oliver Milman. The Guardian, February 9, 2021. Pollution of various kinds causes something like one in five of all deaths.
• Millions of masks distributed to students in 'gas chamber' Delhi : BBC News, 1 November 2019.
• 90% of world's children are breathing toxic air, WHO study finds by Matthew Taylor. The Guardian, October 29, 2018. The air pollution affecting billions of children could continue to harm their health throughout their lives.
• Pollution May Dim Thinking Skills, Study in China Suggests by Mike Ives. The New York Times, August 29, 2018. Long-term exposure to air pollution seems to cause a decline in cognitive skills.
• Global pollution kills 9m a year and threatens 'survival of human societies' by Damian Carrington. The Guardian, October 19, 2017. Air, water, and land pollution kill millions, cost trillions, and threaten the very survival of humankind, a new study reveals.
• India's Air Pollution Rivals China's as World's Deadliest by Geeta Anand. The New York Times, February 14, 2017. High levels of pollution could be killing 1.1 million Indians each year.
• More Than 9 in 10 People Breathe Bad Air, WHO Study Says by Mike Ives. The New York Times, September 27, 2016. New WHO figures suggest the vast majority of us are compromising our health by breathing bad air.
• Study Links 6.5 Million Deaths Each Year to Air Pollution by Stanley Reed. The New York Times, June 26, 2016. Air pollution deaths are far greater than previously supposed according to a new study by the International Energy Agency.
• UK air pollution 'linked to 40,000 early deaths a year' by Michelle Roberts, BBC News, February 23, 2016. Diesel engines, cigarette smoke, and even air fresheners are among the causes of premature death from air pollution.
• This Wearable Detects Pollution to Build Air Quality Maps in Real Time by Davey Alba. Wired, November 19, 2014. A wearable pollution gadget lets people track their exposure to air pollution through a smartphone app.
• Air pollution and public health: emerging hazards and improved understanding of risk by Frank J. Kelly and Julia C. Fussell, Environmental Geochemistry and Health, 2015
• Health effects of fine particulate air pollution: lines that connect by C.A. Pope and D.W. Dockery. Journal of the Air and Waste Management Association, 2006
• Ambient and household air pollution: complex triggers of disease by Stephen A. Farmer et al, Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol, 2014

Text copyright © Chris Woodford 2010, 2022. All rights reserved. Full copyright notice and terms of use .

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What Causes Air Pollution?

Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech

Air pollution happens when solid and liquid particles—called aerosols —and certain gases end up in our air. These particles and gases can be bad for the planet and for our health, so keeping track of them is important.

Where do aerosols come from?

Any particle that gets picked up into the air or is formed from chemical reactions in the air can be an aerosol. Many aerosols enter the atmosphere when we burn fossil fuels—such as coal and petroleum—and wood. These particles can come from many sources, including car exhaust, factories and even wildfires. Some of the particles and gases come directly from these sources, but others form through chemical reactions in the air.

Aerosols can come from other places, too, such as ash from an erupting volcano. Dust, pollen from plants and mold spores are also examples of aerosols.

This animation uses NASA data to show how ash from a volcano in Chile travels around the world in our atmosphere. Credit: NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center

What else causes air pollution?

Certain gases in the atmosphere can cause air pollution. For example, in cities, a gas called ozone is a major cause of air pollution. Ozone is also a greenhouse gas that can be both good and bad for our environment. It all depends where it is in Earth’s atmosphere .

Ozone high up in our atmosphere is a good thing. It helps block harmful energy from the Sun, called radiation . But, when ozone is closer to the ground, it can be really bad for our health. Ground level ozone is created when sunlight reacts with certain chemicals that come from sources of burning fossil fuels, such as factories or car exhaust.

When particles in the air combine with ozone, they create smog. Smog is a type of air pollution that looks like smoky fog and makes it difficult to see.

Smog is a type of air pollution in cities that makes it difficult to see outside. Here are images of Beijing on a clear day after a rain (left) and on a smoggy day (right). Credit: Bobak via Wikimedia Commons CC BY-SA 2.5

How does air pollution affect Earth’s climate?

Aerosols can impact how the Sun’s light hits Earth. For example, some aerosols reflect sunlight while others absorb sunlight. It depends on the color of the particle.

Dark surfaces—whether it’s a black t-shirt or a dark particle in the atmosphere—absorb the Sun's heat. Lighter-colored surfaces reflect heat from the Sun.

A white t-shirt reflects the Sun on a hot day, making you feel cooler. In the same way, light-colored particles that reflect the Sun’s light and heat away from Earth can make the global temperature cooler. Dark-colored particles that absorb the Sun’s light can make the global temperature warmer.

How does air pollution affect our health?

Breathing in polluted air can be very bad for our health. Long-term exposure to air pollution has been associated with diseases of the heart and lungs, cancers and other health problems. That’s why it’s important for us to monitor air pollution.

How is NASA monitoring air pollution?

NASA uses satellites orbiting Earth to keep an eye on air pollution. In fact, air quality forecasters use information about aerosols from NASA’s Aqua , Terra and Suomi-NPP satellites.

NASA also is developing a new instrument called the Multi-Angle Imager for Aerosols, or MAIA , to fly aboard a future spacecraft mission. MAIA will help scientists understand the size, makeup and quantity of aerosols in our air. Eventually, scientists will be able to compare this information with health records. This can help us better understand the relationship between aerosol pollution and human health.

Related NASA Missions

Effects of Air Pollution

Air pollution affects all things. It is harmful to our health, and it impacts the environment by reducing visibility and blocking sunlight, causing acid rain, and harming forests, wildlife, and agriculture. Greenhouse gas pollution, the cause of climate change, affects the entire planet.

Harming Human Health

According to the World Health Organization , an estimated seven million people die each year from air pollution. More than 4,000 people died in just a few months due to a severe smog event that occurred in London in 1952. Ground-level ozone causes muscles in the lungs to contract, making it difficult to breathe. Exposure to high ozone levels can cause sore throat, coughing, lung inflammation, and permanent lung damage.

Ozone pollution affects our lungs, making it difficult to breathe. UCAR

Symptoms from short-term exposure typically resolve quickly, but long term exposure is linked to serious illness and disease in multiple body systems. Children, the elderly, and people with ongoing illnesses are more vulnerable to air pollution than other groups. Urban populations are also at greater risk due to high concentrations of pollution within cities. Check the current air quality in your area to determine if you should take precautions such as reducing or avoiding outdoor activity.

Harming Animals and Plants

Brown patches on these potato leaves are evidence of moderate ozone damage.

Danica Lombardozzi/NCAR

Wildlife can experience many of the same negative health effects of air pollution that humans do. Damage to respiratory systems is the most common effect on animals, but neurological problems and skin irritations are also common.

Plants and crops grow less when exposed to long-term air pollution. Ozone pollution harms plants by damaging structures called stomata, which are tiny pores on the underside of leaves that allow the plant to "breathe." Some types of plants can protect themselves by temporarily closing their stomata or producing antioxidants, but others are particularly sensitive to damage. Between 1980 and 2011, nine billion dollars-worth of soybeans and corn were lost in the US as a result of ozone pollution. When acid rain, lead toxicity, and exposure to nitrogen oxides change the chemical nature of the soil, plants are robbed of the nutrients that they need to grow and survive. This impacts agriculture, forests, and grasslands.

There are many other ways that air pollution affects living things, such as damaging the habitat, water, and food sources that plants and animals need to survive.

Causing Acid Rain

Acid rain damages buildings. UCAR/NAME

Burning fossil fuels releases sulfur and nitrogen oxides into the atmosphere. Acid rain forms when sulfur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide mix with water droplets in the atmosphere to make sulfuric acid and nitric acid. Winds can carry these pollutants for thousands of miles, until they fall to the Earth's surface as acid rain, which damages the leaves of vegetation, increases the acidity of soils and water, and is linked to over 500 deaths each year. Buildings and other structures are also impacted by acid rain, which causes an estimated five billion dollars of property damage each year. Acid rain dissolves mortar between bricks, causes stone foundations to become unstable, and is destroying ancient buildings and statues carved from marble and limestone.

Reducing Sunlight

High levels of particulate pollution from all types of burning reduces the amount of sunlight that reaches the surface and even changes  the appearance of the sky . When less sunlight is available for photosynthesis, forests grow at a slower rate and crops are less productive. Hazy skies not only reduce visibility, but also impact the weather and even the climate .

Making a Hole in the Ozone Layer

In 2019 the ozone hole over Antarctica (shown in blue) was the smallest it has been since the hole was discovered. Since the banning of CFCs, the ozone hole continues to shrink, but scientists warn that complete recovery is still uncertain.

The hole in the ozone layer is caused by air pollutants . Chemicals used as refrigerants, such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), contain chlorine atoms. Releasing chlorine atoms into the atmosphere destroys ozone. A single chlorine atom can destroy thousands of ozone molecules. The ozone layer blocks harmful ultraviolet-C (UVC) and ultraviolet-B (UVB) radiation from the Sun — it protects us in a way that is similar to putting sunscreen on your skin to prevent sunburn. The ozone hole puts all living things at risk by increasing the amount of ultraviolet radiation that reaches the surface. Exposure to this radiation increases the risk of skin cancer in humans, restricts growth and development in plants, slows the development of fish and amphibians, and reduces the number of phytoplankton in marine ecosystems. It also causes natural and synthetic materials to breakdown at an accelerated rate.

Adding Too Much Nitrogen to the Land

Gaseous ammonia (NH3) from agriculture and nitrogen dioxide (NO2) from car, truck, and airplane emissions increase the amount of nitrogen in soils. Plants need nitrogen to grow, but too much nitrogen can limit the growth of some plants and increase the growth of others, disrupting the balance of species within an ecosystem. This disruption is negatively impacting grasslands and other fragile environments around the world.

This map shows global ammonia hotspots identified over a 14-year period. Warm colors represent an increase in ammonia, while cool colors represent a decrease in ammonia. NASA

Effects of Greenhouse Gas Pollution

Greenhouse gas pollution is causing climate change. As a result, ecosystems are changing faster than plants and animals can adapt, and many species are going extinct. Marine ecosystems are vulnerable to ocean acidification caused when carbon dioxide emitted into the atmosphere is dissolved in seawater. Ocean acidification makes it difficult for many marine species to grow shells and skeletons.

Melting ice sheets, warming oceans, and extreme weather conditions are examples of how climate changes caused by greenhouse gas pollution threaten ecosystems across the Earth. In many cases, the decline of one or a few species due to air pollution can topple the balance of entire ecosystems.

• Air Quality Activities
• How Does Ozone Damage Plants?
• Ozone in the Troposphere
• The Changing Nitrogen Cycle
• The Greenhouse Effect

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Essay on Air Pollution for Students: Check Samples of 100 Words to 250 Words

• Updated on  
• Mar 30, 2024

Essay on Air Pollution : Invisible but insidious, air pollution silently infiltrates our lives, impacting health, the environment, and future generations. Through this blog, let’s explore its roots, repercussions, and remedies, which are essential in our quest for cleaner, healthier skies. Essay writing here becomes more crucial, to raise awareness about air pollution’s dire consequences and drive action for cleaner air.

Table of Contents

• 1 10-Line Essay on Air Pollution
• 2 What are the Causes of Air Pollution?
• 3 What are the effects of Air Pollution?
• 4 Essay on Air Pollution: How to Tackle Air Pollution?
• 5 Essay on Air Pollution Sample (100 Words)
• 6 Essay on Air Pollution Sample (250 Words)

Must Read: Essay On Environment

10-Line Essay on Air Pollution

Below mentioned is a 10-lined essay on air pollution:

• Air pollution is caused by harmful substances known as pollutants.
• The pollutant come from various sources, like vehicle gasses, forest fires, and other human activities.
• The two of the biggest sources of air pollution are burning of fossil fuels and deforestation.
• Air pollution is harmful to humans because it can cause skin and respiratory diseases.
• Air pollution is equally harmful to plants and animals.
• Air pollution can also damage non-living things, such as ancient monuments constructed from marbles and limestone.
• Air pollution leads to ozone layer depletion, climate change and global warming.
• Air pollution can damage ecosystems in forests.
• We must take effective steps to reduce air pollution.
• We can reduce air pollution by planting more trees and burning less fossil fuels.

What are the Causes of Air Pollution?

Air pollution is caused by various factors, including:

• Industrial Emissions: Factories and manufacturing processes release pollutants like chemicals and particulate matter into the air.
• Vehicle Emissions: Combustion engines in cars, trucks, and aeroplanes emit exhaust gases, including carbon monoxide and nitrogen oxides.
• Burning Fossil Fuels: The use of coal, oil, and natural gas for energy generation and heating releases pollutants and greenhouse gases.
• Agricultural Activities: Pesticides and fertilizers release chemicals, while livestock emit methane.
• Deforestation: Cutting down trees reduces the planet’s capacity to absorb pollutants.
• Waste Disposal: Improper disposal of waste leads to the release of harmful substances into the air.
• Natural Sources: Volcanic eruptions, dust storms, and wildfires can also contribute to air pollution.

What are the effects of Air Pollution?

Air pollution poses severe health and environmental risks. Short-term exposure can lead to respiratory issues, eye irritation, and exacerbation of pre-existing conditions. Long-term exposure is linked to chronic diseases such as lung cancer, heart disease, and respiratory disorders. 

Additionally, air pollution harms ecosystems, causing acid rain, damaging vegetation, and polluting water bodies. It also contributes to climate change by increasing greenhouse gas concentrations. Addressing air pollution is crucial to safeguard human health and protecting the planet’s ecosystems and climate.

Essay on Air Pollution: How to Tackle Air Pollution?

Addressing air pollution is paramount for a healthier planet. By curbing emissions, adopting clean technologies, and fostering sustainable practices, we can safeguard our environment and public health. Here are some key points on how to tackle air pollution:

• Reduce Vehicle Emissions:
• Improve Industrial Practices
• Increase Green Spaces
• Monitor and Regulate
• Reduce Indoor Air Pollution
• Promote Renewable Energy
• Encourage Sustainable Practices
• Raise Public Awareness:
• Reduce Open Burning:
• International Cooperation:

Tackling air pollution requires a multi-faceted approach involving government policies, community engagement, and individual responsibility.

Must Read: Essay On Global Warming

Essay on Air Pollution Sample (100 Words)

Air pollution is a pressing environmental issue with far-reaching consequences. It occurs when harmful substances, such as particulate matter and toxic gases, contaminate the atmosphere. These pollutants result from various sources, including industrial emissions, vehicular exhaust, and agricultural activities.

The consequences of air pollution are severe, impacting both human health and the environment. Prolonged exposure to polluted air can lead to respiratory diseases, cardiovascular issues, and even premature death. Additionally, air pollution harms ecosystems, leading to reduced crop yields and biodiversity loss.

Mitigating air pollution requires collective efforts, including stricter emission regulations, cleaner energy sources, and promoting public awareness. By addressing this issue, we can safeguard our health and preserve the environment for future generations.

Essay on Air Pollution Sample (250 Words)

Air pollution is a pressing global issue that affects the health and well-being of people and the environment. It occurs when harmful substances, such as particulate matter, nitrogen oxides, sulfur dioxide, and volatile organic compounds, are released into the atmosphere. This pollution can have dire consequences for both humans and the planet.

First and foremost, air pollution poses a significant threat to human health. Particulate matter and toxic gases can enter the respiratory system, leading to various respiratory diseases like asthma and bronchitis. Long-term exposure to polluted air has also been linked to cardiovascular diseases, lung cancer, and premature death. Vulnerable populations such as children, the elderly, and those with pre-existing health conditions are at higher risk.

Additionally, air pollution has adverse effects on the environment. It contributes to climate change by increasing the concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, leading to rising global temperatures and more frequent extreme weather events. Moreover, pollutants can harm ecosystems, contaminate water bodies, and damage crops, impacting food security.

The sources of air pollution are diverse, including industrial processes, transportation, agriculture, and energy production. To combat this problem, governments, industries, and individuals must take collective action. Implementing stricter emission standards for vehicles and industrial facilities, transitioning to cleaner energy sources, and promoting public transportation are essential steps in reducing air pollution.

In conclusion, air pollution is a critical issue that affects human health and the environment. Its detrimental effects on respiratory health and its contributions to climate change necessitate urgent action. By adopting sustainable practices and reducing emissions, we can mitigate the impact of air pollution and create a healthier and more sustainable future for all.

Related Reads:-     

Air pollution is the contamination of air due to the presence of substances in the atmosphere that are harmful to the health of humans and other living beings, or cause damage to the climate or to materials.

To prevent air pollution, reduce vehicle emissions by using public transport, carpooling, or opting for electric vehicles. Promote clean energy sources like wind and solar power. Implement strict industrial emissions standards. Encourage reforestation and green spaces. Educate the public about responsible waste disposal and advocate for clean energy policies.

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Air Pollution Effects on the Health and Environment Essay

According to the National Ambient Air Quality Standards, there are six principal air pollutants, the excess of which critically affects the health, lifestyle, and welfare of the population. They are carbon monoxide, lead, nitrogen dioxide, ozone, particle pollution, and sulfur dioxide. Increasing the level of each of them will most likely have critical consequences, and should be regulated by governmental services. Still, to my mind, the priority should be given to the regulation of particle pollution as the most dangerous issue.

Particle pollution or “Particulate matter,” PM, is an effect caused by contamination of air by the particles of different origin. They might be dust, small droplets of nitric and sulfuric acids, coal and metal particles, organic chemicals, etc. The particles are subdivided into two groups. The size of “inhalable coarse particles” lies within the range of 2.5 and 10 micrometers (“The United States Environmental Protection Agency: Particulate Matter” par. 3). “Fine particles” are 2.5 micrometers and smaller (“The United States Environmental Protection Agency: Particulate Matter” par. 4). The particles are majorly concentrated along the roadways and in the areas of dusty industries. Forest fires, being a significant issue recently all over the U.S., are a substantial source of PM (Langmann et al. 109). Gas emissions from cars, industries, and power plants also contribute to particle pollution.

The level of particle pollution is regulated both by primary and secondary standards, meaning that high levels of PM will affect both sensitive categories of people and the welfare such as animals, crops, and buildings. The health dangers lay within lungs and heart disease that might cause death, as well as asthma, heart attacks, respiratory symptoms, etc. In general, 500,000 deaths occur due to particle pollution annually (Nel, 804). The damage to welfare and environment can be described as contamination of water bodies with acids, affecting the nutrient balance of soils and coastal waters, destroying forests and crops. Acid rains “resulted by sulfur oxides transformation into acids, especially sulfuric acid, besides causing leaf burns, contribute to the acidity increase of naturally acid soils and to lowering the buffering capacity of base saturated top soils” (Lacatusu, Cimpeanu and Lungu 818) are also the result of particle pollution. PM can also cause discomfort and danger, conducting a reduction of visibility.

The factor that demonstrates the extreme danger and the priority of dealing with an issue of particle pollutions is that its standard was reviewed in 2012 the latest date if compare to revisions of other major pollutants (“The United States Environmental Protection Agency: National Ambient Air Quality Standards” par.3). The general recommendations to reduce particle pollution on the household level include not to burn leaves, use the energy sources thoughtfully, avoid using fireplaces and dust-producing devices. These measures are high, but some more effective means should be provided on the state level. They might be introducing the policy of power plants emission reduction by providing more environmental-friendly technologies. This also refers to encouraging using a vehicle with low rates of dangerous emissions. The practice of short-term air pollution forecasts and the regulation of the industrial and household emissions in the area, based on those forecasts (Berlyand 12), seems to be a good idea. The policy of forest fires prevention also should be improved.

Particle pollution is one of the major issues affecting the environment all over the United States. As is, it occurs due to industrial problems and natural catastrophes and might result in drastic consequences for the population’s health and welfare; the environmental policy should be reviewed to reduce the rates of pollution.

Works Cited

Berlyand, M. E. Prediction and regulation of air pollution . Vol. 14. Springer Science & Business Media, 2012. Print.

Lacatusu, Radu, Carmen Cimpeanu, Mihaela Lungu. “Soil pollution by acid rains and heavy metals in Zlatna region, Romania.” Sustaining the Global Farm, Purdue University (2001): 817-820. Print.

Langmann, Bärbel, Bryan Duncan, Christiane Textor, Jörg Trentmann, Guido R. vander Werf. “Vegetation fire emissions and their impact on air pollution and climate.” Atmospheric Environment 43.1 (2009): 107-116. Print.

Nel, André. “Air pollution-related illness: effects of particles.” Science 308.5723 (2005): 804-806. Print.

The United States Environmental Protection Agency: National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) 2015. Web.

The United States Environmental Protection Agency: Particulate Matter (PM) 2015. Web.

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IvyPanda. (2024, March 6). Air Pollution Effects on the Health and Environment. https://ivypanda.com/essays/air-pollution-effects-on-the-health-and-environment/

"Air Pollution Effects on the Health and Environment." IvyPanda , 6 Mar. 2024, ivypanda.com/essays/air-pollution-effects-on-the-health-and-environment/.

IvyPanda . (2024) 'Air Pollution Effects on the Health and Environment'. 6 March.

IvyPanda . 2024. "Air Pollution Effects on the Health and Environment." March 6, 2024. https://ivypanda.com/essays/air-pollution-effects-on-the-health-and-environment/.

1. IvyPanda . "Air Pollution Effects on the Health and Environment." March 6, 2024. https://ivypanda.com/essays/air-pollution-effects-on-the-health-and-environment/.

Bibliography

IvyPanda . "Air Pollution Effects on the Health and Environment." March 6, 2024. https://ivypanda.com/essays/air-pollution-effects-on-the-health-and-environment/.

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Causes and Effects of Pollution

The environment people live in is affecting them, including health and lifestyle, and the nature around them, like plants, animals, water bodies, and the atmosphere. Environmental issues caused by humans using natural resources and treating nature with no respect have resulted in some negative changes. One of the most significant problems people are facing nowadays is pollution. It affects all the crucial elements for sustaining human life: water, air, and soil. The causes and effects of pollution are multiple and varied, and they should be examined closely to better understand this phenomenon.

General reasons for pollution include major emissions of carbon dioxide, as well as the chemicals produced as the result of the burning of fossil fuels. This happens because of different factories’ activity and their waste, which is being discharged into water, soil, and the atmosphere. Other than big manufacturing elements, pollution is caused by people individually. This involves emissions caused by cars, using much energy for different activities, and producing enormous amounts of waste, especially the types that are not decomposable or take hundreds of years to do so.

The first side of the environment impacted by pollution is the atmosphere. Air pollution can be defined as a combination of harmful gases or particles that accumulate in the air in unsafe quantities. The worsening air quality can result in multiple health issues, including “heart disease, lung cancer, and both chronic and acute respiratory diseases” (“Ambient (outdoor) air pollution,” 2018, para. 1). As air quality is measured around the world, many deficiencies are detected, which directly influence human life.

According to the World Health Organization data, in 2016, about 91 percent of the population inhabited places with unsatisfactory air quality (as cited in “Ambient (outdoor) air pollution,” 2018). Therefore, air pollution is affecting not only those living in big urban areas but is also spreading around the whole planet.

Water covers the majority of the planet, so water pollution is also a crucial problem. Wastewater and emission of fertilizers into water bodies cause water pollution, which can make water harmful to human consumption. Other than becoming undrinkable, contaminated water will affect or even kill aquatic creatures and plants, as well as transfer to crops, making them just as dangerous. The United Nations World Water Development Report stated that over 80 percent of wastewater is discharged back into the environment, not being appropriately treated (2017). Thus, not only do the major water bodies become largely polluted but the effect is also transferred to soil.

As a significant part of the food for humans and domestic animals is grown, polluted soil can also cause complications. Soil pollution occurs when certain toxic chemicals are gathered in large amounts. Soil can be affected by harmful substances as a result of industrial waste emission into the ground, contaminated water interacting with it, or excessive amounts of pesticides or fertilizers being used. As a result, plants and crops become dangerous for human consumption and can cause multiple health problems.

Pollution is a global phenomenon, causing much damage to the planet and harming people and other living creatures. It can manifest in different forms, but its impact is hugely detrimental. Seeking solutions for this problem is now one of the main agendas for the whole of humankind, which can only be done with combined efforts of government structures and community and individual actions. Only by being aware of this situation and taking measures for improvement will people be able to protect their health and create better conditions for future generations.

Ambient (outdoor) air pollution . (2018). Web.

The United Nations world water development report 2017. (2017). Web.

Cite this paper

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StudyCorgi. (2021, June 23). Causes and Effects of Pollution. https://studycorgi.com/causes-and-effects-of-pollution/

"Causes and Effects of Pollution." StudyCorgi , 23 June 2021, studycorgi.com/causes-and-effects-of-pollution/.

StudyCorgi . (2021) 'Causes and Effects of Pollution'. 23 June.

1. StudyCorgi . "Causes and Effects of Pollution." June 23, 2021. https://studycorgi.com/causes-and-effects-of-pollution/.

Bibliography

StudyCorgi . "Causes and Effects of Pollution." June 23, 2021. https://studycorgi.com/causes-and-effects-of-pollution/.

StudyCorgi . 2021. "Causes and Effects of Pollution." June 23, 2021. https://studycorgi.com/causes-and-effects-of-pollution/.

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Air Pollution Essay for Students in English: 100, 200 and 500 Words

Air pollution is becoming a serious issue that’s affecting human health, flora and fauna and overall well-being of Earth. As responsible citizens of the world, it’s our duty to take care of anything that’s harming the planet and leave it in better condition for future generations. Here are a few sample essays children can use to write about air pollution and learn about different ways to mitigate this crisis.

100 Words Essay on Air Pollution

200 words essay on air pollution, 500 words essay on air pollution.

Any physical, chemical, or biological alteration in the air is referred to as air pollution. The atmosphere contains a specific portion of the gas. It is harmful to survival to change the makeup of these gases. “Global warming” is the term used to describe the rise in global temperature caused by this imbalance in gas composition. Hazardous pollutants, whether present naturally or artificially, can modify the environment and have a negative impact on the ecosystem. Ineffective resource management and reckless human activity are harming the environment and therefore it is our responsibility as inhabitants of Earth to take care of it.

Pollution is any activity that tampers with the environment's fundamental characteristics and causes damage. The air we breathe is no longer clean and fresh, it has been contaminated by pollutants. The threat to Earth and its ecosystem is getting worse as a result of the contamination of the air, water, and soil. These pollutants are causing a number of respiratory and cardiovascular diseases—our immune system is getting affected negatively, and children are at a high risk of developing asthma and other breathing problems. There are numerous factors that frequently increase this air pollution. Automobiles, transportation methods, industrialization, expanding cities, etc. are the main causes of air pollution. The contamination of the entire atmosphere is brought on by the release of various toxic gases or dangerous components from such sources.

Air pollution, which has a negative impact on the environment, also has a significant impact on the ozone layer. The primary contributor to pollution is the ever-increasing demands of the human population. Daily human activities pump harmful chemicals into the atmosphere, making it more polluted than ever and accelerating climate change. The flora and fauna are also being severely impacted by the airborne harmful chemical releases. The rising contamination of the Earth's air, water, and soil—the essential life support systems of the planet—poses a major threat to the planet and its environment.

One of today's top environmental concerns is air pollution. There are numerous factors that frequently increase this air pollution. Toxic gases, particulates, paint, and batteries containing lead are released throughout the industrialization process. The ozone layer is also being destroyed and the world is being exposed to dangerous solar rays as a result of all the contaminants in touch with the atmosphere.

Ozone is a contaminant that exists at the ground level and can be harmful to human health. But the same ozone creates a layer of defence in the stratosphere. The "good" ozone, however, is being destroyed by ozone-depleting substances—such as hydrochlorofluorocarbons, and chlorofluorocarbons. These chemicals were once used in coolants, foaming agents, insecticides, solvents, and fire extinguishers and occasionally still are.

Primary and secondary pollutants are the two categories that have emerged as a result of the growing number of air pollutants. Primary pollutants, which include smoke, ash, dust, fumes, mist, spray, inorganic gases, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, and radioactive substances, have a direct negative impact on fresh air. Secondary pollutants are those that interact chemically with primary pollutants, as well as other elements in the atmosphere, such as sulphate trioxide, ozone, hydrocarbons, and nitrogen dioxide.

Causes of Air Pollution

The disposal of solid wastes that release methane gas and the breakdown of trash landfills are major sources of air pollution. This problem has become a severe environmental and health issue as a result of the population's rapid development, industrialisation, and greater use of cars, planes, and other transportation.

Common Effects of Air Pollution

Pollutants in the air we breathe every minute enter our bloodstream and travel to our lungs and entire body, producing a plethora of health issues. Animals can have health issues similar to people if they are exposed to air toxics in high enough quantities over an extended period of time. Air toxics also play a role in animal sickness, infertility, and birth abnormalities. Therefore, both directly and indirectly, pollution of the environment harms both plants, animals, and people.

What Can We Do

Using public transportation is a surefire short method to reduce air pollution because it uses less gas and electricity, even carpools help with the situation. A permanent, non-polluting, and extremely secure source of energy is the sun or solar power. Solar panels, which are special in design and simple to install, are also a technical benefit to society and the planet. They take in solar energy and store it to power various equipment and electronics. Another step you can take on this path is to plant more trees and live a simplistic life. Minimalist living is not only a trendy millennial lifestyle, but it also has significant societal and environmental benefits.

Air pollution may reach one million tonnes annually in the next decades if environmental protection measures are not taken seriously and effectively enforced. We need to drastically alter our everyday routines if we want to lower the level of air pollution. By making better use of raw materials, water energy, and other resources, we can reduce pollution. Human health can be safeguarded and economic wellbeing can be increased when less harmful compounds are exchanged for hazardous ones.

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• Biology Article

Air Pollution Control

Air pollution & its control, air pollution definition.

“Air Pollution is the release of pollutants such as gases, particles, biological molecules, etc. into the air that is harmful to human health and the environment.”

Air Pollution Diagram

Table of Contents

What is Air Pollution?

Types of air pollutants, primary pollutants, secondary pollutants, causes of air pollution.

Air pollution refers to any physical, chemical or biological change in the air. It is the contamination of air by harmful gases, dust and smoke which affects plants, animals and humans drastically.

There is a certain percentage of gases present in the atmosphere. An increase or decrease in the composition of these gases is harmful to survival. This imbalance in the gaseous composition has resulted in an increase in earth’s temperature, which is known as global warming.

There are two types of air pollutants:

The pollutants that directly cause air pollution are known as primary pollutants. Sulphur-dioxide emitted from factories is a primary pollutant.

The pollutants formed by the intermingling and reaction of primary pollutants are known as secondary pollutants. Smog, formed by the intermingling of smoke and fog, is a secondary pollutant.

Also Read:  Water Pollution

Following are the important causes of air pollution:

Burning of Fossil Fuels

The combustion of fossil fuels emits a large amount of sulphur dioxide. Carbon monoxide released by incomplete combustion of fossil fuels also results in air pollution.

Automobiles

The gases emitted from vehicles such as jeeps, trucks, cars, buses, etc. pollute the environment. These are the major sources of greenhouse gases and also result in diseases among individuals.

Agricultural Activities

Ammonia is one of the most hazardous gases emitted during agricultural activities. The insecticides, pesticides and fertilisers emit harmful chemicals in the atmosphere and contaminate it.

Factories and Industries

Factories and industries are the main source of carbon monoxide, organic compounds, hydrocarbons and chemicals. These are released into the air, degrading its quality.

Mining Activities

In the mining process, the minerals below the earth are extracted using large pieces of equipment. The dust and chemicals released during the process not only pollute the air, but also deteriorate the health of the workers and people living in the nearby areas.

Domestic Sources

The household cleaning products and paints contain toxic chemicals that are released in the air. The smell from the newly painted walls is the smell of the chemicals present in the paints. It not only pollutes the air but also affects breathing.

Effects of Air Pollution

The hazardous effects of air pollution on the environment include:

Air pollution has resulted in several respiratory disorders and heart diseases among humans. The cases of lung cancer have increased in the last few decades. Children living near polluted areas are more prone to pneumonia and asthma. Many people die every year due to the direct or indirect effects of air pollution.

Global Warming

Due to the emission of greenhouse gases, there is an imbalance in the gaseous composition of the air. This has led to an increase in the temperature of the earth. This increase in earth’s temperature is known as global warming . This has resulted in the melting of glaciers and an increase in sea levels. Many areas are submerged underwater.

The burning of fossil fuels releases harmful gases such as nitrogen oxides and sulphur oxides in the air. The water droplets combine with these pollutants, become acidic and fall as acid rain which damages human, animal and plant life.

Ozone Layer Depletion

The release of chlorofluorocarbons, halons, and hydrochlorofluorocarbons in the atmosphere is the major cause of depletion of the ozone layer. The depleting ozone layer does not prevent the harmful ultraviolet rays coming from the sun and causes skin diseases and eye problems among individuals. Also Read:  Ozone Layer Depletion

Effect on Animals

The air pollutants suspend in the water bodies and affect aquatic life. Pollution also compels the animals to leave their habitat and shift to a new place. This renders them stray and has also led to the extinction of a large number of animal species.

Following are the measures one should adopt, to control air pollution:

Avoid Using Vehicles

People should avoid using vehicles for shorter distances. Rather, they should prefer public modes of transport to travel from one place to another. This not only prevents pollution, but also conserves energy.

Energy Conservation

A large number of fossil fuels are burnt to generate electricity. Therefore, do not forget to switch off the electrical appliances when not in use. Thus, you can save the environment at the individual level. Use of energy-efficient devices such as CFLs also controls pollution to a greater level.

Use of Clean Energy Resources

The use of solar, wind and geothermal energies reduce air pollution at a larger level. Various countries, including India, have implemented the use of these resources as a step towards a cleaner environment.

Other air pollution control measures include:

• By minimising and reducing the use of fire and fire products.
• Since industrial emissions are one of the major causes of air pollution, the pollutants can be controlled or treated at the source itself to reduce its effects. For example, if the reactions of a certain raw material yield a pollutant, then the raw materials can be substituted with other less polluting materials.
• Fuel substitution is another way of controlling air pollution. In many parts of India, petrol and diesel are being replaced by CNG – Compressed Natural Gas fueled vehicles. These are mostly adopted by vehicles that aren’t fully operating with ideal emission engines.
• Although there are many practices in India, which focus on repairing the quality of air, most of them are either forgotten or not being enforced properly. There are still a lot of vehicles on roads which haven’t been tested for vehicle emissions.
• Another way of controlling air pollution caused by industries is to modify and maintain existing pieces of equipment so that the emission of pollutants is minimised.
• Sometimes controlling pollutants at the source is not possible. In that case, we can have process control equipment to control the pollution.
• A very effective way of controlling air pollution is by diluting the air pollutants.
• The last and the best way of reducing the ill effects of air pollution is tree plantation. Plants and trees reduce a large number of pollutants in the air. Ideally, planting trees in areas of high pollution levels will be extremely effective.

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Essay on Pollution for Students and Children

500+ words essay on pollution.

Pollution is a term which even kids are aware of these days. It has become so common that almost everyone acknowledges the fact that pollution is rising continuously. The term ‘pollution’ means the manifestation of any unsolicited foreign substance in something. When we talk about pollution on earth, we refer to the contamination that is happening of the natural resources by various pollutants . All this is mainly caused by human activities which harm the environment in ways more than one. Therefore, an urgent need has arisen to tackle this issue straightaway. That is to say, pollution is damaging our earth severely and we need to realize its effects and prevent this damage. In this essay on pollution, we will see what are the effects of pollution and how to reduce it.

Effects of Pollution

Pollution affects the quality of life more than one can imagine. It works in mysterious ways, sometimes which cannot be seen by the naked eye. However, it is very much present in the environment. For instance, you might not be able to see the natural gases present in the air, but they are still there. Similarly, the pollutants which are messing up the air and increasing the levels of carbon dioxide is very dangerous for humans. Increased level of carbon dioxide will lead to global warming .

Further, the water is polluted in the name of industrial development, religious practices and more will cause a shortage of drinking water. Without water, human life is not possible. Moreover, the way waste is dumped on the land eventually ends up in the soil and turns toxic. If land pollution keeps on happening at this rate, we won’t have fertile soil to grow our crops on. Therefore, serious measures must be taken to reduce pollution to the core.

Get English Important Questions here

Types of Pollution

• Air Pollution
• Water Pollution
• Soil Pollution

How to Reduce Pollution?

After learning the harmful effects of pollution, one must get on the task of preventing or reducing pollution as soon as possible. To reduce air pollution, people should take public transport or carpool to reduce vehicular smoke. While it may be hard, avoiding firecrackers at festivals and celebrations can also cut down on air and noise pollution. Above all, we must adopt the habit of recycling. All the used plastic ends up in the oceans and land, which pollutes them.

So, remember to not dispose of them off after use, rather reuse them as long as you can. We must also encourage everyone to plant more trees which will absorb the harmful gases and make the air cleaner. When talking on a bigger level, the government must limit the usage of fertilizers to maintain the soil’s fertility. In addition, industries must be banned from dumping their waste into oceans and rivers, causing water pollution.

To sum it up, all types of pollution is hazardous and comes with grave consequences. Everyone must take a step towards change ranging from individuals to the industries. As tackling this problem calls for a joint effort, so we must join hands now. Moreover, the innocent lives of animals are being lost because of such human activities. So, all of us must take a stand and become a voice for the unheard in order to make this earth pollution-free.

Get the huge list of more than 500 Essay Topics and Ideas

FAQs on Pollution

Q.1 What are the effects of pollution?

A.1 Pollution essentially affects the quality of human life. It degrades almost everything from the water we drink to the air we breathe. It damages the natural resources needed for a healthy life.

Q.2 How can one reduce pollution?

A.2 We must take individual steps to reduce pollution. People should decompose their waster mindfully, they should plant more trees. Further, one must always recycle what they can and make the earth greener.

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• Open access
• Published: 03 May 2024

Burden of cardiovascular disease attributed to air pollution: a systematic review

• Amir Hossein Khoshakhlagh 1 ,
• Mahdiyeh Mohammadzadeh   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-8288-8511 2 , 3 ,
• Agnieszka Gruszecka-Kosowska 4 &
• Evangelos Oikonomou 5  

Globalization and Health volume  20 , Article number:  37 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) are estimated to be the leading cause of global death. Air pollution is the biggest environmental threat to public health worldwide. It is considered a potentially modifiable environmental risk factor for CVDs because it can be prevented by adopting the right national and international policies. The present study was conducted to synthesize the results of existing studies on the burden of CVDs attributed to air pollution, namely prevalence, hospitalization, disability, mortality, and cost characteristics.

A systematic search was performed in the Scopus, PubMed, and Web of Science databases to identify studies, without time limitations, up to June 13, 2023. Exclusion criteria included prenatal exposure, exposure to indoor air pollution, review studies, conferences, books, letters to editors, and animal and laboratory studies. The quality of the articles was evaluated based on the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality Assessment Form, the Newcastle–Ottawa Scale, and Drummond Criteria using a self-established scale. The articles that achieved categories A and B were included in the study.

Of the 566 studies obtained, based on the inclusion/exclusion criteria, 92 studies were defined as eligible in the present systematic review. The results of these investigations supported that chronic exposure to various concentrations of air pollutants, increased the prevalence, hospitalization, disability, mortality, and costs of CVDs attributed to air pollution, even at relatively low levels. According to the results, the main pollutant investigated closely associated with hypertension was PM 2.5 . Furthermore, the global DALY related to stroke during 2016–2019 has increased by 1.8 times and hospitalization related to CVDs in 2023 has increased by 8.5 times compared to 2014.

Ambient air pollution is an underestimated but significant and modifiable contributor to CVDs burden and public health costs. This should not only be considered an environmental problem but also as an important risk factor for a significant increase in CVD cases and mortality. The findings of the systematic review highlighted the opportunity to apply more preventive measures in the public health sector to reduce the footprint of CVDs in human society.

Introduction

Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) are responsible for most of the deaths and disabilities worldwide [ 1 , 2 ]. In 2017, CVDs resulted in more than 360 million disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) (Table  1 ) worldwide, making it a significant health concern in both developed and developing countries [ 3 , 4 ]. The World Health Organization (WHO) reports that CVDs, including ischemic heart disease (IHD), atrial fibrillation (AF), stroke, heart failure (HF), and other cardiovascular disorders account for 43% of all deaths from non-communicable diseases (NCDs) [ 5 ].

Currently, research revealed that more than 80% of CVD cases can be prevented by addressing risk factors such as smoking, arterial hypertension, diabetes mellitus, hypercholesterolemia, overweight, lack of physical activity, unhealthy diet, and exposure to air pollution [ 6 , 7 ]. Despite the significant impact of environmental factors, especially air pollution, on health outcomes, they are often overlooked in the assessment of the global burden of disease (GBD) [ 8 ].

Air pollution is a major environmental concern in terms of the occurrence of adverse health effects and the negative impact on public health [ 9 ]. Fossil fuel consumption, especially in industries and transportation, is considered one of the most important sources of air pollution after the industrial revolution. In addition to being the main perpetrator of hazardous pollutant emissions, industry also plays an undeniable role in the increase in the average temperature of the Earth [ 10 ]. The expotential increase in industrialization results in a devastating impact on the environment. In some countries with a high Human Development Index (HDI), this leads to their largest share in the world’s greenhouse gases and hazardous pollutant emissions.

As a consequence, preventive policies and tax measures were introduced, particularly for these activities with high emission levels. Unfortunately, the existing global disparities caused an enormous difference in the rate of use of clean fuels. Modern renewable energy sources supply only 2.3% of electricity in low HDI countries, whereas this figure is 11% in countries with very high HDI. The dependance on the use of biomass fuel as an energy source was equal to 92% of households in countries with low HDI compared to 7.5% in countries with very high HDI. This led to the failure to limit the consumption of fossil fuels despite the efforts made [ 11 , 12 , 13 ]. Biomass fuel is used for heating, cooking, and providing lighting inside the house, as well as an energy source for occupational, industry, and transportation purposes, which can cause the release of high levels of air pollutants. According to studies, air pollution is considered as a consequence of population growth and urbanization, which is considered an important factor in premature mortality. This in turn, increases the costs of many NCDs, especially among local populations [ 14 , 15 , 16 ].

According to the lancet commission on pollution and health, harmful environmental conditions are responsible for approximately 9 million excess deaths worldwide, half of them attributed to air pollution [ 8 ]. The monetary costs of premature deaths attributed to air pollution in 2020 were estimated at 2.2 trillion dollars, which was equivalent to 2.4% of the gross world product (GWP) [ 12 ]. Additionally, two-thirds of the health effects caused by exposure to air pollutants were found to be related to cardiovascular mortality and other health complications [ 17 ]. Specifically, acute myocardial infarction (AMI) and stroke contributed to almost 50% of these adverse effects, resulting in a significant burden on healthcare costs worldwide [ 17 , 18 ].

The published data report of the WHO indicated that almost 99% of the global population is exposed to inhalation of air pollutants that exceed the air quality threshold values recommended by this institution [ 19 ]. This alarming statistic revealed how much impact air pollution could have on the increase in CVDs, hospitalizations, disability, cases of mortality, and increase in economic costs.

The increase in the publication of related studies during the last 10 years can effectively draw a risk perspective of the growth in the burden of CVDs caused by exposure to air pollution. The results of these investigations may provide important evidence for implementing air pollution control measures based on maintaining the input-output balance (policy cost-benefit), especially in developing countries.

However, the existence of some limitations and gaps restricts the generalization of the results of these researches, including conducting each study in a limited number of countries [ 20 , 21 , 22 ], investigating the effect of air pollution on only one type of CVDs [ 23 , 24 , 25 ], examining a limited number of air pollutants [ 25 , 26 , 27 ], participants of only one gender (male or female) [ 28 , 29 , 30 ] and subjects with a relatively high socio-economic status [ 30 ]. In addition, considering that no review study has been published in this field, it seems necessary to conduct a systematic review to retrieve related studies and cover the gaps mentioned above to achieve more comprehensive results.

This systematic review gathers and summarizes up-to-date studies on the burden of CVDs, including prevalence, disability, hospitalization, mortality, and cost, caused by exposure to air pollution.

Research protocol

This systematic review was registered in the International Prospective Register of Systematic Reviews (PROSPERO, CRD42023434702) and adhered to the PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Review and Meta-analyses) statement.

Search strategy and data screening

The search was carried out without timeframe, up to June 13, 2023. A systematic search of the databases Scopus, PubMed, and Web of Science was conducted using the following keywords:

Disease: “Cardiovascular Disease*”, “Myocardial Infarction”, “Heart Failure”, Hypertension, Myocarditis, Arrhythmia, “Coronary Heart Disease*”, “Cerebrovascular Disease*”, “Abnormal Heart Rhythms”, “Aorta Disease*”, “Heart Attack”, “Coronary Artery Disease*”, Cardiomyopathy, “Heart Muscle Disease*”, “Pericardial Disease*”, “Peripheral Vascular Disease*”, Stroke, “Vascular disease*”, Angina, “Rheumatic Heart Disease*”;

Disease burden : “Illness Cost*”, “Sickness Cost*”, “Illness Burden*”, “Disease Burden*”, “Disease Cost*”, “Economic Burden of Disease”, “Disability-Adjusted Living Years”, DALY, Mortality, Morbidity, “Years of Life Lost”, YLL, “Years Lost due to Disability”, YLD;

Exposure: “Air pollution”.

Two researchers, M.M. and A.H.Kh., extracted keywords and conducted a systematic search for Title/Abstract and Mesh (if any). Studies obtained from databases were integrated using EndNote X20 software. After removing duplicates, M.M. and A.H.Kh. independently screened and extracted the studies. The third author (E.O.) resolved any ambiguities or contradictions during the review process. To ensure that no eligible studies were missed, the reference list of the selected studies was systematically searched. Additionally, a hand search was also conducted in parallel.

Entry and exit criteria of the study

In this systematic review, studies focused on prenatal exposure to air pollution and the impact of indoor air pollution on the burden of CVDs were excluded. Furthermore, review studies, conference studies, books, letters to the editors, and animal/laboratory studies were omitted and only original articles published in English and peer reviewed were examined.

Extracting the data

After reviewing and selecting eligible studies, their results were summarized in an electronic form in the Excel 2016 software. The data sheet encompassed various details such as author names, year of publication, title, country of investigation, number of participants, age range, gender, and type of pollutant. Variables related to disease burden included prevalence, hospitalization, disability (measured in disability-adjusted life years DALY), years lost to disability (YLD), years of life lost (YLL), mortality (mortality rate and death), and cost (total cost, economic loss due to missed work days, and overall economic losses).

Quality control

Two researchers, M.M. and A.H.Kh., assessed the quality of selected studies using a self-established scale. This scale was based on the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality Assessment Form, the Newcastle–Ottawa Scale [ 31 ], and the Drummond Criteria [ 32 ]. Based on this method, the quality of studies is determined by answering 9 questions, that are presented in Table  2 . Questions 1–8 can only be answered as “yes” (1 score) or “no” (0 score). Question 9 can be answered as: “yes” (2 scores), “likely” (1 score), and “no” (0 score). The scores obtained were combined after confirmation, and each study was classified based on its quality score (between 0 and 10 points) into one of three categories: A, B, or C. A study with a quality score equal to or above 8 received category A. If the quality score was between 4 and 7, the study received category B. If the quality score was less than 4 a study received category C [ 33 ]. Only articles classified in categories A and B were included in the systematic review analysis.

Study selection

A systematic search was carried out in the PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science databases as presented in Fig.  1 . The 566 articles found were screened using EndNote X20 software based on title and abstract. Then 122 articles remained, and due to the inaccessibility of the full text of 7 studies, 115 full texts were thoroughly examined based on inclusion/exclusion criteria and quality assessment. Finally, 92 studies were defined eligible in this systematic review.

PRISMA flow diagram of the literature search on CVDs related to air pollution

Synthesis of results

In this study, we found various study designs that caused differences in methodology and context that made it unsuitable to perform a quantitative synthesis or meta-analysis. Therefore, we combined the study results in a narrative format, which included information about the type of pollutant, its mean concentration, and the disease burden variables, including prevalence (Table  3 ), hospitalization (Table  4 ), disability (disability-adjusted living years DALY, years lost due to disability YLD, and years of life lost YLL) (Supplementary Material 1 ), mortality (mortality rate, death) (Supplementary Material 2 ), and costs (total cost, economic loss from loss of the work day, and economic losses) (Table  5 ).

We followed a two-step process for narrative synthesis. In the first step, we classified the information into five separate tables according to the type of disease burden. In the second step, we evaluated the severity of the consequences by examining the relationship between exposure levels and disease burden. The brief visual scheme of the seven steps that comprises the complete systematic review framework performed in the study is presented in Fig.  2 .

Visual representation of the complete framework of the systematic review guiding process

Prevalence of CVDs attributed to air pollution

Hypertension is the most common disease associated with chronic exposure to air pollutants. As presented in Table  3 in this section, the main pollutants examined were PM 2.5 (72.2%) and NO 2 (50%), and were found to be closely associated with the incidence of hypertension according to the results obtained. The prevalence of CVDs related to air pollution was investigated in 18 studies from 10 countries around the world (Table  3 ) [ 7 , 14 , 15 , 20 , 21 , 22 , 25 , 26 , 27 , 28 , 29 , 30 , 35 , 36 , 37 , 38 , 39 , 40 ]. Generally, 818,316 subjects of different age groups were evaluated during 2017–2023. A review of the listed studies showed that China was the most active in this field, publishing 6 studies [ 21 , 26 , 27 , 28 , 35 , 40 ].

Based on the available information on the types of areas in the studies included in this systematic review, it was revealed that most of the investigations were carried out on a national and/or regional scale depending on the size of the country, for example, the United States [ 29 , 30 , 53 , 57 ], Canada [ 58 ], Brazil [ 59 ], China [ 26 , 35 , 40 , 60 , 61 , 62 , 63 , 64 , 65 , 66 ], and Europe [ 67 , 68 , 69 ]. There was also some research conducted worldwide [ 9 , 37 , 70 , 71 , 72 , 73 ], including several countries in international cohort studies.

Based on these studies, the prevalence of CVDs varied greatly, ranging from 0.5% for developed coronary heart disease to 74.5% for hypertension. Specifically, prevalence percentages for hypertension ranged from 5.3% to 74.5%, for coronary artery disease from 0.5% to 13.9%, for stroke from 1.2% to 3.2%, and for other CVDs from 2.00% to 1.46%. Reports of carotid plaque and arrhythmia were reported by a single study each. Consequently, the prevalence of carotid plaque related to air pollution was reported to be equal to 22.3% [ 15 , 30 , 38 , 39 ], and the prevalence of arrhythmia was estimated to be 3.2% [ 36 ].

Hospitalization due to CVDs attributed to air pollution

Table 4 presents a summary of the results of 15 studies [ 41 , 42 , 43 , 44 , 45 , 46 , 47 , 48 , 49 , 50 , 51 , 52 , 53 , 54 , 55 ] related to the hospitalization rate due to CVDs episodes as an adverse consequence of exposure to air pollution. Among the investigated pollutants, PM 2.5 (86.6%) and PM 10 (40%) were found to be the most common in the analyzed studies. According to the results obtained, 103,899,123 subjects from the following 7 countries were examined: China (6 studies) [ 45 , 46 , 48 , 51 , 52 , 55 ], USA (4 studies) [ 41 , 42 , 49 , 53 ], Taiwan (1 study) [ 47 ], Brazil (1 study) [ 50 ], Mexico (1 study) [ 54 ], Thailand (1 study) [ 44 ], and Republic of Macedonia (1 study) [ 43 ]. The publication years of these studies were from 2014 to 2023 and included all age groups.

Studies indicated that arrhythmias had the lowest hospital admission rate, with only 7 cases (0.001%) out of the 445,216 patients examined in China [ 55 ]. Also, Liu et al. [ 51 ] found that the hospitalization rate for ischemic stroke attributed to PM 1 was 81.92% that was the highest rate among similar studies. This studies also demonstrated that an increase of 10 µg/m 3 PM 1 resulted in an increase of 0.53% (95% CI, 0.39%, 0.67%) in the hospital admission rate due to stroke [ 51 ].

Disability due to CVDs attributed to air pollution

In the course of the investigations, 33 studies from 11 countries [ 7 , 14 , 23 , 24 , 38 , 43 , 59 , 60 , 62 , 63 , 64 , 67 , 68 , 69 , 74 , 75 , 76 , 77 , 78 , 79 , 80 , 81 , 82 , 83 , 84 , 85 , 86 ] and 6 studies based on worldwide data focused on the impact of air pollutants on global disability (DALY, YLD, YLL) in patients with CVDs [ 9 , 70 , 71 , 72 , 73 , 87 ]. China was the most active in this field by publishing 12 related studies. Among these, 21 studies specifically examined the role of PM 2.5 in causing CVDs related disability during 2015–2023 (Supplementary Material 1 ). Generally, 2,338,344,120 subjects from different age groups were evaluated.

The results showed that over time, as industrial activity expanded and pollutant concentrations increased, the incidence of CVD-related disabilities, particularly stroke and IHD, also increased. The results of a global study showed that the DALY rate caused by exposure to PM 2.5 in 1990 was 10 million years, which increased to 20 million years in 2019 (a two-fold increase). In addition, similar results were also observed in stroke [ 73 ]. Rueda et al. [ 85 ] also concluded in a national study in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia that exposure to a concentration of 87.9 μg/m 3 during 1990–2017 caused the increase of DALY rate 4 times due to IHD and 2.5 times due to stroke.

Mortality due to CVDs attributed to air pollution

Supplementary Material 2 summarizes the results of 58 studies investigating the mortality rate of CVDs caused by air pollution [ 9 , 14 , 15 , 20 , 23 , 26 , 27 , 28 , 42 , 43 , 49 , 50 , 53 , 56 , 57 , 58 , 59 , 60 , 61 , 62 , 63 , 64 , 65 , 66 , 67 , 68 , 69 , 72 , 73 , 74 , 75 , 76 , 77 , 78 , 80 , 81 , 82 , 84 , 85 , 86 , 87 , 88 , 89 , 90 , 91 , 92 , 93 , 94 , 95 , 96 , 97 , 98 , 99 , 100 , 101 , 102 , 103 , 104 ]. These studies were carried out between 2015 and 2023 and have been published in 18 countries, including India, USA, Thailand, China, Canada, Republic of Macedonia, South Korea, Iran, Europe, Kazakhstan, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, Brazil, Soviet Republics, Germany, Malaysia, Colombia, and the United Kingdom.

The researchers examined a total of 1,237,022,761 people in various age groups. In 48 different studies, researchers focused on PM 2.5 as the main pollutant and its impact on deaths related to CVDs. The findings of these research confirmed that there is a direct correlation between the concentration of PM 2.5 pollutants and the mortality rate associated with IHD and stroke.

Mazeli et al. [ 104 ] in a national study in Malaysia investigated the relationship between PM 2.5 levels and CVD mortality. In this study, it was found that with the increase in pollutant concentration from 2000 (22 μg/m 3 ) to 2013 (24 μg/m 3 ), the death rate due to stroke has increased approximately twice, but this statistic remained almost constant in IHD [ 104 ]. In addition, the results of a recent study in Germany showed that exposure to levels of 13.7–10.8 μg/m 3 PM 2.5 can cause the death of 6,977 patients with IHD and 1,871 deaths due to stroke [ 86 ].

Costs due to CVDs attributed to air pollution

The results obtained from 4 studies related to the economic burden caused by CVDs attributed to air pollution are shown in Table  5 [ 46 , 48 , 52 , 56 ]. These studies were performed between 2019 and 2022, a total of 95,624,779 people from China were evaluated and PM 2.5 was evaluated in all these four studies. Comparing the results of the studies showed that the greatest economic losses for CVD are related to PM 2.5 , as reported by Zhu et al. [ 46 ]. Furthermore, Yao et al. [ 56 ] reported the highest economic loss from lost workdays. This cost was calculated only for CVD attributed to PM 10 , SO 2 , NO 2 , CO, and O 3 . According to this study, the economic loss of CVD lost workdays attributed to NO 2 was calculated at 604.02 billion CNY (US$ 83.4 billion), which was the highest amount compared to other pollutants [ 56 ]. According to Table  5 , the total cost caused by CHD attributed to PM 2.5 was found to be 1.6 times higher than those attributed to PM 10 [ 52 ].

Hypertension was reported in studies to be the most prevalent among people who were chronically exposed to pollutants such as NO 2 , O 3 , PM 10 , PM 2.5 , and SO 2 . A 12-year follow-up study in the United Kingdom showed that exposure to air pollution was positively related to hypertension and its development in normotensive subjects [ 15 ]. This finding was consistent with a study by Prabhakaran et al. [ 7 ], which found an increasing trend in systolic blood pressure in Indian residents following an increase in pollutant concentration from 1990 to 2016. In the study of Karimi et al. [ 38 ] on the prevalence, burden, and economic costs of chronic diseases caused by air pollution in Tehran, Iran, the prevalence of hypertension was estimated at 5.3%. However, a German cohort study from 2020 found a prevalence of 53% for hypertension after exposure to PM 2.5 , PM 10 , and NO 2 [ 36 ].

The results of an international cohort of Chinese men showed that exposure to an average level of 43.7 μg/m 3 PM 2.5 can increase the prevalence of hypertension to 26.9% [ 28 ]. This prevalence was consistent with the results reported by Prabhakaran et al. [ 7 ] (21.1%). In addition, Yang et al. [ 26 ] also demonstrated in a national cohort in China that exposure to a concentration of 64.9 μg/m 3 of this pollutant can be associated with a prevalence of 31.8% of this health complication.

Although various studies revealed a positive correlation between exposure to air pollution and an increase in hypertension and subsequent consequences such as blindness, chest pain, pregnancy complications, heart attack, and stroke, the prevalence rate varied between different countries [ 15 , 30 , 38 , 39 ]. Interestingly, developed countries had higher prevalence rates, contradicting the results of some studies [ 9 , 60 , 105 ]. The analysis of the research indicated that the studies conducted on a regional scale were carried out in urban areas with large populations and intense traffic. In addition, these sites were also heavily industrialized for economic reasons related to the distance from work to home. The results of studies showed that the incidence of CVDs was higher in low- or middle-income countries (LMIC) and developing countries [ 106 ]. The increase in industrial activities, the use of fossil fuels, the use of old and obsolete technologies in the production process, and the lack of growth in mechanization have led to a significant increase in the amount of pollutants produced by these countries. In addition, the use of manpower in heavily polluted industrial environments instead of using industrial machines, the growth of marginalization and residence in industrial areas have increased levels of exposure to high concentrations of pollutants, being an important risk factor considered to cause CVDs [ 107 ].

Therefore, the explanation for this contradiction in results can be population growth, aging, and suffering from chronic diseases, such as kidney dysfunction, as well as the additive effect of several risk factors, such as high systolic blood pressure, high blood sugar, low physical activity, high body mass index (BMI), and alcohol consumption [ 70 ]. Furthermore, limited access to clinical care and a lack of advanced diagnostic methods in low- and middle-income countries led to misdiagnosis of some CVDs [ 108 ], negatively affecting patient registries and statistics published by their health systems. Most of the articles published on this topic investigated in developed countries, while only a few papers came from developing countries. Finally, climate variability, air humidity, green space per capita, as well as the rate of industrial growth and the development of the studied society were among the factors that affected air pollution levels in different countries [ 109 ], becoming an important factor in the development of CVDs.

Based on the results presented in Table  3 , the prevalence of CVDs attributed to air pollution has been investigated in a wide range of age groups. Researchers believe that the elderly are more susceptible to CVDs than other age groups due to physiological changes, smoking, sedentary lifestyle, and chronic exposure to air pollutants [ 110 , 111 ]. Studies revealed that CVD frequency increases significantly after the 60 years of age, so the factor includes at least 40% of deaths in this age group [ 112 ].

Regarding the proposed mechanisms that implicate the association of air pollution with the occurrence of CVDs, air pollution was found to alter cardiovascular physiology, including heart rate and blood pressure [ 113 ], leading to an increased risk of IHD and stroke [ 61 ]. Air pollutants, specifically PM 2.5 , can enter the bloodstream after inhalation, causing systemic inflammation in the lungs and other organs [ 114 , 115 ]. Furthermore, inhaled pollutants can activate lung sensory receptors, leading to an imbalance in the autonomic nervous system and increased catecholamine secretion [ 114 , 115 ]. These changes can also trigger thrombosis, atherosclerosis, endothelial dysfunction, vasoconstriction, and elevated blood pressure [ 116 , 117 ].

The results of the present systematic review showed that CVDs were one of the three main factors that led to hospital admissions as a result of exposure to air pollution. To date, numerous studies have explored the correlation between exposure to different levels of air pollutants and hospitalization [ 53 , 54 , 55 ]. In a time-series analysis of Xie et al. [ 48 ] investigated the relationship between short-term exposure to particulate matter (PM) and hospitalization costs of specific CVDs in China. The study concluded that exposure to PM 2.5 could significantly increase hospital admissions and total costs of lower respiratory infections (LRI), coronary heart disease (CHD), and stroke.

The results of a national study in the USA showed that long-term exposure to low levels of PM 2.5 (8.7 μg/m 3 ) can cause hospitalization of 208,113 patients with CVDs [ 53 ]. Also, Castillo et al. [ 49 ] in a case study estimated intra-urban inequalities of exposure to this pollutant using mathematical models and datasets derived from North American satellites. The results obtained by them showed that inhalation exposure to levels of 10–17.1 μg/m 3 PM 2.5 caused hospitalization of 840 patients with IHD and 89 patients with stroke [ 49 ]. The results of these studies were consistent with the findings reported in China [ 46 , 48 ] and Taiwan [ 47 ].

From the available evidence, it seems that PM was related to changes in hemodynamics and body homeostasis [ 118 ]. Exposure to PM was related to a decrease in heart rate variability and an increase in ventricular fibrillation, as well as higher plasma viscosity and heart rate acceleration, and even with myocardial infarction [ 119 , 120 , 121 ]. These effects may be clinically meaningful in patients with cardioverter defibrillators [ 122 ].

Studies have shown that exposure to inhalable pollutants can lead to increased hospital admissions and stays in the intensive care unit [ 52 , 123 , 124 ]. In a study conducted by Pothirat et al. [ 44 ], they examined the acute impact of air pollution on daily hospitalizations and mortality rates related to respiratory diseases and cardiovascular complications in Thailand. Their results suggested that various pollutants could contribute to various types of cardiovascular complications in patients. Specifically, the study revealed a correlation between O 3 content and emergency hospital visits due to HF, NO 2 content and hospital admissions due to myocardial infarction, and SO 2 content and hospitalizations due to cerebrovascular accidents (CVA) [ 44 ]. Another recent study showed that an increase of 10 μg/m 3 NO 2 resulted in a risk increase of 1.9% (RR: 1.019, 95% CI: 1.005 to 1.032) for hospital admissions for CVDs at lag 0–2 days. Specifically, the risk increased by 2.1% (1.021, 1.006 to 1.036) for hospitalization due to IHD, and by 2.1% (1.021, 1.006 to 1.035) for hospitalization due to ischemic stroke [ 55 ].

However, this study did not find any significant relationship between NO 2 and hospital admissions due to arrhythmias, HF, and hemorrhagic stroke [ 55 ]. Differences in the results of other studies might be due to the number of subjects, industrial development, and socioeconomic levels of the investigated populations.

The results of the studies included in this systematic review indicate that PM 2.5 causes a two-fold increase in DALYs associated with CVDs. The 2015 GBD study identified PM 2.5 as the cause of 4.2 million deaths and 103.1 million DALYs worldwide [ 9 ], which is consistent with the results of the study by Sang et al. [ 73 ]. Research carried out in 204 countries during the 1990–2019 period estimated that exposure to PM 2.5 led to a two-fold increase in DALYs related to stroke and IHD, with IHD, stroke, and COPD being the three main causes of death, and DALYs attributed to this pollutant [ 73 ]. Furthermore, the European Environment Agency (EEA) reported 63,100 deaths and 710,900 years of YLL attributed to PM 2.5 in Germany in 2018 [ 125 ]. Meanwhile, Lelieveld et al. [ 67 ] investigated the burden of CVDs attributed to PM 2.5 in 28 European countries and revealed 14 million YLL, which is 19.7 times more than reported in EEA statistics.

The contribution of non-renewable energy sources to PM 2.5 emission and pollution, especially in urban areas, is undeniable. According to the Lancet report (2023), Asia accounted for 77% of all deaths attributed to fuel-related particulate matter, with 1.3 million deaths. Asia, where 43% of its total energy is coal-fired, has the highest mortality rate from coal-derived PM 2.5 among other continents (11 deaths per 100,000 people) [ 12 ]. Europe, by adopting air quality control measures, saw a 5.2% reduction in the share of coal-derived energy during 2005, reducing mortality rates related to ambient PM 2.5 by 36%, 44% of this is a result of the reduction of pollution attributed to coal. However, Europe in 2020 had the highest death rates from outdoor PM 2.5 pollution (69 deaths per 100,000 people) and dirty energy sources, such as biomass and fossil fuels (38 deaths per 100,000 people) [ 12 ].

So far, many studies on a national and international scale have shown the increase in disability cases associated with CVDs in recent years. Feigin et al. [ 70 ] in their systematic analysis on the global, regional, and national burden of stroke during the years 1990–2019 revealed that exposure to levels higher than 8.8 μg/m 3 PM 2.5 caused 28.7 million DALYs worldwide [ 70 ], which was consistent with the results obtained by Sang et al. [ 73 ]. When examining the global burden of disease attributable to ambient PM 2.5 in 204 countries, Sang et al. [ 73 ] concluded that the DALY index for stroke increased from 18 million in 1990 to 35 million in 2019 (approximately a two-fold increase) [ 73 ], but on the other hand, some studies have produced contradictory results.

The study by Campos Caldeira Brant et al. [ 59 ] found that the DALY rate associated with exposure to PM 2.5 for Brazilian residents in 2019 was 336 years, reflecting a 75% decrease compared to the DALY rate in 1990. Similar results were found in the study of Rueda et al. [ 85 ] on the burden of diseases caused by PM 2.5 in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA) [ 85 ], which showed that DALY and YLL caused by IHD increased by approximately 3 and 1.2 times, respectively, during the years 1990–2010 and 2010–2017. The YLD of IHD also increased markedly by 3294.35 times from the value of 201 in 1990 to the value of 662,167 in 2010 [ 85 ]. The extensive use of fossil fuels, the development of industry and refineries, and proximity to the Great Arabian desert, which is the main source of natural PM [ 126 ], resulted in the increased disability caused by CVDs as the consequence of exposure to PM.

However, significant technological advances and the implementation of global corrective measures were able to have a positive impact on improving the health of communities in these countries by increasing the employment rate in the clean energy sector, as well as green lending by the World Bank and regional development banks. Furthermore, the significant increase in investment in the renewable energy sector in recent years has led to an important step towards achieving a reduction in fossil fuel consumption. The increase in the investment rate in 2022 was 15% compared to 2021 and 51% compared to 2015. Reduction in the usage of non-renewable fuel sources caused the decrease in exposure to air pollutants and related adverse health effects [ 127 , 128 , 129 ].

The occurrence and development of CVDs is a complex health issue influenced by several factors, including difficult to control variables, such as traffic noise, daily stress, lifestyle, and regional customs [ 130 , 131 ]. According to what was said, although the increase in PM 2.5 levels has been associated with an increase in cases of disability caused by exposure to this pollutant, the reason for the decrease in the DALY rate reported in the Brazilian [ 59 ] and Saudi Arabia [ 85 ] studies can be attributed to the aforementioned factors.

Investigation of the included studies showed that exposure to different levels of air pollutants, especially PMs, has a direct relationship with the increase in CVDs mortality. The findings of this systematic review are consistent with the results published by the WHO in 2016, which reported that 74% of global deaths (2,161,550 cases) attributed to air pollution were related to CVDs, particularly stroke and IHD [ 132 ]. In the study on the global burden of CVDs in India, air pollution was identified as the main cause of approximately one third of CVDs incidences, namely 31.1% (UI 29.0–33.4) during the years 1990–2016, resulting in a total mortality rate of 28.1% (95% UI 26.5–29.1) [ 7 ]. Furthermore, the study by Lelieveld et al. [ 67 ] showed that ambient air pollution in Europe was responsible for approximately 790,000 deaths per year (95% confidence interval [95% CI] 645,000–934,000), of which 40–80% occurred due to cardiovascular events. Furthermore, eliminating greenhouse gas emissions from fossil fuels could reduce annual death rates in Europe by 434,000 (95% CI 355,000–509,000) cases [ 67 ].

Anthropogenic activities cause emissions of man-made greenhouse gases (GHGs) such as hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), perfluorocarbons (PFCs), and sulphur hexafluoride (SF 6 ), as well as increases in natural GHGs such as carbon dioxide (CO 2 ), nitrous oxide (N 2 O), methane (CH 4 ), and water vapour. The rate and the amount of GHGs emissions in recent decades has led to the global issue of climate change and the implementation of various measures to mitigate this environmental problem. One of the most important global actions is the Paris Agreement [ 11 ], which was ratified in 2015 at the United Nations Climate Change Conference (COP21) in Paris, France by 196 countries, representing 95% of the countries responsible for anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions. The Paris Agreement priority goal is to keep the average global temperature increase below 2 ºC above preindustrial levels (the preferable limit of 1.5 ºC). This can be achieved only by significant reductions in all GHGs emissions. The success in achieving this objective depends on the reduction of industrial activities with high pollutant emissions, the use of Best Available Technologies (BATs) in the production of vehicles to reduce pollutant emissions, the encouragement of the production and usage of electric vehicles, the use of clean fuels instead of fossil ones, in combating deforestation and increasing the forest cover. The latter is considered to be a very effective solution in reducing air pollution and the related burden of diseases [ 11 ]. Furthermore, the analyzed studies indicated that the reduction in air pollution is estimated to prevent many of the current 3.3 million deaths resulting from exposure to anthropogenic PM 2.5 [ 12 ].

For example, the national cohort study from the USA with a six-year follow-up revealed that the increase of 1 μg/m 3 in the mean annual concentration of PM 2.5 was associated with an increase in the rate of cardiovascular events (hazard ratio HR, 1.02 [95% CI, 1.01–1.02]) and specific mortality (HR, 1.02 [95% CI, 1.02–1.03]) of associated CVDs [ 53 ]. These results suggest that chronic exposure to particulate matter, even at relatively low levels, has a potential positive association with CVDs and mortality, especially for chronic diseases.

Toxicological studies revealed that PM 10 and PM 2.5 can cause lung inflammation, oxidative stress, and cytotoxicity, leading to cardiovascular damage and even death [ 133 , 134 ]. Some researchers argue that exposure to PM 2.5 causes higher cytotoxicity than exposure to PM 10 [ 135 ]. Previous studies also reported a significant relationship between exposure to O 3 and cardiovascular morbidity and mortality [ 62 , 78 , 82 ]. Yin et al. [ 34 ] investigated 272 cities in southern China and found that the increase by 10 µg/m 3 in the maximum 8-h O 3 concentration led to a 0.66% (95% CI: 0.02%, 1.30%) increase in daily mortality due to hypertension in the general local population. Similar results were presented in the study by Li et al. [ 84 ] on the short-term effects of exposure to environmental NO 2 .

The increase in morbidity, disability, and death caused by CVDs attributed to air pollution imposes huge costs on governments involved in this environmental dilemma. Several studies have investigated the economic losses associated with chronic exposure to ambient air pollution [ 136 , 137 ], but only a few examined the related economic burden (Table  5 ) [ 46 , 48 , 52 , 56 ]. The results of the surveys showed that exposure to different levels of pollutants could increase health costs, reduce labor supply, and cause job losses. Short-term exposure to air pollutants was found to increase hospital admissions due to cardiorespiratory diseases, causing the government to significantly increase the costs spent on public health [ 123 , 138 , 139 ]. According to Xie et al. [ 48 ], the estimated costs associated with the most common CVDs related to short-term exposure to PM 2.5 (49.7 μg/m 3 ) were 220 million CNY (US$ 30.4 million) for LRI, 458 million CNY (US$ 63.2 million) for CHD, and 410 million CNY (US$ 56.6 million) for stroke. These numbers represented 1.45–2.05% of all hospital admission costs [ 48 ]. Workday loss related to CVDs due to exposure to air pollution calculated by Yao et al. [ 56 ] revealed that NO 2 with a concentration of 30.23 μg/m 3 caused the highest economic burden (604.02 billion CNY or US$ 83.04 billion), while SO 2 with a level of 18.14 μg/m 3 caused the lowest (195.28 billion CNY or US$ 27.9 billion). Yip et al. [ 140 ] revealed in their studies a four-fold increase in government health expenditures for health care from 2008 to 2017, which is consistent with the study of Dobkin et al. [ 141 ]. Hospital admissions can significantly increase out-of-pocket medical expenses, unpaid medical bills, reduced income, and even bankruptcy [ 141 ]. Direct costs will be much higher considering also outpatient visits.

From the available evidence, it appears that air pollution plays a very significant role in increasing the economic costs of the health system. The monetary costs of premature deaths attributed to air pollution in 2020 were estimated at 2.2 trillion US dollars, which was equivalent to 2.4% of the gross world product [ 12 ].

Although many efforts have been made to solve this global environmental issue, attempts to maintain people’s health and safety have so far been insufficient and unfair [ 142 ]. Obviously, some actions during recent years also played an important role in neutralizing the corrective measures. The demand for economic recovery after the COVID-19 pandemic crisis, the war outbreak in Ukraine in 2021, the subsequent imposition of economic sanctions and the disruption of oil and gas supplies, and extreme weather events after the El Niño phenomenon in 2023, has affected energy production and caused dramatic price increases. Unfortunately, it also caused the return to fossil fuels in many anthropogenic activities and new sources of oil and gas prospecting [ 143 , 144 ]. The increase in energy prices caused significant profits for oil and gas companies ($4 trillion in 2022 versus an average of $1.5 trillion in the previous years), resulting in a further decrease in the company’s adherence to the implementation of the Paris Agreement [ 145 , 146 , 147 ].

Furthermore, the gradual elimination of fossil fuels and the transition to clean and renewable energy have become a significant challenge due to several reasons. Among these reasons are a 10% increase in global investment in fossil fuels in 2022, direct net subsidies provided by governments, and an increase in bank lending to the fossil fuel sector by the top 55% of private banks [ 148 , 149 ]. These conditions were associated with imposing a high economic and health burden and a high death rate attributed to air pollution, especially for local populations, making countries with abundant natural renewable energy resources, such as Africa, Asia, and South and Central America, lag in the transition to clean energy. Therefore, it is crucial to achieve equality in access to clean fuel technologies, to support sustainable development, to reduce global inequalities, and as a result, to achieve global health goals.

Providing green energy transfer subsidies and increasing lending to the renewable energy sector are required and undertaken to reduce air pollution and greenhouse gases in low-HDI countries. Among these, the following efforts are vitally important to achieve the goals of reducing air pollutants and also reducing the costs imposed on the health system: Efforts to 1) improve sustainable city design and spatial management focusing on health issues; 2) reduce pollutant emissions from buildings, and increase the flexibility of communities in the face of climate risks; and 3) encourage governments to develop electric public transportation and impose strict tax laws for companies in case of violation of emission laws.

In addition, it can be very useful to take advantage of artificial intelligence-based long-term estimators and policymakers that have recently been developed to address challenging health problems [ 150 ]. The use of this tool can help to estimate future losses, determine and prioritize effective interventions and determine the most optimal conditions for applying interventions.

Our study revealed multiple strengths. First, to our knowledge, it was the first systematic review exploring the global burden of CVDs related to air pollution. Second, we conducted a systematic search without restrictions on publication date, study type, or countries under review, except for the language of the studies (only English). This approach allowed us to examine more studies, to analyze ample data, and to conclude on the air pollution in the burden of CVDs worldwide. However, since we did not have access to the full text of certain studies that met the eligibility criteria (7 studies), we are aware that it could affect the global picture of the conclusions presented in this systematic review.

Ambient air pollutants, especially PM 2.5 , are known to trigger the occurrence of CVDs. Hypertension was revealed to have the highest prevalence, while coronary heart disease was documented to have the lowest prevalence among other types of CVDs caused by air pollution. Based on the reviewed studies, CVDs were shown to be one of the three main factors that lead to hospital admissions as a result of exposure to air pollution. Furthermore, disabilities such as DALY, YLD, and YLL caused by CVDs, particularly stroke and IHD, increased significantly as a consequence of the ambition of the countries to improve the degree of industrialization. Thus, related air pollution is higher for obvious reasons in low- and middle-income and developing countries. Moreover, the consequence is not only environmental pollution itself, but also the significant number of CVD cases and deaths in the global population. In terms of economic burden, there was a lack of comprehensive research on the economic impact of CVDs due to air pollution. This indicates either an underestimation of the impact of this risk factor or a gap in research efforts. Although it is evident that CVDs linked to air pollutants impose a substantial constraint on public health, delve into this aspect could potentially offer a strategic vantage point for mitigating the burden of CVDs.

Availability of data and materials

The datasets used and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

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Department of Occupational Health Engineering, School of Health, Kashan University of Medical Sciences, Kashan, Iran

Amir Hossein Khoshakhlagh

Department of Health in Emergencies and Disasters, School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran

Mahdiyeh Mohammadzadeh

Climate Change and Health Research Center (CCHRC), Institute for Environmental Research (IER), Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran

AGH University of Krakow, Faculty of Geology, Geophysics and Environmental Protection, Department of Environmental Protection, al. A. Mickiewicza 30, 30-059, Krakow, Poland

Agnieszka Gruszecka-Kosowska

Department of Cardiology, ‘Sotiria’ General Hospital, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, School of Medicine, Athens, Greece

Evangelos Oikonomou

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M.M. and A.H. Kh. conceptualized the study and participated in the selection and data extraction. All authors participated in the interpretation of the findings. M.M. wrote the first draft. All authors participated in the scientific processes leading to the writing of the manuscript and contributed to the interpretation of the findings and the critical evaluation of the final version of the manuscript.

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Correspondence to Mahdiyeh Mohammadzadeh .

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Khoshakhlagh, A.H., Mohammadzadeh, M., Gruszecka-Kosowska, A. et al. Burden of cardiovascular disease attributed to air pollution: a systematic review. Global Health 20 , 37 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12992-024-01040-0

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Received : 27 November 2023

Accepted : 19 April 2024

Published : 03 May 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/s12992-024-01040-0

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