system approach to problem solving in management information system

• Skip to main content
• Skip to primary sidebar
• Skip to secondary sidebar
• Skip to footer

Computer Notes

• Computer Fundamental
• Computer Memory
• DBMS Tutorial
• Operating System
• Computer Networking
• C Programming
• C++ Programming
• Java Programming
• C# Programming
• SQL Tutorial
• Management Tutorial
• Computer Graphics
• Compiler Design
• Style Sheet
• JavaScript Tutorial
• Html Tutorial
• Wordpress Tutorial
• Python Tutorial
• PHP Tutorial
• JSP Tutorial
• AngularJS Tutorial
• Data Structures
• E Commerce Tutorial
• Visual Basic
• Structs2 Tutorial
• Digital Electronics
• Internet Terms
• Servlet Tutorial
• Software Engineering
• Interviews Questions
• Basic Terms
• Troubleshooting

Header Right

Systems approach to problem solving.

By Dinesh Thakur

Systems approach is widely used in problem solving in different contexts. Researchers in the field of science and technology have used it for quite some time now. Business problems can also be analyzed and solved using this approach. The following steps are required for this:

We’ll be covering the following topics in this tutorial:

Defining the Problem

This is the step when the problem has to be defined. Sometimes one may confuse the symptoms or the exhibition of a behavior to be a problem but actually it may only be a symptom of a larger malaise. It may just exhibit the behavior of a larger phenomenon. It is vital to drill deep into an issue and clearly understand the problem rather than having a superficial understanding of the problem. One must appreciate that this in the initial stage of problem solving and if the problem itself is not correctly diagnosed then the solution will obviously be wrong. Systems approach is therefore used to understand the problem in granular detail to establish requirement and objectives in-depth. By using the systems approach the problem will be analyzed in its totality with inherent elements and their interrelationships and therefore this detailed analysis will bring out the actual problem and separate out the symptom from it.

Developing Alternative Solutions

This the logical next step in the systems approaches for problem solving. In this stage alternative solutions are generated. This requires creativity and innovation. In this stage-the analyst uses creativity to come up with possible solutions to the problem. Typically in this stage only the outline of solutions are generated rather than the actual solutions.

Selecting a Solution

In this step, the solution that suits the requirement and objectives in the most comprehensive manner is selected as the ‘best’ solution. This is done after evaluating all the possible solutions and then comparing the possible set of solutions to find the most suitable solution lot of mathematical, financial and technical models is used to select the most appropriate solution.

Designing the Solution

Once the most appropriate solution is chosen, it is then made into a design document to give it the shape of an actionable solution, as in the evaluation stage, only the outline of the solution is used. At this stage the details of the solution are worked out to create the blueprint for the solution. Several design diagrams are used to prepare the design document. At this stage the requirement specifications are again compared with the solution design to double check the suitability of the solution for the problem.

Implementing the Solution

It is the next step in the process. The solution that has been designed is implemented as per the specifications -laid down in the design document. During implementation care is taken to ensure that there are no deviations from the design.

Reviewing the Solution

This is the final step in the problem solving process where the review of the impact of the solution is noted. This is a stage for finding out if the desired result has been achieved that was set out.

A Systems Approach Example

Let us assume that A is the coach of the Indian cricket team. Let us also assume that the objective that A has been entrusted with is to secure a win over the touring Australian cricket team. The coach uses a systems approach to attain this objective. He starts by gathering information about his own team.

Through systems approach he views his own Indian team as a system whose environment would include the other team in the competition, umpires, regulators, crowd and media. His system, i.e., team itself maybe conceptualized as having two subsystems, i.e., players and supporting staff for players. Each subsystem would have its own set of components/entities like the player subsystem will have openers, middle order batsmen, fast bowlers, wicket keeper, etc. The supporting staff subsystem would include bowling coach, batting coach, physiotherapist, psychologist, etc. All these entities would indeed have a bearing on the actual outcome of the game. The coach adopts a systems approach to determine the playing strategy that he will adopt to ensure that the Indian side wins. He analyses the issue in a stepwise manner as given below:

Step 1: Defining the problem-In this stage the coach tries to understand the past performance of his team and that of the other team in the competition. His objective is to defeat the competing team. He realizes that the problem he faces is that of losing the game. This is his main problem.

Step 2: Collecting data-The coach employs his supporting staff to gather data on the skills and physical condition of the players in the competing team by analyzing past performance data, viewing television footage of previous games, making psychological profiles of each player. The support staff analyses the data and comes up with the following observations:

• Both teams use an aggressive strategy during the period of power play. The competing Australian team uses the opening players to spearhead this attack. However, recently the openers have had a personal fight and are facing interpersonal problems.
• The game is being played in Mumbai and the local crowd support is estimated to be of some value amounting to around fifty runs. Also the crowd has come to watch the Indian team win. A loss here would cost the team in terms of morale.
• The umpires are neutral and are not intimidated by large crowd support but are lenient towards sledging.

Step 3: Identifying alternatives-Based on the collected data the coach generates the following alternate strategies:

• Play upon the minds of the opening players of the competitors by highlighting their personal differences using sledging alone.
• Employ defensive tactics during power play when the openers are most aggressive and not using sledging.
• Keep close in fielders who would sledge and employ the best attacking bowlers of the Indian team during the power play.

Step 4: Evaluating alternatives-After having generated different alternatives, the coach has to select only one. The first alternative may lead to loss of concentration on the part of openers and result in breakthroughs. However, there is a chance that the interpersonal differences between the two openers may have already been resolved before they come to the field and in such a case this strategy will fail. The second strategy provides a safer option in the sense that it will neutralize the aggressive game of the openers but there is limited chance of getting breakthroughs. The third option of employing aggressive close in fielders to play upon the internal personal differences of the openers and at the same time employing the best bowlers may lead to breakthroughs and may also restrict the aggressive openers.

Step 5: Selecting the best alternative-The coach selects the third alternative as it provides him with the opportunity of neutralizing the aggressive playing strategy of the openers as well as increases the chances of getting breakthrough wickets.

Step 6: Implementing and monitoring-The coach communicates his strategy to his players and support staff, instructs support staff to organize mock sessions and tactics to be employed to make the strategy a success. The players and support staff performance is monitored by the coach on a regular basis to ensure that the strategy is employed perfectly.

Simplifying a System or Applying Systems Approach For Problem Solving

The easiest way to simplify a system for better understanding is to follow a two-stage approach.

Partitioning the System into Black Boxes

This is the first stage of the simplification process, in this stage the system is partitioned into black boxes. Black boxes need limited knowledge to be constructed. To construct a black box one needs to know the input that goes into it, the output that comes out of it and its function. The knowledge of how the functionality is achieved is not required for constructing a black box. Black box partitioning helps in the comprehension of the system, as the entire system gets broken down into granular functionalities of a set of black boxes.

Organizing the Black Boxes into Hierarchies

This is the second stage of the simplification process, in this stage the black boxes constructed in the earlier phase are organized into hierarchies so that the relationships among the black boxes is easily established. Once, a hierarchy of the black boxes is established, the system becomes easier to understand as the internal working of the system becomes clearer.

You’ll also like:

• What is Systems Approach? Definition and Meaning
• Basic Concepts of the Systems Approach
• Database Approach
• Types of Systems
• Information Systems Planning

Dinesh Thakur is a Freelance Writer who helps different clients from all over the globe. Dinesh has written over 500+ blogs, 30+ eBooks, and 10000+ Posts for all types of clients.

For any type of query or something that you think is missing, please feel free to Contact us .

Basic Course

• Database System
• Management System
• Electronic Commerce

Programming

• Structured Query (SQL)
• Java Servlet

World Wide Web

• Java Script
• HTML Language
• Cascading Style Sheet
• Java Server Pages

MBA Knowledge Base

Business • Management • Technology

Home » Management Information Systems » Systems Approach to Problem Solving

Systems Approach to Problem Solving

The systems approach to problem solving used a systems orientation to define problems and opportunities and develop solutions. Studying a problem and formulating a solution involve the following interrelated activities:

• Recognize and define a problem or opportunity using systems thinking.
• Develop and evaluate alternative system solutions.
• Select the system solution that best meets your requirements.
• Design the selected system solution.
• Implement and evaluate the success of the designed system.

1. Defining Problems and Opportunities

Problems and opportunities are identified in the first step of the systems approach. A problem can be defined as a basic condition that is causing undesirable results. An opportunity is a basic condition that presents the potential for desirable results. Symptoms must be separated from problems. Symptoms are merely signals of an underlying cause or problem.

Symptom: Sales of a company’s products are declining. Problem: Sales persons are losing orders because they cannot get current information on product prices and availability. Opportunity: We could increase sales significantly if sales persons could receive instant responses to requests for price quotations and product availability.

2. Systems Thinking

Systems thinking is to try to find systems, subsystems, and components of systems in any situation your are studying. This viewpoint ensures that important factors and their interrelationships are considered. This is also known as using a systems context, or having a systemic view of a situation. I example, the business organization or business process in which a problem or opportunity arises could be viewed as a system of input, processing, output, feedback, and control components. Then to understand a problem and save it, you would determine if these basic system functions are being properly performed.

The sales function of a business can be viewed as a system. You could then ask: Is poor sales performance (output) caused by inadequate selling effort (input), out-of-date sales procedures (processing), incorrect sales information (feedback), or inadequate sales management (control)? Figure illustrates this concept.

3. Developing Alternate Solutions

There are usually several different ways to solve any problem or pursue any opportunity. Jumping immediately from problem definition to a single solution is not a good idea. It limits your options and robs you of the chance to consider the advantages and disadvantages of several alternatives. You also lose the chance to combine the best points of several alternative solutions.

Where do alternative solutions come from/ experience is good source. The solutions that have worked, or at least been considered in the past, should be considered again. Another good source of solutions is the advice of others, including the recommendations of consultants and the suggestions of expert systems. You should also use your intuition and ingenuity to come up with a number of creative solutions. These could include what you think is an ideal solution. The, more realistic alternatives that recognize the limited financial, personnel, and other resources of most organizations could be developed. Also, decision support software packages can be used to develop and manipulate financial, marketing, and other business operations. This simulation process can help you generate a variety of alternative solutions. Finally, don’t forget that “doing nothing” about a problem or opportunity is a legitimate solution, with its own advantages and disadvantages.

4. Evaluating Alternate Solutions

Once alternative solutions have been developed, they must be evaluated so that the best solution can be identified. The goal of evaluation is to determine how well each alternative solution meets your business and personal requirements. These requirements are key characteristics and capabilities that you feed are necessary for your personal or business success.

If you were the sales manager of a company, you might develop very specific requirements for solving the sales-related information problems of your salespeople. You would probably insist that any computer-based solution for your sales force be very reliable and easy to use. You might also require that any proposed solution have low start-up costs, or have minimal operating costs compared to present sales processing methods.

Then you would develop evaluation criteria and determine how well each alternative solution meets these criteria. The criteria you develop will reflect how you previously defined business and personal requirements. For example, you will probably develop criteria for such factors as start-up costs, operating costs, ease of use, and reliability. Criteria may be ranked or weighted, based on their importance in meeting your requirements.

5. Selecting the Best Solution

Once all alternative solutions have been evaluated, you can being the process of selecting the best solution. Alternative solutions can be compared to each other because they have been evaluated using the same criteria.

Alternatives with a low accuracy evaluation (an accuracy score less than 10), or a low overall evaluation (an overall score less than 70) should be rejected. Therefore, alternative B for sales data entry is rejected, and alternative A, the use of laptop computers by sales reps, is selected.

6. Desingning and Implementing Solution

Once a solution has been selected, it must be designed and implemented. You may have to depend on other business end users technical staff to help you develop design specifications and an implementation plan. Typically, design specifications might describe the detailed characteristics and capabilities of the people, hardware, software, and data resources and information system activities needed by a new system. An implementation plan specifies the resources, activities, and timing needed for proper implementation. For example, the following items might be included in the design specifications and implementation plan for a computer-based sales support system:

• Types and sources of computer hardware, and software to be acquired for the sales reps.
• Operating procedures for the new sales support system.
• Training of sales reps and other personnel.
• Conversion procedures and timetable for final implementation.

7. Post Implementation Review

The final step of the systems approach recognizes that an implemented solution can fail to solve the problem for which it was developed. The real world has a way of confounding even the most well-designed solutions. Therefore, the results of implementing a solution should be monitored and evaluated. This is called a postimple-implemented. The focus of this step is to determine if the implemented solution has indeed helped the firm and selected subsystems meet their system objectives. If not, the systems approach assumes you will cycle back to a previous step and make another attempt to find a workable solution.

Related posts:

• Operations Research approach of problem solving
• Systems Approach to Management
• How Creativity Helps in Problem Solving Process?
• Case Study on Information Systems: Cisco Systems
• The Concept of Systems
• Types of Systems
• Types of Information Systems
• Strategic Information Systems
• Business benefits of ERP systems
• Role of a Systems Analyst in Organizations

Leave a Reply Cancel reply

Your email address will not be published. Required fields are marked *

How it works

For Business

Join Mind Tools

Article • 9 min read

Soft Systems Methodology (SSM)

Understanding very complex issues.

By the Mind Tools Content Team

Some problem solving tools can oversimplify the world when, in reality, it can be complex and messy.

In cases where many different factors contribute to an issue, and there are lots of different perspectives to consider, it can be difficult to tell where the root of the problem really lies. All this confusion can make finding a solution seem impossible. What you need is a problem solving approach that gives you a clear view of what's involved, so that you can focus on what you can do to improve the situation. In situations like this, Soft Systems Methodology (SSM) might be just what you need.

How SSM Was Developed

Soft Systems Methodology grew out of general systems theory, which views everything in the world as part of an open, dynamic, and interconnected system. The various parts of this system interact with one another, often in a nonlinear way, to produce a result.

According to general systems theory, organizations consist of complex, dynamic, goal-oriented processes – and all of these work together, in a coordinated way, to produce a particular result. For example, if a company's strategy is to maximize profits by bringing new products to market quickly, then the systems within the company must all work together to achieve this goal.

When something goes wrong within the system, or any of its subsystems, you must analyze the individual parts to discover a solution. In hard sciences, you can do this in a very controlled, analytical way. However, when you add human or "soft" elements – like social interaction, corporate politics, and individual perspectives – it's a much more difficult process.

That's why Peter Checkland, a management scientist and systems professor, applied the science of systems to the process of solving messy and confusing management problems. The result was Soft Systems Methodology – a way to explore complex situations with different stakeholders; numerous goals; different viewpoints and assumptions; and complicated interactions and relationships.

SSM helps you compare the "real world" with a model of how the world could be. Through this modeling process, you can go beyond the individual perspectives that might limit your thinking – and you can recognize what's causing the problems within the system.

Because SSM deals with real-world situations, it needs to reflect real-world problems, which often have nonlinear relationships that are not well defined. As a result, SSM activities are also nonlinear and not perfectly defined. Many other problem-solving tools can be shown as flow charts with a series of clearly defined steps. But diagrams used in SSM are more like mind maps – they show relationships between activities, but they don't show a linear route through them.

Checkland warns against thinking of SSM as a step-by-step process. However, if SSM is to be useful, you need to know where to begin. In this article, therefore, we'll give you a series of steps to help you get started (you can abandon this stepwise approach when you're more familiar with the methodology). To learn more about using the SSM approach, read " Learning for Action ," by Peter Checkland and John Poulter.

"Learning for Action" by Peter Checkland and John Poulter, © John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Terms reproduced with permission.

Although it's easy to think of Soft Systems Methodology as a "problem-solving approach," Checkland encourages SSM users to avoid thinking of a "problem" that can be "solved" by a "solution." These words imply that something is well defined and straightforward. Instead, he prefers the terms problematical situation and improvements .

Here's an example: "My car won't start" is a problem that might be solved by the solution "Charge the battery." However, consider "People don't enjoy driving this new model of car." This is a problematical situation for the manufacturer, which needs to look for actions that might improve the driving experience for customers.

Step 1: Explore the Problematical Situation

Create what Checkland calls a "rich picture" of what's happening. This is, in effect, a mind map . It shows the main individuals, groups, organizations, relationships, cultures, politics, and processes involved in the situation. Also, try to identify the different perspectives, or "worldviews," that different groups have of the situation.

Then, among these individuals or groups, identify the "client" who wants an improvement in the situation, the "practitioner" who is carrying out the SSM-based investigation, and the stakeholders who would be affected by an improvement in the situation.

Your goal, here, is to include as much relevant information as possible on a large sheet of paper.

Step 2: Create Purposeful Activity Models

Identify the "purposeful activities" being carried out by people involved in the situation. These are things that they're doing, as well as the actions they're taking to improve the problematical situation. Make note of which activities belong to which worldview.

Then, create a "root definition" of each activity. This is a more sophisticated description of the basic idea, and it contains enough detail to stimulate an in-depth discussion later on.

Checkland proposes two tools for developing the root definition. The first is called PQR:

• P stands for "What?"
• Q stands for "How?"
• R stands for "Why?"

If you answer the above questions, you can complete this formula: "Do P, by doing Q, to help achieve R."

The other tool is CATWOE . Use this to further improve the root definition by thinking about the following:

• Customers – Who receives the system's output?
• Actors – Who performs the work within, or implements changes to, the system?
• Transformation – What is affected by the system, and what does it do? This is often considered the most important part of CATWOE.
• Worldview – What is the big picture?
• Owner – Who owns the process?
• Environment – What are the restrictions and limits on any solution? What else is happening around it?

Finally, develop these into purposeful activity models. Ideally, you'll have 5–7 steps to cover all of these descriptions for each purposeful activity model, although you can break down individual steps into their own root definitions and activity models.

Checkland recommends reviewing these in the light of "three E's":

• Efficacy – Ways to monitor if the transformation is, in fact, creating the intended outcome.
• Efficiency – Ways to monitor if the benefits of the transformation are greater than the cost (in time, effort, and money) of creating them.
• Effectiveness – Ways to identify if the individual transformation also contributes to higher-level or longer-term goals.

Step 3: Discuss the Problematic Situation

Discuss in detail each purposeful activity model. Your goal is to find ways to improve the problematic situation. Some of the following questions may help:

• Does each part of the model truly represent what happens in reality?
• Do the dependencies and relationships between activities in the model also exist in reality?
• Is each activity efficacious, efficient, and effective?
• Who performs each activity? Who else could do it?
• How is each activity done? How else could it be done?
• When and where is each activity done? When or where else could it be done?

Having created a list of possible improvements, you may want to create purposeful activity models for each one. Following the process for doing so helps ensure that you've considered all of the various worldviews involved, which is necessary for the improvement to have a realistic chance of being implemented.

Step 4: Define "Actions to Improve"

The group doing the SSM-based analysis of the problematical situation now has to agree on which actions it thinks will improve the situation, and the group must define those actions in enough detail to create an implementation plan.

Remember, because people have different worldviews, there won't necessarily be agreement on which actions to take to improve the situation. However, everyone involved should reach what Checkland describes as an "accommodation" or compromise, so that they agree on practical options that meet the three E's – efficacy, efficiency, and effectiveness.

Change generally involves people, processes , and things . New "things" are usually the easiest to change: you can simply buy new equipment or systems. New processes need a lot of definition, but they can also be reasonably clear and straightforward to implement. Changes to people – involving culture or attitudes – are typically much more difficult. For more on this, see our article on Change Management .

We've presented Soft Systems Methodology here as a set of steps, but experienced SSM practitioners usually perform its activities in a repeated and ongoing manner – and they're flexible with SSM ideas, rather than following a strict process.

Checkland, P. and Poulter, J. (2007). ‘ Learning for Action: A Short Definitive Account of Soft Systems Methodology, and Its Use for Practitioners, Teachers and Students,’ Hoboken: Wiley.

You've accessed 1 of your 2 free resources.

Get unlimited access

Discover more content

Achieving culture change in your organization.

The Importance of Cultural Change to the Change Management Process

Building Trust

Creating Open, Honest Relationships

Add comment

Comments (0)

Be the first to comment!

Get 30% off your first year of Mind Tools

Great teams begin with empowered leaders. Our tools and resources offer the support to let you flourish into leadership. Join today!

Sign-up to our newsletter

Subscribing to the Mind Tools newsletter will keep you up-to-date with our latest updates and newest resources.

Subscribe now

Business Skills

Personal Development

Leadership and Management

Member Extras

Most Popular

Latest Updates

Curious: The Desire to Know, and Why Your Future Depends on It

Write Right

Mind Tools Store

About Mind Tools Content

Discover something new today

How to get through work while grieving.

Coping with work while experiencing loss

Making Amends

Moving on After a Mistake

How Emotionally Intelligent Are You?

Boosting Your People Skills

Self-Assessment

What's Your Leadership Style?

Learn About the Strengths and Weaknesses of the Way You Like to Lead

Recommended for you

Managing a person with a victim mentality.

Dealing With Team Members Who Won't Take Responsibility

Business Operations and Process Management

Strategy Tools

Customer Service

Business Ethics and Values

Handling Information and Data

Project Management

Knowledge Management

Self-Development and Goal Setting

Time Management

Presentation Skills

Learning Skills

Career Skills

Communication Skills

Negotiation, Persuasion and Influence

Working With Others

Difficult Conversations

Creativity Tools

Self-Management

Work-Life Balance

Stress Management and Wellbeing

Coaching and Mentoring

Change Management

Team Management

Managing Conflict

Delegation and Empowerment

Performance Management

Leadership Skills

Developing Your Team

Talent Management

Problem Solving

Decision Making

Member Podcast

Want to create or adapt books like this? Learn more about how Pressbooks supports open publishing practices.

8 Soft systems methodology

Learning Outcomes

• Contextualise systems as a ‘Wholistic’ project management method approach.
• Compose the requirements for a Systems Lens application.
• Formulate Soft Systems Methodology frameworks.

This module will explore a systems approach to integrating all the different components within the project environment, to create a comprehensive approach to solving the problem.

Broadly speaking, a systems approach is used to create an understanding of the interrelationships between different components within the environment, the project, and the stakeholders. Through a generalisation of the different components, the project team is better able to understand the interdependent nature of the factors (Cleland 1997; Meredith and Mantel 2011; Kerzner 2017). Additionally, the systems approach allows the project team to understand the situation in its entirety, including resources, materials, market conditions, organisational needs, stakeholders and so forth. By understanding these factors, the project is better able to meet the project objectives and keep the end-state in mind throughout, to ensure that the approach is the most efficient and effective process possible.

This is a disciplined way to view the environment and identify potential solutions to problems while being open to opportunities. These opportunities can be realised through understanding that everything is related to everything else in the environment or organisation.

A system is a composition of numerous related and dependent components which, through interactions with one another, create a whole. Therefore, a system is a compilation of distinct factors or components which form a complex whole. Although this definition is general, a key element of a system is how the collection of factors or components come together to produce an outcome (INCOSE 2015). This outcome is not attainable by the individual elements – an outcome can only be created  through the interactions between and across the components and factors.

By applying a systems approach to project management, the view of the project changes from a set of tasks and activities to a combination of sub-systems which work together to make a broader system (Cleland 1997; Meredith and Mantel 2011; Kerzner 2017). The broader system’s effectiveness and performance is impacted by the corresponding performance of the sub-systems of which it is comprised. Therefore, by viewing the project management process as a system which operates as an entity comprised of sub-systems, project managers can identify areas within the project which could lead to success or failure. However, the sub-systems which comprise the project are not limited to internal factors within the organisation – external components or factors play a significant role within the systems approach.

Through a systems approach, a project manager, project team and the broader project organisation are empowered to consider the impacts of the environment when implementing changes or projects. The context surrounding the project should be established at the outset as this will provide a viewpoint of the system. This viewpoint will support decision-making throughout the project, encourage realignment of resources as needed and trigger changes in response to the environment.

Considerations

Before a project manager considers applying a systems approach (Cleland 1997; Meredith and Mantel 2011; Kerzner 2017), there are several components which need to be considered:

• How all tasks, activities, processes, and deliverables within the project depend on one another needs to be documented. However, consideration is needed to understand the properties of the individual components outside of their dependencies.
• Project goals need to be clear; each component of the project should be working towards those goals.
• Resources supporting the project should be consistent throughout. Where additional resources are required, the impacts on the outcome need to be considered. This includes impact on quality, scope, budget, and schedule.
• Uncertainty is expected within a project. Consideration is required to provide support in managing and responding to uncertainty as it arises (for example, risk and issues management processes).
• Resources should be allocated roles and responsibilities based on their skills and experience. These resources can work together as part of a sub-project team, to support the development of different deliverables. For each deliverable, a different approach may be required to manage the needs and complexities.
• Visualisation can be used to support documenting the complexities.

Through a systems approach, project managers are supported to ensure they are aiming for the project’s goals and objectives.

Let’s watch the following video by Systems Innovations which explains the primary differences between analytical methods of reasoning and systems thinking

Video [5 mins,  41 sec]   Note: Closed captions are available by selecting the CC button in the video below.

How to apply a systems approach

In addition to using traditional project management methodologies, the systems approach can be used to effectively manage a project. Based on systems theory, there are 4 primary tools and principles which can be applied from the Systems Thinking Iceberg, recreated in Figure 28.

Figure 28. Systems Thinking Iceberg, by Carmen Reaiche and Samantha Papavasiliou, licensed under CC BY (Attribution) 4.0

Based on Figure 28, below are 4 principles and tools which can be applied to projects to support the systems approach to project management (Cleland 1997; Meredith and Mantel 2011; Kerzner 2017).

•  a detailed problem statement
•  triggers, causes and side-effects
•  the reactions of the different stakeholders
•  links between problems and solutions previously attempted.
•  when it occurs (frequency)
•  who has been impacted
•  steps taken to rectify
•  interactions between the event and other factors or events
•  identifying potential causes
•  testing potential solutions.
•  environmental elements within the system
•  causes of the behavioural patterns
•  stakeholders within the system
•  underlying interactions between stakeholders, environment, and causes.
•  what supports the underlying structure
•  the values, expectations, and beliefs within the system and broader environment
•  how the problem is understood
•  the proposed solutions and how will they be implemented and analysed.

Systems approaches can be applied through a cyclical method which considers the relationships between each component of a project phase. See Figure 29 for examples.

Figure 29.  Examples of the cyclical approach that can be used to support systems approaches to project management, by Carmen Reaiche and Samantha Papavasiliou, licensed under CC BY (Attribution) 4.0

By applying the systems approach, organisations can understand the interactions between different areas, documents, and tasks and activities. By using a systems approach:

• Project managers are able to realise the need for a holistic approach to prepare, plan, and implement a project.
• The multidimensional components which have an impact on the outcomes of a project (for example, technological, financial, resources, cultural, etc.) can be documented.
• Project managers can understand how different dimensions or structural components will influence the stakeholders and their expectations, and how the market and environment can change swiftly and significantly. This is commonly in response to economic factors, ecological issues, stakeholder values, news cycles and so forth.
• The end-to-end interactions between tasks, activities, resources, stakeholders and so on, are considered and work together to reach the common goals and objectives of the broader system (or the project).

Therefore, when the systems approach is applied to a project, project managers are better able to respond to the conditions outside of their control, and create efficiencies within their projects boundaries to maximise outcomes.

Soft Systems Method

Soft Systems Methodology (SSM) is an approach which is used to create structure in complex problems and develop changes which are both feasible for and wanted by all the stakeholders. These stakeholders include internal stakeholders (employees, developers) and external stakeholders (users, clients, competitors). As a result, everyone provides different insights into and solutions to solve a problem (Checkland and Scholes 1990; Checkland 2000; Checkland and Poulter 2006).

To support the understanding of SSM, a soft system can be defined as a human activity system (HAS). This HAS is purposeful and organised in that groups of people work collectively to achieve a purpose or outcome.

SSM was designed to allow each heterogeneous group of stakeholders the opportunity to provide their insights into the problem. Each group or stakeholder can document the problem in their own way and provide their insights into feasible or desirable outcomes or solutions (Checkland 2000).

Through collaboration, a solution can be created that is agreed upon by all stakeholders. It supports quicker decision-making through consensus. The approach is used to show the links between the real world and the considerations and components documented within the systems world.

The 7 steps to SSM

There are 7 steps to SSM (see Figure 30). These steps are not necessarily carried out in linear order and some steps may not need to be completed. These steps should be used to support collaboration, decision-making and problem-solving.

Figure 30. SSM 7 steps, by Carmen Reaiche and Samantha Papavasiliou, licensed under CC BY (Attribution) 4.0

Step 1. Identify the problem situation  

This step involves gathering relevant information to understand the problem situation. There are several tools which can be used to support information gathering (Checkland and Scholes 1990; Checkland 2000; Checkland and Poulter 2006), including:

•  interviews
•  brainstorming sessions
•  historical and current data
•  news articles
•  document analysis
•  organisational structure
•  control policies
•  observation sessions.

Through the information gathered, analysis should support understanding the possible components and factors which could influence or impact the problem situation.

Let’s go through the rest of the steps using a sample organisation: Lugano. Lugano is a financial firm that offers digital services to clients. This organisation is experiencing decreased overall use of digital services and significant increases in the need for support provided by frontline employees by telephone. It is unclear what is causing this increased need for support. Information is gathered via employee and user feedback, data and document analysis. Lugano will  be used as an example in the following step.

Step 2. Describe the problem situation

From Step 1, the analyst has sufficient information to understand the problem space and document the situation through pictures or diagrams. The tool recommended in SSM is the rich picture diagram (Checkland and Scholes 1990; Checkland 2000; Checkland and Poulter 2006). This diagram outlines the problem situation using a graphical representation of the different relationships, communication mechanisms, processes, structure, people, concerns, conflict, and climate. A rich picture can incorporate images, text, symbols, and icons.

Figure 31 provides an example of part of a rich picture. This example highlights Lugano’s relationships between the digital services provided to users, and the support mechanisms in place to provide guidance when needed. The problem situation Lugano is the increased requirement for support and the decreased use of digital services. The problems highlighted in Lugano’s example include the need for skills development and training for users, accuracy and relevance of information and records provided, and access to services.

Figure 31.  Example rich picture from a digital service offering perspective, by Carmen Reaiche and Samantha Papavasiliou, licensed under CC BY (Attribution) 4.0

Step 3. Develop key definitions

Once the rich picture has been created, the next step is to determine the best way for the system to function. This process starts with creating root definitions which provide an ideal view of the key systems and structures (Checkland and Scholes 1990; Checkland 2000; Checkland and Poulter 2006). This commonly follows the CATWOE elements (Checkland and Scholes 1990; Checkland 2000; Checkland and Poulter 2006). Using the sample organisation:

Customers: Who are Lugano’s clients, and the users, stakeholders, and key players within a system?

Actors: Who are the employees within the organisation who support the transformation process?

Transformation: Which process will be transformed by Lugano, specifically considering what the output is and how the problem will be solved?

Worldview/Weltanschauung: What is the bigger picture or the environmental view of the situation, specifically the stakeholders within the environment who can influence the transformation?

Owners: Who within Lugano can make the changes or has the power to approve the start and end of the project or transformation?

Environmental constraints: What are the elements within the environment which influence Lugano and have the capacity to impact the system negatively, and how should they be managed?

CATWOE supports the creation of the root definition, which is defined as the representation of the problem situation to be addressed. Therefore, a root definition is defined as a statement which concisely and clearly describes the system of interest (or under review). It commonly starts with a single sentence that begins with ‘A system to’ followed by ‘all key elements of the system’.

Table 7. A CATWOE example using Lugano

Table 8. A root definition example using Lugano

Tables 7 and 8 provide an example of CATWOE and creating the root definition for the digital service example. This example shows the key players and the aim of the transformation within the root definition. Through this approach, the problem became clearer, and the system of interest became the digital service and surrounding environment.

When applying SSM its important to understand the transformation component correctly, especially in relation to inputs and outputs (Checkland and Scholes 1990; Checkland 2000; Checkland and Poulter 2006). This is outlined in Figure 32, which shows that Input (I) should support the transformation and lead to the Output (O). A common mistake is incorrectly identifying the system input (the entity change) with the resources required to implement the change.

Figure 32. Inputs create transformation which leads to outputs, by Carmen Reaiche and Samantha Papavasiliou, licensed under CC BY (Attribution) 4.0

Forbes and Checkland (1987) provided some definitions and rules to support the documentation of the transformation:

•  (T) transforms the Input (I) into Outputs (O).
•  The input must be present in the output; however, it will be in a different or changed state.
•  An abstract (intangible) input will create an abstract (intangible) outcome.
•  A tangible (concrete) input will create a tangible (concrete) output.

Step 4: Create conceptual models

This step requires creating a conceptual model which is used to analyse the activities which need to occur to undertake the transformation. The activities outlined should only be based on actions taken by actors (internal to the organisation). These activities need to link back to the root definition and be limited to a project group to control (Wilson 2001). All activities need to achieve the objectives of the transformation, and activities must include monitoring the transformation and providing feedback. It should consider what is meant by success, how it is measured and who will measure it.

The key activities required for the digital services example include:

• Determine what factors influence digital service use.
• Assess actions required to improve these.
• Take action.
• Measure behavioural change.
• Measure impact of change on the environment.
• Report results.
• Monitor and manage the system performance, recommend improvements.

Figure 33. Example draft of the digital services conceptual map, by Carmen Reaiche and Samantha Papavasiliou, licensed under CC BY (Attribution) 4.0

As outlined in Figure 33, there are clear operational activities which need to be taken to activate the transformation. Each activity should be monitored to ensure it is easy to follow and that there is a clear process in place. The conceptual model outlined in Figure 33 is in draft state – it shows a starting point for developing a complete model.

Within a conceptual model, Forbes and Checkland (1987) recommended:

•  having 7+/-2 activities of the same size
•  describing each activity using a verb
•  using arrows to show logical dependencies
•  numbering activities to reaffirm the dependencies.

Conceptual models are made to document HAS, which are softer models (Tavella and Hjortso 2012). This is because it is difficult for human behaviour to repeat and reproduce the same actions repeatedly with the same results. Therefore, there is an innate variability in the human activities and performances outlined within the conceptual models. These still require monitoring and controlling to support the transformation and ensure that changes are made as required. The overarching structure of a HAS is outlined in Figure 34, and this approach can be used to support improvements to the conceptual model. This calls out the operational system within the organisation’s control (operational subsystem) and the elements which occur outside of the direct control of the organisation, this being the response to the implemented change. These are tracked and monitored and as changes are required, they are implemented.

Figure 34. HAS overarching structure, by Carmen Reaiche and Samantha Papavasiliou, licensed under CC BY (Attribution) 4.0

This monitoring and controlling process should follow the 3Es: effective, efficient, efficacy (Wilson 2001; Checkland 2000). When planning, the transformation needs to consider:

•   Effective : Is the system acting in the way it should be? Does the system contribute to the broader organisational goals?
•   Efficient : Does the system use the least number of resources? Does it use the resources appropriately?
•   Efficacy : Does the system provide the expected results?

Using the 3Es, a project manager is better equipped to determine what level of monitoring and controlling is required and how it could be completed.

Another critical component of a conceptual model is the use of feedback loops (Checkland 2000; Wilson 2001). Within conceptual models, there are commonly two forms:

•  Internal feedback loop. This loop highlights how the actors (or the individual completing the work) need to alter how they work to meet the transformation.
•  External feedback loop. This loop looks at the links between the inputs and the outputs, specifically interested in how the system is performing.

Therefore, an effective project manager needs to clearly define their success measures for the transformation and ensure that they are built into the system.

Step 5. Compare conceptual models to reality

Conceptual models are developed through applying theory; however, they are not necessarily representative of reality. Therefore, Step 5 requires an understanding of how much these models reflect the real world (Checkland 2000; Wilson 2001). This requires an analysis of the gaps, to determine whether the provided solution will meet the needs. This analysis is required to understand:

•  conceptual model activities
•  the real world
•  what can be completed.

Table 9 is an example of the analysis for the digital services transformation, using 3 columns based on the above analysis questions.

Table 9. Example conceptual model vs. real world comparison (digital services example)

Step 6. Assess feasibility and define changes

Based on the results of Step 5, a feasibility assessment is required of the suggested changes (Checkland 2000; Wilson 2001). The changes are normally classified as a change in:

•  procedures and processes
•  attitudes or behaviours.

This requires an analysis of 3 primary elements: feasibility, priorities and risk analysis.

Feasibility

Feasibility requires understanding how the different activities will be undertaken. A feasibility analysis will need to consider whether something is achievable (Checkland and Scholes 1990; Checkland 2000; Checkland and Poulter 2006), based on:

•  Cultural feasibility: Will the employees or actors involved be able to complete the work?
• Technical feasibility: What is the required support or modern technology required to implement the change?
•  Dependencies: Are there links between the organisational and technological systems? What order do updates need to go in?
•  Win-Win: Do the recommended changes make it easier for the organisation, employees, and clients?

This is a vital component; the changes need to be prioritised based on what impact they will have on the desired transformation, what risks they pose and how difficult they will be to implement. This can follow Kaplan and Norton’s (1993) balanced scorecard approach – an example of factors is outlined in Figure 35.

Figure 35. Example of the balanced scorecard for the digital services example, by Carmen Reaiche and Samantha Papavasiliou, licensed under CC BY (Attribution) 4.0

According to Kaplan and Norton (1993) there are 4 primary elements within the balanced scorecard and successful organisations, projects, and transformation find a balance between each of these components.  Each component provides a different view of the organisation to operate efficiently and effectively. These components are:

• Financial perspective: outlines the different cost measures involved in the organisation, project and or change.
• Client perspective: outlines how client satisfaction, retention and market share will be measured and improved.
• Internal processes perspective: outlines what the change will cost and how it will impact the quality of the internal business processes.
• Innovative perspective: outlines measures of employee satisfaction, knowledge management, improvement rates and number or percentage of employees included in the improvement.

These 4 components or perspectives are interlinked – they do not function in isolation. Using the scorecard approach, the factors within the perspectives need to consider:

•  objectives: organisational objectives and strategies
•  measures: following the objectives, how you will measure progress
•  targets: what is the objective aiming to achieve
•  initiatives: actions taken to meet the objectives.

Risk analysis

The third tool to support feasibility assessment is the completion of a risk assessment. Risk analysis is the process which determines the likelihood and impact of a risk occurring. The assessment considers how the risk will impact the project schedule, quality, budget, and scope. The analysis technique recommended in SSM is the risk analysis matrix.

The risk analysis matrix assesses the likelihood of a risk occurring and the overall severity if it were to occur. These are classified by importance and impact. Likelihood and consequence (impact) are measured as low, medium, high, or very high (Vose 2008), as shown in Figure 36.

Figure 36. Example of a risk analysis matrix, by Carmen Reaiche and Samantha Papavasiliou, licensed under CC BY (Attribution) 4.0

Each risk should be identified, analysed, and considered as part of the feasibility assessment.

To complete the assessment, the project manager should understand the potential feasibility of the changes, the priority of each change and the level of risk associated. This should be used as a guide to help determine which changes should be implemented.

Step 7. Take action to implement proposed changes

The final step is to implement the proposed and agreed upon changes (as outlined in Step 6). The implementation should follow the required steps outlined within the conceptual model (and reality analysis). Once implemented, there is a potential for the system changes to provide new opportunities and problems that require responses. As a result, the process would need to start again.

Advantages of SSM

There are several advantages to applying SSM, including:

• provides a structure for complex problems or situations
• easy to follow steps
• rigorous testing required
• encourages multiple iterations.

Disadvantages of SSM

There are several potential disadvantages to applying SSM, including:

• requires organisational change, which can be difficult to convince stakeholders of
• solutions can be narrowed down too early
• rich pictures are challenging to create, due to their lack of structure
• actions are expected quickly; however, the process can be time consuming.

In sum, SSM provides an analysis tool and technique which outlines the different requirements for the system transformation. This module outlines the 7 primary steps required to implement the methodology. SSM is a systems approach which can be used to undertake problem-solving and analysis of complex situations. Therefore, a cycle of research, learning and reflection is recommended based on the perceptions of all the stakeholders to better provide solutions for the problem space.

Test your knowledge

Key Takeaways

• A system is composed of numerous related and dependent components which, through interactions with one another, create a whole. Therefore, a system is a compilation of distinct factors or components which form a complex whole.
• By viewing the project management process as a system which operates as an entity comprised of sub-systems, project managers can identify areas within the project which could lead to success or failure.
• Systems approaches can be applied through a cyclical approach which considers the relationships between each component of a project phase.
• SSM is used to create structure in complex problem and then develop changes which are both feasible for and wanted by all the stakeholders.

Checkland P and Poulter J (2006) Learning for action: a short definitive account of soft systems methodology and its use, for practitioners, teachers, and students , John Wiley and Sons Ltd, United States.

Checkland P (2000) ‘Soft systems methodology: a thirty year retrospective’, Systems Research and Behavioral Science , 17(S1):S11–S58.

Checkland P and Scholes J (1990), Soft systems methodology in action , vol. 7, Wiley, Chichester.

Cleland DI (1997) ‘Defining a project management system’, Project Management Quarterly , 8(4):37–40.

Forbes P and Checkland PB (1987) ‘Monitoring and control in systems models’, Internal Discussion Paper 3/87, Department of Systems, University of Lancaster.

INCOSE (2015) INCOSE systems engineering handbook: a guide for system life cycle processes and activities , 4th edn, Wiley, United States.

Kaplan RS and Norton DP (1993) ‘Putting the balance scorecard to work’, Harvard Business Review Magazine , Sep/Oct, accessed 3 August 2022. https://hbr.org/1993/09/putting-the-balanced-scorecard-to-work

Kerzner H (2017) Project management: a systems approach to planning, scheduling, and controlling , 12th edn, Wiley, United States.

Meredith JR and Mantel Jr SJ (2011) Project management: a managerial approach , John Wiley & Sons.

Tavella E and Hjortsø C (2012). ‘Enhancing the design and management of a local organic food supply chain with soft systems methodology,’ International Food and Agribusiness Management Review ,  15(2): 47–68.

Vose D (2008) Risk analysis: a quantitative guide , 3rd edn, Wiley, United States.

Wilson B (2001) Soft systems methodology conceptual model building and its contribution , Wiley, United States.

Management Methods for Complex Projects Copyright © 2022 by Carmen Reaiche and Samantha Papavasiliou is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

Hey! You are using an outdated browser. Please upgrade your browser to improve your experience.

Systems Thinking: What, Why, When, Where, and How?

I f you’re reading The Systems Thinker®, you probably have at least a general sense of the benefits of applying systems thinking in the work-place. But even if you’re intrigued by the possibility of looking at business problems in new ways, you may not know how to go about actually using these principles and tools. The following tips are designed to get you started, whether you’re trying to introduce systems thinking in your company or attempting to implement the tools in an organization that already supports this approach.

What Does Systems Thinking Involve?

Tips for beginners.

• Study the archetypes.
• Practice frequently, using newspaper articles and the day’s headlines.
• Use systems thinking both at work and at home.
• Use systems thinking to gain insight into how others may see a system differently.
• Accept the limitations of being in-experienced; it may take you a while to become skilled at using the tools. The more practice, the quicker the process!
• Recognize that systems thinking is a lifelong practice

It’s important to remember that the term “systems thinking” can mean different things to different people. The discipline of systems thinking is more than just a collection of tools and methods – it’s also an underlying philosophy. Many beginners are attracted to the tools, such as causal loop diagrams and management flight simulators, in hopes that these tools will help them deal with persistent business problems. But systems thinking is also a sensitivity to the circular nature of the world we live in; an awareness of the role of structure in creating the conditions we face; a recognition that there are powerful laws of systems operating that we are unaware of; a realization that there are consequences to our actions that we are oblivious to. Systems thinking is also a diagnostic tool. As in the medical field, effective treatment follows thorough diagnosis. In this sense, systems thinking is a disciplined approach for examining problems more completely and accurately before acting. It allows us to ask better questions before jumping to conclusions. Systems thinking often involves moving from observing events or data, to identifying patterns of behavior overtime, to surfacing the underlying structures that drive those events and patterns. By understanding and changing structures that are not serving us well (including our mental models and perceptions), we can expand the choices available to us and create more satisfying, long-term solutions to chronic problems. In general, a systems thinking perspective requires curiosity, clarity, compassion, choice, and courage. This approach includes the willingness to see a situation more fully, to recognize that we are interrelated, to acknowledge that there are often multiple interventions to a problem, and to champion interventions that may not be popular (see “The Systems Orientation: From Curiosity to Courage,”V5N9).

Why Use Systems Thinking?

Systems thinking expands the range of choices available for solving a problem by broadening our thinking and helping us articulate problems in new and different ways. At the same time, the principles of systems thinking make us aware that there are no perfect solutions; the choices we make will have an impact on other parts of the system. By anticipating the impact of each trade-off, we can minimize its severity or even use it to our own advantage. Systems thinking therefore allows us to make informed choices. Systems thinking is also valuable for telling compelling stories that describe how a system works. For example, the practice of drawing causal loop diagrams forces a team to develop shared pictures, or stories, of a situation. The tools are effective vehicles for identifying, describing, and communicating your understanding of systems, particularly in groups.

When Should We Use Systems Thinking?

Problems that are ideal for a systems thinking intervention have the following characteristics:

• The issue is important.
• The problem is chronic, not a one-time event.
• The problem is familiar and has a known history.
• People have unsuccessfully tried to solve the problem before.

Where Should We Start?

When you begin to address an issue, avoid assigning blame (which is a common place for teams to start a discussion!). Instead, focus on items that people seem to be glossing over and try to arouse the group’s curiosity about the problem under discussion. To focus the conversation, ask, “What is it about this problem that we don’t understand?”

In addition, to get the full story out, emphasize the iceberg framework. Have the group describe the problem from all three angles: events, patterns, and structure (see “The Iceberg”). Finally, we often assume that everyone has the same picture of the past or knows the same information. It’s therefore important to get different perspectives in order to make sure that all viewpoints are represented and that solutions are accepted by the people who need to implement them. When investigating a problem, involve people from various departments or functional areas; you may be surprised to learn how different their mental models are from yours.

How Do We Use Systems Thinking Tools?

Causal Loop Diagrams. First, remember that less is better. Start small and simple; add more elements to the story as necessary. Show the story in parts. The number of elements in a loop should be determined by the needs of the story and of the people using the diagram. A simple description might be enough to stimulate dialogue and provide a new way to see a problem. In other situations, you may need more loops to clarify the causal relationships you are surfacing.

THE ICEBERG

The Archetypes. When using the archetypes, or the classic stories in systems thinking, keep it simple and general. If the group wants to learn more about an individual archetype, you can then go into more detail. Don’t try to “sell” the archetypes; people will learn more if they see for themselves the parallels between the archetypes and their own problems. You can, however, try to demystify the archetypes by relating them to common experiences we all share.

How Do We Know That We’ve “Got It”?

Here’s how you can tell you’ve gotten a handle on systems thinking:

• You’re asking different kinds of questions than you asked before.
• You’re hearing “catchphrases” that raise cautionary flags. For example, you find yourself refocusing the discussion when someone says, “The problem is we need more (sales staff, revenue).”
• You’re beginning to detect the archetypes and balancing and reinforcing processes in stories you hear or read.
• You’re surfacing mental models (both your own and those of others).
• You’re recognizing the leverage points for the classic systems stories.

Once you’ve started to use systems thinking for inquiry and diagnosis, you may want to move on to more complex ways to model systems-accumulator and flow diagrams, management flight simulators, or simulation software. Or you may find that adopting a systems thinking perspective and using causal loop diagrams provide enough insights to help you tackle problems. However you proceed, systems thinking will forever change the way you think about the world and approach issues. Keep in mind the tips we’ve listed here, and you’re on your way!

Michael Goodman is principal at Innovation Associates Organizational Learning

Related Articles

Moving from blame to accountability.

When something goes wrong in an organization, the first question that is often posed is, “Whose fault is…

The “Thinking” in Systems Thinking: How Can We Make It Easier to Master?

Despite significant advances in personal computers and systems thinking software over the last decade, learning to apply systems…

What is Your Organization’s Core Theory of Success?

Managers in today’s organizations are continually confronted with new challenges and increased performance expectations. At the same time,…

Breaking the Cycle of Organizational Addiction

Every so often in the world of business, we see an enterprise that, after years of steady progress…

Sign up to stay in the loop

Receive updates of new articles and save your favorites..

• First Name *
• Last Name *
• Password * Enter Password Confirm Password

Developing and Implementing Information Systems

• First Online: 01 January 2013

Cite this chapter

• Jun Xu 3 &
• Mohammed Quaddus 4  

2603 Accesses

In this chapter, we will describe the system approach to problem solving, explain the steps of the systems development life cycle, point out the need for successful project management, change management and risk management, and compare different development approaches organisations can apply.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

• Available as PDF
• Read on any device
• Instant download
• Own it forever
• Compact, lightweight edition
• Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
• Free shipping worldwide - see info
• Durable hardcover edition

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Unable to display preview.  Download preview PDF.

Bibliography

Bloch, M., Blumberg, S. & Laartz, J. 2012, “Delivering large-scale IT projects on time, on budget, and on vlaue’, McKinsey Technology Office , October 2012, pp. 1–6.

Google Scholar  

Haag, S., Baltzan, P. & Phillips, A. 2008, Business Driven Technology , 2nd edn, McGraw-Hill Irwin, Boston, USA.

Hoffer, J.A., George, J.F. & Valacich, J.S. 2005, Modern Systems Analysis and Design , 4th edn, Prentice Hall.

Jones, J., Aguirre, D. & Calderone, M. 2004, “10 Principles of Change Management”, Strategy  +  Business , April 2004, pp. 1–5.

McKeown, P. 2000, Information Technology and the Networked Economy , Thomson Learning, Boston.

Nelson, R.R. 2007, “IT Project Management: Infamous Failures, Classic Mistakes, and Best Practices”, MIS Quarterly Executive , Vol. 6, No. 2, pp. 67–78.

O’Brien, J. A. & Marakas, G. M. 2011, Management Information Systems , 10th Edition, McGraw-Hill, New York, USA.

Pearlson, K. E. & Saunders, C. S. 2010, Managing and Using Information Systems: A Strategic Approach , Fourth Edition, John Wiley & Sons, USA.

Roberts, R. Sarrazin, H. & Sikes, J. 2010, ‘Reshaping IT management for turbulent times’, McKinsey on Business Technology , Number 21, pp. 2–9.

Wang, K. W. 2010, ‘Creating Competitive Advantage with IT Architecture’, McKinsey on Business Technology , Number 18, Winter 2010, pp. 18–21.

Download references

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

Southern Cross Business School, Southern Cross University, Brett Street, Tweed Heads, NSW, 2485, Australia

Graduate School of Business, Curtin University, Perth, Australia

Mohammed Quaddus

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Jun Xu .

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2013 ATLANTIS PRESS

About this chapter

Xu, J., Quaddus, M. (2013). Developing and Implementing Information Systems. In: Managing Information Systems. Atlantis Press, Paris. https://doi.org/10.2991/978-94-91216-89-3_4

Download citation

DOI : https://doi.org/10.2991/978-94-91216-89-3_4

Published : 29 January 2013

Publisher Name : Atlantis Press, Paris

Print ISBN : 978-94-91216-88-6

Online ISBN : 978-94-91216-89-3

eBook Packages : Business and Economics Business and Management (R0)

Share this chapter

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

• Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Societies and partnerships

• Find a journal
• Track your research

• Search Search Search …
• Search Search …

Taking a systems thinking approach to problem solving

Systems thinking is an approach that considers a situation or problem holistically and as part of an overall system which is more than the sum of its parts. Taking the big picture perspective, and looking more deeply at underpinnings, systems thinking seeks and offers long-term and fundamental solutions rather than quick fixes and surface change.

Whether in environmental science, organizational change management, or geopolitics, some problems are so large, so complicated and so enduring that it’s hard to know where to begin when seeking a solution.

A systems thinking approach might be the ideal way to tackle essentially systemic problems. Our article sets out the basic concepts and ideas.

What is systems thinking?

Systems thinking is an approach that views an issue or problem as part of a wider, dynamic system. It entails accepting the system as an entity in its own right rather than just the sum of its parts, as well as understanding how individual elements of a system influence one another.

When we consider the concepts of a car, or a human being we are using a systems thinking perspective. A car is not just a collection of nuts, bolts, panels and wheels. A human being is not simply an assembly of bones, muscles, organs and blood.

In a systems thinking approach, as well as the specific issue or problem in question, you must also look at its wider place in an overall system, the nature of relationships between that issue and other elements of the system, and the tensions and synergies that arise from the various elements and their interactions.

The history of systems thinking is itself innately complex, with roots in many important disciplines of the 20th century including biology, computing and data science. As a discipline, systems thinking is still evolving today.

How can systems thinking be applied to problem solving?

A systems thinking approach to problem solving recognizes the problem as part of a wider system and addresses the whole system in any solution rather than just the problem area.

A popular way of applying a systems thinking lens is to examine the issue from multiple perspectives, zooming out from single and visible elements to the bigger and broader picture (e.g. via considering individual events, and then the patterns, structures and mental models which give rise to them).

Systems thinking is best applied in fields where problems and solutions are both high in complexity. There are a number of characteristics that can make an issue particularly compatible with a systems thinking approach:

• The issue has high impact for many people.
• The issue is long-term or chronic rather than a one-off incident.
• There is no obvious solution or answer to the issue and previous attempts to solve it have failed.
• We have a good knowledge of the issue’s environment and history through which we can sensibly place it in a systems context.

If your problem does not have most of these characteristics, systems thinking analysis may not work well in solving it.

Areas where systems thinking is often useful include health, climate change, urban planning, transport or ecology.

What is an example of a systems thinking approach to problem solving?

A tool called the iceberg mode l can be useful in learning to examine issues from a systems thinking perspective. This model frames an issue as an iceberg floating in a wider sea, with one small section above the water and three large sections unseen below.

The very tip of the iceberg, visible above the waterline, shows discrete events or occurrences which are easily seen and understood. For example, successive failures of a political party to win national elections.

Beneath the waterline and invisible, lie deeper and longer-term trends or patterns of behavior. In our example this might be internal fighting in the political party which overshadows and obstructs its public campaigning and weakens its leadership and reputation.

Even deeper under the water we can find underlying causes and supporting structures which underpin the patterns and trends.

For our failing political party, this could mean party rules and processes which encourage internal conflict and division rather than resolving them, and put off the best potential candidates from standing for the party in elections.

The electoral system in the country may also be problematic or unfair, making the party so fearful and defensive against losing its remaining support base, that it has no energy or cash to campaign on a more positive agenda and win new voters.

Mental models

At the very base of the iceberg, deepest under the water, lie the mental models that allow the rest of the iceberg to persist in this shape. These include the assumptions, attitudes, beliefs and motivations which drive the behaviors, patterns and events seen further up in the iceberg.

In this case, this could be the belief amongst senior party figures that they’ve won in the past and can therefore win again someday by repeating old campaigns. Or a widespread attitude amongst activists in all party wings that with the right party leader, all internal problems will melt away and voter preferences will turn overnight.

When is a systems thinking approach not helpful?

If you are looking for a quick answer to a simple question, or an immediate response to a single event, then systems thinking may overcomplicate the process of solving your problem and provide you with more information than is helpful, and in slower time than you need.

For example, if a volcano erupts and the local area needs to be immediately evacuated, applying a thorough systems thinking approach to life in the vicinity of an active volcano is unlikely to result in a more efficient crisis response or save more lives. After the event, systems thinking might be more constructive when considering town rebuilding, local logistics and transport links.

In general, if a problem is short-term, narrow and/or linear, systems thinking may not be the right model of thinking to use.

A final word…

The biggest problems in the real world are rarely simple in nature and expecting a quick and simple solution to something like climate change or cancer would be naive.

If you’d like to know more about applying systems thinking in real life there are many online resources, books and courses you can access, including in specific fields (e.g. FutureLearn’s course on Understanding Systems Thinking in Healthcare ).

Whether you think of it as zooming out to the big picture while retaining a focus on the small, or looking deeper under the water at the full shape of the iceberg, systems thinking can be a powerful tool for finding solutions that recognize the interactions and interdependence of individual elements in the real world.

You may also like

Systems Thinking for School Leaders: A Comprehensive Approach to Educational Management

Systems thinking is a powerful approach that school leaders can harness to navigate the complex landscape of education. With increasing challenges, such […]

5 Ways to Apply Systems Thinking to Your Business Operations: A Strategic Guide

In today’s fast-paced business world, success depends on the ability to stay agile, resilient, and relevant. This is where systems thinking, an […]

Exploring Critical Thinking vs. Systems Thinking

There are many differences between Critical Thinking vs Systems Thinking. Critical Thinking involves examining and challenging thoughts or ideas, while Systems Thinking […]

What is Systems Thinking?

There are various approaches to solving problems that require us to analyze and interpret data. However, complex problems can require different perspectives […]

• Courses for Individuals

Understanding and Solving Complex Business Problems

Management and Leadership

Certificate Credits

- Operations

- Systems Thinking

• Participants

Course Highlights

• Discover MIT's unique, powerful, and integrative System Dynamics approach to assess problems that will not go away
• Experience the Beer Game, which simulates the supply chain of the beer industry
• Learn a new way of thinking about and resolving complex, persistent problems that emerge from change
• Earn a certificate of course completion from the MIT Sloan School of Management

Why attend Understanding and Solving Complex Business Problems?

Systems thinking was designed to improve people's ability to manage organizations comprehensively in a volatile global environment. It offers managers a framework for understanding complex situations and the dynamics those situations produce. Systems thinking is a response to the rapid changes in technology, population, and economic activity that are transforming the world, and as a way to deal with the ever-increasing complexity of today's business.

Senior managers can use systems thinking to design policies that lead their organizations to high performance. The program is intended to give participants the tools and confidence to manage organizations with full understanding and solid strategy.

Course experience

This complex problem-solving course introduces participants to MIT's unique, powerful, and integrative System Dynamics approach to assess problems that will not go away and to produce the results they want. Through exercises and simulation models, participants experience the long-term side effects and impacts of decisions and understand the ways in which performance is tied to structures and policies.

Sample Schedule—Subject to Change

This program is designed for executives with decision-making responsibility who are looking for fresh ideas to resolve organizational problems.

Past participants have included

• VPs and EVPs
• Corporate planners and strategists
• Senior Project Managers
• Product Development Managers

Request Course Information

Receive email updates related to this course, including faculty news and additional offering dates.

Review our Privacy Policy.

This program is designed to empower you to analyze complex problems in any area by using powerful yet very simple tools which are also very easy to use in real world, I enjoyed it a lot.

—Jia X.

Enroll Now!

What mit’s beer game teaches about panic hoarding, mit’s ‘beer game’ shows humans are weakest link in supply chains, the beer game, john sterman on system dynamics, how the ‘beer game’ helps retailers solve toilet paper crisis, course offerings.

• Top Courses
• Online Degrees
• Find your New Career
• Join for Free

What Is Management Information Systems (MIS)? Your Career Guide

Businesses rely on data and need control over both hardware and software systems to help them make decisions. Learn more about MIS and how to get started in this career.

Management information systems (MIS) is the study and application of information systems that organizations use for data access, management, and analytics. For MIS to be effective, you must understand and carefully map out business processes. Data must be accurate and timely, and hardware and software must be able to store and manipulate it. 

A good MIS depends on the people who design, implement, and use it. If you're considering a career in management information systems, learn about the major, the skills you need, and the various job roles. 

What is a management information system?

An MIS is a system that provides managers with the necessary information to make decisions about an organization's operations. The MIS gathers data from various sources and processes it to provide information tailored to the managers' and their staff's needs.

While businesses use different types of systems, they all share one common goal: to provide managers with the information to make better decisions. In today's fast-paced business environment, having access to accurate and timely information is critical for success. MIS allows managers to track performance indicators, identify trends, and make informed decisions about where to allocate resources.

Read more: What Is MIS (Management Information Systems)? Degree Guide

Importance of management information systems for businesses

MISs allow businesses to have access to accurate data and powerful analytical tools to identify problems and opportunities quickly and make decisions accordingly. A management information system should do the following:

Provide you with information you need to make decisions

Can give you a competitive edge by providing timely, accurate information

Can help you improve operational efficiency and productivity

Allows you to keep track of customer activity and preferences

Enables you to develop targeted marketing campaigns and improve customer service

Management information systems vs. computer science

You may notice some overlap between MIS and computer science, but the two disciplines differ in one core detail: perspective. Management information systems (MIS) is the study of how people use technology to manage information. It includes both the hardware and software used to store, process, and retrieve information. Computer science is the study of how computers work. It includes the design and implementation of computer systems.

MIS salary and job outlook

As an MIS professional, you can expect to earn a high salary. MIS professionals tend to be some of the highest-paid employees in many organizations. The median annual salary for MIS managers is $164,070, according to the US Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) [ 1 ]. It is also an in-demand field, given that the growth rate is 15 percent and much higher than the average for all jobs [ 1 ].

Are you considering starting a career in MIS? You can start risk-free by enrolling in a free online program like Information Systems Auditing, Controls and Assurance offered by the Hong Kong University of Science and Technology. In just 8 hours , you could master core concepts like information security (InfoSec) , auditing, and risk and change management.

Key skills for an MIS career

Some key skills you can expect to develop include analytical, critical thinking, and problem-solving skills. You'll also need to be able to communicate effectively with other MIS team members and others who use the system. Essential skills you'll need to develop to get to the management level include: 

Understand the role of information systems in organizations

Expertise with various information systems concepts and tools

Analyze business problems and identify potential solutions using information systems

Design, implement, and evaluate information systems solutions for business problems

An understanding of the ethical, legal, and regulatory implications of information systems

Read more: What Are Job Skills and Why Do They Matter?

You can stay current with in-demand skills and career trends by subscribing to our weekly LinkedIn newsletter, Career Chat .

Benefits of a career in management information systems

Here are some potential benefits of this career path: 

Demand for trained professionals: The market for management information systems (MIS) professionals will likely grow, driven by trends with the internet of things (IoT), data science practices, artificial intelligence, and other new and emerging technologies.

Job satisfaction: MIS professionals often report high levels of job satisfaction. The reason for such appeal includes challenging work, an opportunity to use creativity, and a chance to make a significant impact for an organization.

The opportunity for creativity and innovation: As an MIS professional, you’ll likely have the chance to be creative and innovative. You can develop new ways to use information technology to improve the efficiency and effectiveness of your organization.

The ability to make an impact: MIS professionals have the ability to make a significant impact on their organizations. Your work can help improve customer service, increase sales, and reduce costs.

5 career paths in management information systems

As a management information systems major, you could choose to pursue various professional roles. You might work as an information technology consultant, helping companies implement and use new technologies. You could also work as a project manager , overseeing the implementation of systems within an organization. Here are some general paths you could follow after an MIS major: 

*Average annual base salary is sourced from Glassdoor as of January 2023*

1. IT manager

Average annual base salary (US): $119,214

IT manager s help businesses by advising them on using information technology to achieve their goals. An IT manager will understand business and technology and bridge the gap between the two.

2. Information systems manager

Average annual base salary (US): $128,858

Information systems managers are responsible for keeping an organization’s information system technology running optimally. This includes ensuring that systems are secure, efficient, and effective. They typically oversee a team of information system professionals and make sure users have high-quality support. 

3. Business intelligence analyst

Average annual base salary (US): $85,068

Business intelligence analysts help organizations improve performance by analyzing their business processes and recommending solutions. Analysts typically have strong analytical and problem-solving skills, as well as the ability to understand the needs of different areas of the business.

4. Systems/software developer

Average annual base salary (US): $109,113  

Systems/software developers design, develop, and maintain software applications. This type of developer must be good at coding and have strong technical skills for this role. This role requires knowledge of programming languages to perform everyday tasks.

Read more: How to Become a Software Developer | 9 Tips

5. Web developer

Average annual base salary (US): $82,787

Web developers create websites and web applications to access management information systems. Having strong technical skills like programming may be helpful to being a good web developer. Web developers typically have a clear understanding of business processes to gather the functional and testing requirements for front-end systems.

Read more: What Does a Web Developer Do (and How Do I Become One)?

Start or advance your MIS career with Coursera.

If you want to find out more about a career in management information systems, consider earning a Professional Certificate or taking some beginner-friendly courses. For example, you can earn a credential for your resume and prepare for an entry-level career with the Information​ ​Systems Specialization, offered by the University of Minnesota .

Article sources

US Bureau of Labor Statistics. “ Computer and information systems managers , https://www.bls.gov/ooh/management/computer-and-information-systems-managers.htm.”  Accessed March 18, 2024.

Keep reading

Coursera staff.

Editorial Team

Coursera’s editorial team is comprised of highly experienced professional editors, writers, and fact...

This content has been made available for informational purposes only. Learners are advised to conduct additional research to ensure that courses and other credentials pursued meet their personal, professional, and financial goals.

Academics & Programs

Faculty & research, ulmer career management center, alumni & friends, news & events.

• Resources for:
• Current Students
• Staff & Faculty Resources
• Recruiters & Employers
• Press & Media

About the College of Business

The UofL College of Business enhances the intellectual and economic vitality of our city, the region, and the broader business world through our academic programs, research, and community outreach activities. We strongly believe that lives improve through entrepreneurship, innovation, critical and rigorous thinking, diverse ideas, and people.

The University of Louisville College of Business offers a wide variety of degree programs to help you accelerate your success and achieve your professional goals. Whether you’re laying a strong foundation for your business career, taking the next big step on your professional journey, or building specialized industry expertise, we’ve got you covered.

UofL College of Business faculty pride themselves on real-world experience and depth of research. They value innovation, critical thinking, and the exchange of new ideas. Our distinguished faculty will help you achieve your goals — before and after graduation.

The Ulmer Career Management Center is a state-of-the-art resource connecting local, regional, and international employers with high-potential College of Business students and alumni.

The UofL College of Business continues to succeed thanks to the commitment and resources of alumni and friends. Learn about our latest initiatives, the impact of our alumni on our mission, and how you can stay involved.

Get up-to-date on the latest news from the College of Business community.

• Staff & Faculty

Systems Thinking: How to Solve Problems So They Stay Solved

From production to customer service and marketing, organizations are made up of a series of interconnected parts. While each function may appear to operate efficiently on its own, a change in just one cog can throw the whole system out of whack. The problems that arise in interconnected organizations can be difficult to solve.

Systems thinking is problem-solving approach that examines the relationships between functions in an organization. Systems thinking is powerful because it enables you to predict the consequences of a potential change. This problem-solving method can also help you eliminate silos, see different viewpoints, and remain focused on the big picture.

Ultimately, systems thinking empowers you to solve problems so that they stay solved. Instead of offering quick-fix solutions that work only in the short term, systems thinking helps you make decisions that benefit your organization in the long run.

You will learn how to:

• Apply systems thinking in the workplace in ways that benefit you and your organization: encouraging innovation, learning from mistakes, and enhancing leadership and management skills.
• Apply the tools of systems thinking to solve a problem.
• Minimize the unintended consequences of major decisions.

Seminar Fee

$430 (includes instruction, seminar manual, refreshments, certificate of completion and parking)

Stay Notified of Upcoming Classes

Interested to learn about our other programs? Check out our other Seminars . Or sign up and we will keep you informed about future educational offerings.

• Search all Louisville
• Search College of Business

• Data Structure
• Coding Problems
• C Interview Programs
• C++ Aptitude
• Java Aptitude
• C# Aptitude
• PHP Aptitude
• Linux Aptitude
• DBMS Aptitude
• Networking Aptitude
• AI Aptitude
• MIS Executive
• Web Technologie MCQs
• CS Subjects MCQs
• Databases MCQs
• Programming MCQs
• Testing Software MCQs
• Digital Mktg Subjects MCQs
• Cloud Computing S/W MCQs
• Engineering Subjects MCQs
• Commerce MCQs
• More MCQs...
• Machine Learning/AI
• Operating System
• Computer Network
• Software Engineering
• Discrete Mathematics
• Digital Electronics
• Data Mining
• Embedded Systems
• Cryptography
• CS Fundamental
• More Tutorials...
• Tech Articles
• Code Examples
• Programmer's Calculator
• XML Sitemap Generator
• Tools & Generators

• MIS Tutorial
• MIS - Overview
• MIS - Characteristics
• MIS - Components
• MIS - Objectives
• MIS – Information Needs & Its Economics
• MIS - Classification
• MIS - Levels of Management
• MIS - Design
• MIS - Approaches of Development
• MIS - Limitations
• MIS - Implementation
• MIS - Transaction Processing System (TPS)
• MIS - Decision Support System (DSS)
• MIS - Evaluation
• MIS - Executive Information System (EIS)
• MIS - Expert System
• MIS - Office Automation Systems
• MIS - Hierarchy of Management Activity
• MIS - Concept of Systems Analysis and Design (SAD)
• MIS - Systems Development Life Cycle (SDLC)
• MIS - SDLC Waterfall Model
• MIS - SDLC Iterative Model
• MIS - Rapid Application Development (RAD) Model
• MIS - Spiral Model
• MIS - Marketing Information Systems
• MIS - Strategic Management Information System
• MIS - Characteristics of Strategic Information Management
• MIS - Strategic Information Systems (SIS) and It's Features
• MIS – System Approach
• MIS - Information System in Manufacturing
• MIS - Information System in Research and Development
• Why do management information systems (MIS) fail?
• Framework for MIS Organization and Management
• Human Resource Management Information System & It's Elements
• Financial and Accounting Management Information System
• MIS – Prototype Model
• MIS - Strategic Planning
• MIS - End-user Computing
• MIS - Software Package
• Outsourcing – System Analysis and Design
• Outsourcing: Processing, Models, Forms, Significance, Limitations
• MCQ | Management Information System (MIS) – Fundamental
• MCQ | Management Information System (MIS) – Information System
• MCQ | Management Information System Design
• MCQ | Information Systems for Decision Making in MIS
• MCQ | Strategic Management Information System in MIS
• MCQ | System Analysis and Design
• MCQ | End-user Computing in MIS
• MCQ | Rapid Application Development (RAD) in MIS | Set 1
• MCQ | Rapid Application Development Model (RAD) in MIS | Set 2
• MCQ | Software Packages in MIS
• MCQ | Software Outsourcing in MIS
• MCQ | Systems Development Life Cycle (SDLC) in MIS
• MCQ | Expert System in MIS
• MCQ | Executive Information System in MIS
• MCQ | Office Automation System in MIS
• MCQ | Decision Support System in MIS
• MCQ | Transaction Processing System in MIS
• MCQ | Information System in Manufacturing in MIS
• MCQ | Challenges in Developing Information Systems in MIS
• MCQ | Computer Aided Software Engineering in MIS
• MCQ | Information System in Financial and Accounting System in MIS
• MCQ | Iterative Model in MIS
• MCQ | Research and Development in MIS
• MCQ | Strategic Planning in MIS
• MCQ | Waterfall Model in MIS
• MCQ | Spiral Model in MIS
• MCQ | Agile Model in MIS
• MCQ | V-Model in MIS
• MCQ | Prototype Model in MIS
• MCQ | Tools for Information System in MIS

MIS Practice

• MIS Executive Interview Questions & Answers

Home » Management Information System

MIS - System Approach

MIS | System Approach: In this tutorial, we will learn about the system approach in management information system, and systems approach features. By IncludeHelp Last updated : June 01, 2023

The system approach is based on the generalization that all things are inter-related and inter-dependent with one another. A system is made up of related and dependent elements that form a unique system. A system is simply an assemblage of things to forming a single unit.

One of the most significant characteristics is that it consists of a subsystem hierarchy. These are the components that form the main device, and so on. For instance, it is possible to view the world as a system in which different national economies are sub-systems.

System Approach as Planning, Organizing and Controlling in MIS

System approach in planning.

Planning is an essential feature of management. Planning involves deciding what needs to be done, who needs to do it, when to do it, and how to do it in advance. Two phases are part of the preparation process:

• Developing the strategic.
• Formulating the steps which are necessary to accomplish the plan, timing and expense.

System Approach in Organizing

Organizing is important for managers because it leads to successful group action. It also helps to keep people working together. The following points are shows about the System Approach in Organizing -

The good structure of the organization as outlined in the policies and procedure.

• Informal organizing.
• The individual as a device
• The method of organizational contact.
• The power chain.
• The functional method.
• The system for management process.

System Approach in Controlling

Controlling is necessary because the outcome of the desire needs to be achieved. The most popular approach consists of a three-step procedure—

Setting a performance standard requires the quality of performance we need. Quantitative or qualitative maybe these parameters.

Performance assessment against this standard is important to assess performance against standards once a standard has been developed.

Deviation Control-we understand that the first comparison of the norm with real results is made to calculate the deviation.

Systems Approach Features

• A system consists of elements that interact. It is a set of interrelated and inter-dependent components organized in a way that generates a cohesive whole.
• In their inter-relationships, rather than in isolation from each other, the different subsystems should be examined.
• There is a boundary in an organizational structure that defines which parts are internal and which are external.
• In a vacuum, there is no device. It receives data, materials and energy as inputs from other systems. Inside a system, these inputs undergo a phase of transformation and exit the system as an output to other systems.
• As it is sensitive to its environment, an organization is a dynamic structure. In his climate, he is vulnerable to change.

Related Tutorials

• Spiral Model in Management Information System
• The Marketing Information Systems
• Strategic Management Information System
• Characteristics of Strategic Information Management
• Information System in Research and Development
• Strategic Planning for MIS
• End-user Computing
• Software Package

Comments and Discussions!

Load comments ↻

• Marketing MCQs
• Blockchain MCQs
• Artificial Intelligence MCQs
• Data Analytics & Visualization MCQs
• Python MCQs
• C++ Programs
• Python Programs
• Java Programs
• D.S. Programs
• Golang Programs
• C# Programs
• JavaScript Examples
• jQuery Examples
• CSS Examples
• C++ Tutorial
• Python Tutorial
• ML/AI Tutorial
• Software Engineering Tutorial
• Scala Tutorial
• Privacy policy
• Certificates
• Content Writers of the Month

Copyright © 2024 www.includehelp.com. All rights reserved.

1.2 Problem Solving: The Most Important Skill in Information Systems

An example of a problem solving that instead exploits an opportunity is a brick and mortar business, such as a furniture store, that sees an opportunity to increase sales by adding the ability to sell online. An IS professional exploits that opportunity by determining and designing the best option for selling online. Designing a solution to the opportunity facing the furniture store is considered “problem solving.”

Related to problem solving, employers have indicated the main capabilities expected of all IS graduates. 1 These include the ability to:

Improve Organizational Processes

Exploit Opportunities Created by Technology Innovations

Understand and Address Information Requirements

Identify and Evaluate Solution and Sourcing Alternatives

Design and Manage Enterprise Architecture

Secure Data and Infrastructure

Understand, Manage, and Control IT Risks

The capabilities in the list above may be somewhat unfamiliar to you right now, but recognize that the ones that have been italicized require problem-solving skills. Therefore, regardless of the IS classes that an IS graduate may take when completing a degree, over half of the capabilities employers expect of graduates involve the ability to solve problems in a technology context. For example, improving organizational processes means that an IS professional needs to first understand what is wrong with an organizational process, and then design a solution. Similarly, exploiting an opportunity means that an IS professional must understand the opportunity, then design a solution with a technology that takes advantage of the opportunity. Understanding and addressing information requirements means that an IS professional needs to understand what is wanted from stakeholders, and then meet those wants through a solution that the professional designs. Lastly, identifying and evaluating solutions and sourcing alternatives means that an IS professional first understands a problem to be solved, and then thoughtfully selects the best way to solve the problem, which will include alternatives such as either building custom software from scratch or buying existing software that other software companies have already created.

The job placement statistics for IS graduates provide further evidence of the importance of problem-solving skills. According to a 2019 job index report sponsored by AIS and Temple University, the leading job categories for graduates include the following: 2

IT Consulting

Computer Systems Analyst

Data Analytics

Software Development

Information Security

The primary responsibility of professionals working in IT Consulting and Computer Systems Analyst jobs is to solve problems for organizations using technology. Together, these two job categories represent over one-fourth of the jobs in IS. Other job roles in IS also require significant problem-solving skills, even if those skills aren't considered a primary responsibility. Consider the role of a software developer. They might think of their job as merely writing code, but in reality, they are asked to do far more than this by providing solutions to important organizational problems. For example, they may be asked to solve the business problem of not having web-based payment options for customers, or they may be asked to solve the problem of expensive and inefficient public transportation (think of Uber as a solution), or they may be asked to solve the problem of a sales team that has no means of accessing organizational data when they are away from the office (see Vignette 1.2 for an example of a problem that was solved in a university setting).

Any time a developer is required to build a solution to a problem, they first have to research it and determine what they need to do. In other words, they have to solve the problem conceptually before they can physically implement its solution. That is precisely what this book teaches IS professionals to do: solve problems conceptually before implementing them physically.

One type of organization all students are familiar with is a university, and one task they are all familiar with is registering for classes. Today, most students enjoy the relative ease of course registration. It involves an electronic list of courses available, and often it reveals the number of seats still available in a given section of a course. Adding and dropping a class can be as easy as clicking a button.

However, it wasn’t always so simple. Students used to fill out cards for classes that they wanted to register for and then have to wait in lines for each class to submit their cards. Imagine the number of headaches this caused: needing to be in a physical location to submit your card, finding out the class you wanted was full when you got to the front of the line, selecting another class, and starting the process all over again. Moving class registration online wasn’t just a technical task (e.g., programming a website); it was also a way to remove a lot of pain points for a lot of people—it was solving a problem. Just as IS professionals have solved a registration problem for universities, IS professionals today help organizations address an ever-evolving list of problems.

Want to try our built-in assessments?

• Insert Assessment
• Insert Material

We built the best EDI platform in the world. Connect once and get everything your business will ever need for EDI

Web EDI fulfillment is a quick way to send and receive EDI documents on the web.

Effortlessly generate fully compliant UCC-128 or GS1 labels for your retail partners.

Connect to all your trading partners and immediately start testing and onboarding

Try out Orderful's realtime EDI validation with your own X12 payload.

Go live with EDI partners in days and enable self-service onboarding for carrier partners

Unlock new revenue streams and provide more value for your customers by offering the fastest and most complete EDI solution

A one-time integration that allows retailers and the brands they partner with to go-live and start trading in 9 days or less

At Orderful, we’ve never cared about legacy expectations or the way things have always been done

We’re looking for passionate, driven, and curious people to drive change and continuously set the bar higher

Get connected to (or join) our expanding roster of best-in-class EDI technology, implementation, and integration partners to uplevel your trading infrastructure

Uncover industry insights and read how Orderful Strategically thinks about EDI

Find EDI thought leadership, best practices, case studies, webinars and more

What Are MIS? The Role of Management Information Systems

If you want to build a stronger business and make educated decisions, management information systems provide a valuable tool for quickly scaling your company. So, what are MIS, and why do they matter? 

We’ll explain MIS, the pros and cons, and how you can use them to organize essential information.

Defining MIS

Management information systems (MIS) are the processes organizations have in place to gather, analyze, and organize essential information. They’re used to generate valuable reports that inform decision-makers.

Technological tools play a role in understanding how a system works, but MIS also focuses on studying the people, organizations, and relationships that affect the outcomes of a process.

The objectives of MIS can be broken down into three categories:

• Data capture: Gather relevant operational information that decision-makers can use later for strategizing and planning. Data may come from internal or external sources, with multiple collection systems operating simultaneously.
• Data processing: Raw data is sorted, analyzed, and summarized to make it more useful. Some data points may be used in calculations and predictions; others may be written up and factored into assessments.
• Data storage: All data is saved in case it’s needed again in the future.It should be organized and stored intuitively.

You can also look at MIS as a breakdown of the three words that make up the initialism:

• Management: Managers are typically tasked with directing, monitoring, and coaching staff, but they also oversee the planning and organization of initiatives with significant impacts on the company, its partners, and its stakeholders.
• Information: Good data is more than information; it’s information with context and value. You should know where it comes from and have access to the unprocessed version so you (or your software) can assess the data without looking through someone else’s lens.
• System: A system is a set of interconnected entities that work together toward a common goal.

Why should you have an MIS?

Management information systems make data easier to access and understand, helping businesses  make decisions that make sense .

Think about the process you go through when you need a quick answer to a crucial question. For example, what if you need to know how many of your client accounts were more than 90 days past due? Or which products sold best during a specific time frame? MIS provides those answers as quickly and accurately as possible.

In short, MIS can help by:

• Providing real-time data: MIS tracks metrics continuously, so you know your  sales or production numbers  are current and correct.
• Automating tasks to reduce oversights and errors: MIS can automate tasks based on preset triggers (e.g., sending out a payment reminder when an invoice rolls over from due to past due).
• Facilitating teamwork: Sales, customer service, accounts receivable, and the dev team can all look at data simultaneously and discuss options together.

The role of MIS

A management information system gives leaders accurate and timely insight into individual and company performance. It provides a subjective assessment of how a business is doing.

Essentially, MIS draws a line between assuming (“It seems like the new product launch is going well”) and knowing based on data (“We’ve sold X units in the Y days since launch, which is Z% better than previous product launches”).

Essential MIS components

There are five key components of information systems management:

• People: The people who use the information system or will use it in the future are vital to every MIS.
• Data: These systems are fueled by data. Some data is gathered manually, whereas other bits of information are gathered automatically through digitized processes.
• Business procedures: Organization-specific operations determine how information will be collected, recorded, analyzed, and stored.
• Hardware: System hardware includes all the tangible equipment used to gather, store, transmit, and analyze data — computers, networking equipment, servers, and printers.
• Software: MIS rely on software programs designed to handle a constant data flow. There will likely be multiple programs in play, with programs meant for compiling data and transmitting info, all working together toward a common goal.

6 types of management information systems

There are six types of management information systems. Each serves a unique purpose using distinct data input.

1. Transaction processing systems (TPS)

Transaction processing systems perform and record tasks in a business’s daily operations. For a restaurant, this might include making and organizing reservations, paying vendors, running customer credit cards, managing payroll, and shipping out merchandise bought from the website.

2. Decision support systems (DSS)

When organizations need help with decision-making or problem-solving, they turn to a decision support system (DSS). A DSS uses data to automate decisions related to a specific problem or need.

For example, consider GPS software. The user tells the system where they need to go while avoiding tolls or stopping at a specified checkpoint. The system then analyzes the possibilities, adjusts for issues like traffic accidents or weather, and provides a route.

3. Executive information systems (EIS)

Executive information systems are expressly designed to assist upper-level leadership. EIS can gather and analyze technology reports, market reports, consultant reports, changes in government policy, and financial info to provide one master report that helps executives  manage more efficiently  and make stronger, better-informed decisions.

4. Knowledge management systems (KMS)

As the name suggests, knowledge management systems are all about finding, organizing, and sharing information. This info might be shared between employees of a company or between a company and its clients. Software giants such as Canva and HubSpot are prime examples that gather information to share with those who will benefit most.

5. Enterprise resource planning (ERP)

ERPs help companies  unify their processes and divisions under one highly functional umbrella. An ERP can help you run your entire business by automating tasks, funneling information where it needs to go, and always keeping you updated.

6. Risk management information system (RMIS)

Unsure whether a business deal is worth the risk? Risk management information systems help you evaluate variables, such as risk exposure and available protection measures. Insurance companies use RMIS to determine the risk level attached to a client or policy.

MIS pros and cons

Before you adopt a management information system, it’s wise to understand the benefits and potential drawbacks involved.

Pros of MIS

The right MIS can help you with the following endeavors:

• Increase efficiency: If you want to streamline your company’s workflows, MIS can help.
• Improve data management: File folders, whether digital or tucked into an actual cabinet, are unwieldy and hard to use. A data management system lets you gather and analyze data efficiently and effectively.
• Make fast, well-informed decisions: Forget searching through endless data to find relevant info every time you make a decision. MIS puts knowledge at your fingertips so you understand what you’re looking at as you weigh your options.
• Streamline communication: The centralized nature of an MIS encourages collaboration and communication, eliminating pesky email chains and games of telephone.
• Outthink and out-strategize the competition: MIS can help you become more competitive in your industry.

Cons of MIS

Before you invest a chunk in an MIS, consider these potential obstacles and disadvantages:

• Initial implementation costs: From purchasing hardware to training employees, an MIS’s startup cost can be surprisingly high.
• Tech pitfalls: You’ll need someone to maintain the system and help employees figure out the MIS when they’re confused.
• Security risks: Whenever you’re gathering and storing data, you must protect that data from breaches.
• Human error: Don’t get too comfortable; even a stellar MIS can’t guarantee your business will be free from human error.

Build a better business with input from Orderful

Inspired by the management information systems examples above? It’s just one capability of a robust electronic data interchange (EDI) integration. You can revolutionize your business using progressive EDI operations and MIS, especially with Orderful on hand to assist. For more information, reach out today and  speak to an expert  about our EDI solutions.

Schedule a Demo

BOOK A DEMO

Go live with new trading partners in days, not months. Orderful’s modern EDI platform standardizes integrations and streamlines testing, getting your business connected with partners 10x faster than other solutions.

Related Resources

Join us on the journey to change the way the world trades EDI

Talk to an EDI Expert today

• Accountancy
• Business Studies
• Organisational Behaviour
• Human Resource Management
• Entrepreneurship

Systems Approach to Management

• Quantitative Approach to Management
• Classical Approach to Management
• Behavioural Approach to Management
• Contingency Approach to Management
• What is a Learning Management System?
• What is a Quality Management System?
• Types of Management Styles
• Product Management A-Z (A to Z)
• What is Task Assignment Approach in Distributed System?
• What is a Library Management System ?
• Top 10 Best Content Management Systems (CMS)
• Management Information System (MIS)
• What is Project Management System?
• Security Management System
• Data Stream Management System Architecture
• Introduction to Supply Chain Management
• Use Case Diagram for Library Management System
• ER diagram of Library Management System
• Basics of management

The General Systems Theory applied to organisation and management in the 1950s, has been developed through the contributions of pioneers such as Kenneth Boulding, Ludwig Von Bertalanffy, Nisbet Wiener, E.L. Trist, F.E. Kast, R.A. Johnson, and Chester Barnard.

Table of Content

Concept of Systems Approach to Management

Features of systems approach to management, uses and limitations of systems approach to management.

The theory emphasizes that a system is not simply a collection of individual parts but rather an organized whole, where the interdependence of its parts contributes to the unique characteristics of the entire system. Every system, including organisations, is composed of interdependent subsystems, which themselves can consist of smaller subsystems. This recognition highlights the complexity and interconnectedness of organisations as open systems. Unlike closed systems, open systems interact with their external environment, relying on it for energy, information, and materials. These interactions with the external environment influence the functioning of the system. Open systems can adapt to changes in their external environment, ensuring their continued viability and survival.

Overall, the General Systems Theory applied to organisation and management views organisations as complex, open systems comprised of interdependent subsystems. It emphasizes the interconnectedness of the parts and their interactions with the external environment. This approach recognizes that organisations are not self-sufficient but rely on external inputs and adapt to changes in their environment to thrive.

Some of the features of the systems approach are:

• Interconnected Sub-systems: An organisation is like a big puzzle made up of smaller pieces that work together. These pieces, called sub-systems, interact and depend on each other for the organisation to function properly.
• No Isolation: We can’t understand the sub-systems by looking at them individually. Instead, we need to see how they relate to each other and to the organisation as a whole. It’s like understanding how each puzzle piece fits into the larger picture.
• Boundary: An organisation has a boundary that sets it apart from other systems. It helps us identify which parts are inside (like employees) and which parts are outside (like customers). This boundary defines the organisation’s scope and limits.
• Changing Environment: Organisations are dynamic systems because they are affected by their environment. They can be influenced by things, like power cuts, strikes, or shifts in customer preferences. That’s why management needs to keep an eye on what’s happening outside and make adjustments when needed.
• Sensitivity to the Environment: Because organisations are influenced by their environment, they need to be sensitive to changes. Just like we react when something unexpected happens, organisations must be responsive and adapt to external factors that may affect their operations.
• Monitoring and Taking Action: To ensure a healthy organisation, it’s crucial to constantly monitor its well-being. Management needs to pay attention to signs of problems and take corrective action promptly. It’s like regularly checking the pulse of the organisation to make sure everything is running smoothly.

Some of the uses of the Systems Approach are:

• Meaningful Analysis: The systems approach provides a helpful way to understand organisations and how they are managed. It encourages us to look at the bigger picture and consider how different parts of the organisation interact with each other.
• Integrated Thinking: Instead of focusing on individual problems in isolation, the systems approach encourages us to think about how different problems and solutions are connected. This helps us see the organisation as a whole and make more informed decisions.
• Unified Focus: The systems approach helps bring everyone in the organisation together by giving a common focus. It helps align goals, strategies, and actions across different teams and departments, making sure everyone is working towards the same objectives.
• Dynamic Nature: Organisations are always changing, and the systems approach recognizes this. It reminds us that organisations need to be adaptable and flexible to keep up with the constantly evolving business environment.
• Understanding Interactions: The systems approach highlights the importance of how different things in the organisation interact and depend on each other. It helps us see the ripple effects of changes and decisions, allowing us to make better choices.

The following are the limitations of the systems approach:

• Simplification: While the systems approach is helpful, it may oversimplify the complexity of real-life organisations. Real organisations can be much more intricate and have more nuances than what the systems approach may capture.
• Subjectivity: Applying the systems approach requires interpretation and judgment, which can vary from person to person. Different managers may see things differently, leading to potential variations in analysis and decision-making.
• Time and Resource Constraints: Using the systems approach can take time and resources. It may be challenging to gather and analyze all the necessary data, especially for larger and more complex organisations.
• Overemphasis on Interactions: While understanding interactions is crucial, focusing solely on them may overlook the unique qualities and contributions of individual elements in the organisation.
• Lack of Precision: The systems approach provides a general framework rather than specific step-by-step instructions. Its concepts are open to interpretation and can vary depending on the situation.

Please Login to comment...

Similar reads.

Improve your Coding Skills with Practice

What kind of Experience do you want to share?

• Product overview
• All features
• App integrations

CAPABILITIES

• project icon Project management
• Project views
• Custom fields
• Status updates
• goal icon Goals and reporting
• Reporting dashboards
• workflow icon Workflows and automation
• portfolio icon Resource management
• Time tracking
• my-task icon Admin and security
• Admin console
• asana-intelligence icon Asana Intelligence
• list icon Personal
• premium icon Starter
• briefcase icon Advanced
• Goal management
• Organizational planning
• Campaign management
• Creative production
• Marketing strategic planning
• Request tracking
• Resource planning
• Project intake
• View all uses arrow-right icon
• Project plans
• Team goals & objectives
• Team continuity
• Meeting agenda
• View all templates arrow-right icon
• Work management resources Discover best practices, watch webinars, get insights
• What's new Learn about the latest and greatest from Asana
• Customer stories See how the world's best organizations drive work innovation with Asana
• Help Center Get lots of tips, tricks, and advice to get the most from Asana
• Asana Academy Sign up for interactive courses and webinars to learn Asana
• Developers Learn more about building apps on the Asana platform
• Community programs Connect with and learn from Asana customers around the world
• Events Find out about upcoming events near you
• Partners Learn more about our partner programs
• Support Need help? Contact the Asana support team
• Asana for nonprofits Get more information on our nonprofit discount program, and apply.

Featured Reads

• Business strategy |
• Problem management: 8 steps to better p ...

Problem management: 8 steps to better problem solving

Problem management is an 8 step framework most commonly used by IT teams. You can use problem management to solve for repeating major incidents. By organizing and structuring your problem solving, you can more effectively get to the root cause of high-impact problems—and devise a solution. Solving the root cause prevents recurrence and creates a repeatable solution to use on similar errors in the future.

In an IT department, errors and mishaps are part of the job. You can't always control these problems, but you can control how you respond to them with problem management. Problem management helps you solve larger problems and reduce the risk that they’ll happen again by identifying all connected problems, solving them, and planning for the future.

What is problem management?

Problem management is an 8 step framework most commonly used by IT teams. Your team can use problem management to solve for repeating major incidents. By organizing and structuring your problem solving, you can more effectively get to the root cause of high-impact problems—and devise a solution. Problem management is a process—used mostly by IT teams—to identify, react, and respond to issues. It’s not for every problem, but it’s a useful response when multiple major incidents occur that cause large work interruptions. Unlike problem solving, problem management goes beyond the initial incident to discover and dissect the root causes, preventing future incidents with permanent solutions.

The goals of problem management are to:

Prevent problems before they start.

Solve for repetitive errors.

Lessen each incident’s impact. 

Problem management vs. incident management 

Example: Someone leaves their unprotected laptop in a coffee shop, causing a security breach. The security team can use incident management to solve for this one, isolated event. In this case, the team could manually shut down the accounts connected to that laptop. If this continues to happen, IT would use problem management to solve the root of this issue—perhaps installing more security features on each company laptop so that if employees lose them, no one else can access the information.

Problem management vs. problem solving

While similar in name, problem management differs slightly from problem-solving. Problem management focuses on every aspect of the incident—identifying the root cause of the problem, solving it, and prevention. Problem solving is, as the name implies, focused solely on the solution step. 

Example: You’re launching a new password management system when it crashes—again. You don’t know if anything leaked, but you know it could contain confidential information. Plus, it’s happened before. You start the problem management process to ensure it doesn’t happen again. In that process, you’ll use problem solving as a step to fix the issue. In this case, perhaps securing confidential information before you try to launch a new software.

Problem management vs. change management 

Change management targets large transitions within your workplace, good and bad. These inevitable changes aren’t always negative, so you can’t always apply problem management as a solution. That’s where change management comes in—a framework that helps you adjust to any new scenario.

Example: Your company is transitioning to a new cloud platform. The transition happens incident-free—meaning you won’t need problem management—but you can ease the transition by implementing some change management best practices. Preparing and training team members in the new software is a good place to start.

Problem management vs. project management

Project management is the framework for larger collections of work. It’s the overarching method for how you work on any project, hit goals, and get results. You can use project management to help you with problem management, but they are not the same thing. Problem management and project management work together to solve issues as part of your problem management process.

Example: During problem management, you uncover a backend security issue that needs to be addressed—employees are using storage software with outdated security measures. To solve this, you create a project and outline the tasks from start to finish. In this case, you might need to alert senior executives, get approval to remove the software, and alert employees. You create a project schedule with a defined timeline and assign the tasks to relevant teams. In this process, you identified a desired outcome—remove the unsafe software—and solved it. That’s project management.

The 8 steps of problem management

It’s easy to get upset when problems occur. In fact, it’s totally normal. But an emotional response is not always the best response when faced with new incidents. Having a reliable system—such as problem management—removes the temptation to respond emotionally. Proactive project management gives your team a framework for problem solving. It’s an iterative process —the more you use it, the more likely you are to have fewer problems, faster response times, and better outputs. 

1. Identify the problem

During problem identification, you’re looking at the present—what’s happening right now? Here, you’ll define what the incident is and its scale. Is this a small, quick-fix, or a full overhaul? Consider using problem framing to define, prioritize, and understand the obstacles involved with these more complex problems. 

2. Diagnose the cause

Use problem analysis or root cause analysis to strategically look at the cause of a problem. Follow the trail of issues all the way back to its beginnings.

To diagnose the underlying cause, you’ll want to answer:

What factors or conditions led to the incident?

Do you see related incidents? Could those be coming from the same source?

Did someone miss a step? Are processes responsible for this problem?

3. Organize and prioritize

Now it’s time to build out your framework. Use an IT project plan to organize information in a space where everyone can make and see updates in real time. The easiest way to do this is with a project management tool where you can input ‌tasks, assign deadlines, and add dependencies to ensure nothing gets missed. To better organize your process, define:

What needs to be done? 

Who’s responsible for each aspect? If no one is, can we assign someone? 

When does each piece need to be completed?

What is the final number of incidents related to this problem?

Are any of these tasks dependent on another one? Do you need to set up dependencies ?

What are your highest priorities? How do they affect our larger business goals ? 

How should you plan for this in the future?

4. Create a workaround

If the incident has stopped work or altered it, you might need to create a workaround. This is not always necessary, but temporary workarounds can keep work on track and avoid backlog while you go through the problem management steps. When these workarounds are especially effective, you can make them permanent processes.

5. Update your known error database

Every time an incident occurs, create a known error record and add it to your known error database (KEDB). Recording incidents helps you catch recurrences and logs the solution, so you know how to solve similar errors in the future. 

6. Pause for change management (if necessary)

Larger, high-impact problems might require change management. For example, if you realize the problem’s root cause is a lack of staff, you might dedicate team members to help. You can use change management to help them transition their responsibilities, see how these new roles fit in with the entire team, and determine how they will collaborate moving forward.

7. Solve the problem

This is the fun part—you get to resolve problems. At this stage, you should know exactly what you’re dealing with and the steps you need to take. But remember—with problem management, it’s not enough to solve the current problem. You’ll want to take any steps to prevent this from happening again in the future. That could mean hiring a new role to cover gaps in workflows , investing in new softwares and tools, or training staff on best practices to prevent these types of incidents.

Read: Turn your team into skilled problem solvers with these problem-solving strategies

8. Reflect on the process

The problem management process has the added benefit of recording the process in its entirety, so you can review it in the future. Once you’ve solved the problem, take the time to review each step and reflect on the lessons learned during this process. Make note of who was involved, what you needed, and any opportunities to improve your response to the next incident. After you go through the problem management process a few times and understand the basic steps, stakeholders, workload, and resources you need, create a template to make the kickoff process easier in the future.

5 benefits of problem management

Problem management helps you discover every piece of the problem—from the current scenario down to its root cause. Not only does this have an immediate positive impact on the current issue at hand, it also promotes collaboration and helps to build a better product overall. 

Here are five other ways ‌problem management can benefit your team:

Avoids repeat incidents. When you manage the entire incident from start to finish, you will address the foundational problems that caused it. This leads to fewer repeat incidents.

Boosts cross-functional collaboration. Problem management is a collaborative process. One incident might require collaboration from IT, the security team, and legal. Depending on the level of the problem, it might trickle all the way back down to the product or service team, where core changes need to be made.

Creates a better user experience. It’s simple—the fewer incidents you have, the better your customer’s experience will be. Reducing incidents means fewer delays, downtime, and frustrations for your users, and a higher rate of customer satisfaction.

Improves response time. As you develop a flow and framework with a project management process, you’ll be better equipped to handle future incidents—even if they’re different scenarios.

Organizes problem solving. Problem management provides a structured, thoughtful approach to solving problems. This reduces impulsive responses and helps you keep a better problem record of incidents and solutions.

Problem management leads to better, faster solutions

IT teams will always have to deal with incidents, but they don’t have to be bogged down by them. That’s because problem management works. Whether you employ a full problem management team or choose to apply these practices to your current IT infrastructure, problem management—especially when combined with a project management tool—saves you time and effort down the road.

With IT project plans, we’ve made it easier than ever to track your problem management work in a shared tool. Try our free IT project template to see your work come together, effortlessly.

Related resources

Write better AI prompts: A 4-sentence framework

How to find alignment on AI

What is content marketing? A complete guide

Grant management: A nonprofit’s guide

An official website of the United States government

The .gov means it’s official. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.

The site is secure. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

• Publications
• Account settings

Preview improvements coming to the PMC website in October 2024. Learn More or Try it out now .

• Advanced Search
• Journal List
• Future Healthc J
• v.5(3); 2018 Oct

A systems approach to healthcare: from thinking to ­practice

John clarkson.

A Cambridge Engineering Design Centre, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK

B Royal College of Physicians, London, UK

C Cambridge Engineering Design Centre, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK

Alexander Komashie

D Cambridge Engineering Design Centre, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK

Tom Bashford

E Division of Anaesthesia, Department of Medicine, Addenbrooke’s Hospital, Cambridge, UK.

Medicine is increasingly complex, involving a highly connected system of people, resources, processes, and institutions. Attempts to improve care involve disruptions to this system, with the potential for wide-ranging consequences, both positive and negative. Despite this, many improvement methodologies are poorly equipped to manage either complexity or risk – instead focusing on discrete interventions whose effects are narrowly monitored. Engineers have long understood that complex problems require a systems view, and that attempts to make things better can themselves introduce new risk into a system. Given this, an engineering systems approach may be of significant value to those trying to improve healthcare. Two fundamental questions emerge from such an approach: what can we do better, and what could possibly go wrong? This paper describes the evolution of a systems approach to healthcare, and explores a recently co-developed framework outlining a systems approach based upon a synergy between healthcare and engineering.

Introduction

Healthcare is the product of a complex adaptive system of people, equipment, processes, and institutions working together. Problems can arise with either deficiencies in individual system elements, or in their relationship with each other, and improving the overall function of such a system can be challenging. 1 This insight – a systems view of healthcare – reframes our understanding as to how care is delivered and can be improved.

A striking example of this is the case of Dr Hadiza Bawa-Garba, 2,3 a paediatrician convicted of gross negligence and manslaughter in 2015 , temporarily suspended from practising medicine by a medical practitioners tribunal, and later struck off by the General Medical Council (GMC). The case has raised many questions both about how we allocate blame when systems fail and how we improve them in the future to avoid catastrophe. The British Medical Journal (BMJ) responded: ‘It is tragic that a child has died. But no one is served when one doctor is blamed for the failings of an overstretched and understaffed system.’ 4

The Bawa-Garba case highlights the complexity of direct healthcare, where the actions of an individual doctor can be contextualised within a team, a ward, and a hospital all facing deficiencies. However, it also throws into relief the wider system in play – of regulatory bodies, the legal framework within which medicine is practised, the media, and prevailing cultural attitudes toward the NHS.

‘Systems that work do not just happen, they need to be planned, designed and built.’ This is the view of the Royal Academy of Engineering, 5 experts in the design of complex systems. Engineers have long understood that well designed systems can prompt individuals toward desired behaviours, and act to restrain them from undesirable ones. This understanding is reflected in much of the medical literature around improvement from fields such as quality improvement, implementation science, and operational research. However, a consolidated systems approach to healthcare improvement has been elusive.

Critics of a systems approach to healthcare might argue that it is simply a mechanism to absolve individuals where they have made mistakes or acted inappropriately, or that it is an excuse to paint improvement as too difficult to attempt. We argue instead that a systems approach should seek to answer fundamental questions about the people involved in a given situation, the wider system in which they operate, the opportunities for risk, and what can be designed to mitigate these. There will be occasions where individuals are culpable, where machines fail, or where processes are weak; the system should be designed to reduce the possible harm which results. More optimistically perhaps, robust systems offer the opportunity for increased quality and efficiency without a commensurate increase in material resources – an increasing priority for an NHS under pressure.

Background to the need for a systems approach

The idea of a systems approach is not new. The first half of the 20th century saw a growing interest in systems and their inherent complexities in several disciplines including engineering and biology. 6 Within healthcare, however, the turn of the new millennium may be seen as a watershed in the recognition of a systems approach to improvement.

The World Health Report 2000 had a primary focus on health systems. 7 This report on global health systems began to address questions around the elements of a good health system and the monitoring of system performance. In the following few years, high profile reports were published both in the USA and the UK that were to significantly challenge the status quo and justify the need for a better approach to improving the quality of the healthcare delivery systems in these countries.

In the USA, the publication of two key reports by the Institute of Medicine (IOM) – To err is human 8 and Crossing the Quality Chasm 9 – demonstrated a disparity in the state of patient safety and the concerning discrepancy between the care that was possible and that which many patients were receiving. The revelation of these challenges within the American healthcare system were enough to raise quality of healthcare to centre stage.

Similar challenges were being described in the UK over the same period. 10–12 A report into the systematic failures that led to the deaths of nearly 30 children at the Bristol Royal Infirmary (BRI) in 2001 concluded that the poor performance and errors identified at the BRI were the results of systems which were poorly performing. 13 More importantly, the report suggested that these problems were reflective of the state of the wider NHS at the time. In response to these findings the Department of Health (DoH) made far-reaching changes to the health system with a focus on standards, performance monitoring, patient-centeredness, patient and public involvement. The response also provided opportunity for design and systems engineers to contribute to the challenges through a commitment to ‘working with the Design Council to identify opportunities for design solutions to patient safety’. 14 The Design Council also establishes the RED team to bring design thinking to healthcare improvement and transformation. 15,16

This led to the first review of design and systems practice within the NHS. The review concluded that ‘the NHS is seriously out of step with modern thinking and practice with regard to design’. 17 Since then, several reports, initiatives and models have been produced but of particular relevance is Building a Better Delivery System , the report which launched the ‘New Engineering/Health Care Partnership’. 18 More than a dozen major reports had echoed the essence of this new partnership by 2010 with many describing the heightened interest in solving problems in healthcare delivery using industrial and systems engineering tools. 19 More recently, the President’s Council of Advisors on Science and Technology (PCAST) recommended that a systems engineering approach be propagated at all levels of the health care system in the USA. 20

Several other high profile reports have consistently alluded to the need for a systems approach, although often lacking guidance on how to realise this at any level of the NHS or in the USA. 17 , 21–32 Even within the academic literature, it is difficult to find a definition or presentation of a systems approach that lends itself to pragmatic improvement efforts.

Realising a systems approach in practice

In 2016, in response to the calls to adopt a systems approach to designing and delivering high-quality services in the UK, the Royal Academy of Engineering (RAEng), in collaboration with the Royal College of Physicians (RCP) and the Academy of Medical Sciences (AMS), established a cross-disciplinary Working Group to work with the health and care professions to explore how engineers can add to current understanding and practice of systems engineering in quality improvement and healthcare design.’

To an engineer, the world is full of systems. From the simple water heater to the fully integrated international airport, all systems share one key feature: their elements together produce results not obtainable by the same elements alone. A systems approach involves integrating the necessary disciplines into a team who then use a structured process to deliver a system, working from needs to requirements and from design to delivery. 33–35 A systems approach has also been described as

…a framework for seeing interrelationships rather than things, for seeing patterns rather than static snapshots – it is a set of general principles spanning fields as diverse as physical and social sciences, engineering, and management. 36

This can be depicted as a ‘V-model’ (Fig ​ (Fig1), 1 ), which illustrates the logical relationships between different activities. However, to those unfamiliar with the language of systems engineering, the nuances and value of the V-model may be difficult to appreciate.

The INCOSE (2009) V-model.

Early discussions within the RAEng Working Group reflected on the importance of people, systems, design and risk perspectives on a system, and on the realisation that particular focus on these complementary views could deliver many of the benefits of a systems approach (Table ​ (Table1 1 ).

The elements of a systems approach

These perspectives provided the framework for a series of workshops with engineers and health and care professionals to explore the relevance of each perspective to health and care improvement and to express them as a series of open questions. These were subsequently merged with a number of project management questions to form a simple spiral (Fig ​ (Fig2), 2 ), an ordered list of questions pertinent to systems improvement. The spiral illustrates that the questions are revisted at each stage of design and delivery in an iterative manner.

A spiral model of the questions that define an iterative approach to health and care improvement.

This representation, of an idealised view of a systems approach, does little to guide how it might be used in practice. The health and care professionals consulted were more used to a linear improvement process, typified as one that transforms current performance into something measurably better (Fig ​ (Fig3). 3 ). This approach is common to all improvement processes with a focus on the critical stages required for success (Table ​ (Table2 2 ).

A linear improvement process transforming current performance into a measurably better state.

The critical stages of an improvement approach

The linear (improvement) and spiral (systems) models may be combined to generate a helical model of health and care improvement (Fig ​ (Fig4). 4 ). This resonated with health and care improvement specialists, going some way toward translating the description of a systems approach into a practical implementation guide. To help further, case studies from published work were used to illustrate the potential of a systems approach in practice, reviews of improvement approaches eg the Model for Improvement, Lean etc, and key literature were undertaken. Further background to the core concepts were provided. The final report, Engineering Better Care: a systems approach to health and care design and continuous improvement, 37 provides an accessible description of a systems approach, and how it can build on current approaches to improvement in healthcare, nearly 20 years after the first call to adopt such an approach. 17

A systems-spiral improvement process. An ordered and iterative set of activities drawn from people , systems , design and risk perspectives and linked to the spiral questions, applied at each stage of the improvement process.

A healthcare–engineering synergy

The practice of healthcare can be conceived as two objectives: to provide care, and to avoid causing harm. Similarly, engineering can be considered as the practice of solving problems, while managing the risk inherent in those solutions. A shared understanding between engineering and healthcare might then be – what can we do better, and what could possibly go wrong?

In England the New Care Models programme 38 and similar work, are showing promise in a redesigning and delivering health and care systems to meet population and system needs. These have had varying approaches to design and improvement, with varying outcomes.

The value of the systems approach put forward in Engineering Better Care is that it provides a simple framework for those trying to improve care to reflect on their efforts with a new perspective. Seeking to answer the questions posed prompts reflection on both the methodologies used, and the desired outcomes. This does not need to supplant existing methods, but instead might suggest where alternative techniques could add value. The ongoing challenge is to bring this framework to bear on real problems, in partnership with those already striving to make things better.

Further work is now underway to develop a practical toolkit that transforms the systems approach into practice (Fig ​ (Fig5). 5 ). The focus here is on the definition of a range of simple but effective interventions to identify a real need, define a problem and a business case for change, develop viable solutions and deliver the preferred solution into practice.

An Engineering Better Care toolkit, facilitating a systems approach to health and care improvement.

Every day, billions of people globally use their computers or mobile devices to access the Internet. Invariably, some of those users attempt to access a website that is either slow to load or prone to crashing. One reason that the website underperformed is that too many people were trying to access the site at the same time, overwhelming the servers. However, it might also be indicative of a larger concern, including DNS misconfiguration, a lasting server failure or a malicious attack from a bad actor.

Incidents are errors or complications in IT service that need remedying. Many of these incidents are temporary challenges that require a specific remedy, but those that point to underlying or more complicated issues that require more comprehensive addressing  are called problems .

This explains the existence of both incident and problem management, two important processes for issue and error control, maintaining uptime, and ultimately, delivering a great service to customers and other stakeholders. Organizations increasingly depend on digital technologies to serve their customers and collaborate with partners. An organization’s technology stack can create new and exciting opportunities to grow its business. But an error in service can also create exponential disruptions and damage to its reputation and financial health.

Incident management  is how organizations identify, track, and resolve incidents that might disrupt normal  business processes . It is often a reactive process where an incident occurs and the organization provides an  incident response  as quickly as possible.

An increase in organizations pursuing digital transformation and other technology-driven operations makes incident management even more important given the dependence on technology to deliver solutions to customers.

Organizations’ IT services are increasingly made up of a complex system of applications, software, hardware and other technologies, all of which can be interdependent. Individual processes can break down, disrupting the service that they provide to customers, costing the business money and creating reputational issues. Organizations have embraced advanced development operations ( DevOps ) procedures to minimize incidents, but they need a resolution process for when they occur.

Every day, organizations encounter and need to manage minor and major incidents, all of which have the potential to disrupt normal business functions. Organizations need to pay attention to several types of incidents, including unplanned interruptions like system outages, network configuration issues, bugs, security incidents, data loss and more.

As technology stacks have increased in complexity, it becomes even more important to strategically manage the incident management process. To ensure that everyone in the organization knows what to do if they encounter an incident.

Incident management systems have evolved from blunt tools where employees recorded incidents that they observed (which might happen hours after occurring). To a robust, always-on practice with  automation  and self-service incident management software, enabling anyone in the organization to report an incident to the service desk.

It is important to resolve incidents immediately and prevent them from happening again. This allows organizations to uphold their service-level agreement (SLA), which may guarantee a certain amount of uptime or access to services. Failing to adhere to an SLA might put your organization at legal or reputational risk.

The incident manager is the key stakeholder of the incident management process. An incident manager is responsible for managing the response to an incident and communicating progress to key stakeholders. It is a complex IT services role that requires the employee to perform under stressful conditions while communicating with stakeholders with different roles and priorities in the business.

Problem management is intended to prevent the incident from reoccurring by addressing the root cause. It logically follows incident management, especially if that incident has occurred several times and should likely be diagnosed as a problem or known error.

Incident management without problem management only addresses symptoms and not the underlying cause (that is, the root cause), leading to a likelihood that similar incidents will occur in the future. Effective problem management identifies a permanent solution to problems, decreasing the number of incidents an organization will have to manage in the future.

A problem management team can either engage in reactive or proactive problem management, depending on what incidents they observed and what historical data they have.

There is one major difference to consider when observing incidents versus problems: short-term versus long-term goals.

Incident management is more concerned with intervening on an issue instance with the stated goal of getting that service back online without causing any additional issues. It is a short-term tool to keep the service running at that very moment.

Problem management focuses more on the long-term response, addressing any potential underlying cause as part of a larger potential issue (that is, a problem).

Organizations try to keep their IT  infrastructure  in good standing by using  IT service management (ITSM)  to govern the implementation, delivery, and management of services that meet the needs of end users. ITSM aims to minimize unscheduled downtime and ensure that every IT resource works as intended for every end user.

Issues arise regardless of how much effort organizations put into their ITSM. An organization’s ability to address and fix unforeseen issues before they turn into larger problems can be a huge competitive advantage. An IT service breaking down once is considered an incident. For example, too many people trying to access a server may cause it to crash, creating an incident that your organization needs to fix. Incident management relates to fixing that particular issue affecting your users as quickly and carefully as possible. In this case, an incident manager can contact the organization’s employees and ask them to exit programs while the organization resolves the issue.

Incident management and problem management are both governed by the  Information Technology Infrastructure Library (ITIL) , a widely adopted guidance framework for implementing and documenting both management approaches. ITIL creates the structure for responding reactively to incidents as they occur. The most up-to-date release at the time of writing is ITIL 4.

It provides a library of best practices for managing IT assets and improving IT support and service levels. ITIL processes connect IT services to business operations so that they can change when business objectives change. 

A key component of ITIL is the configuration management database (CMDB), which tracks and manages the interdependence of all software, IT components, documents, users and hardware that is required to deliver an IT service. ITIL also creates a distinction between incident management and problem management.

A constantly crashing server may represent a larger, systematic problem, like hardware failure or misconfiguration. The crashes may continue if the IT service team fails to uncover the root cause and map a solution to the underlying issue. In this case, the response may require an escalation to problem management, which is concerned with fixing repeated incidents.

Problem management provides a  root cause analysis  for the problem and a recommended solution, which identifies the required resources to prevent it from happening again.

Effective incident and problem management encompasses a structured workflow that requires real-time monitoring, automation, and dedicated workers coordinating to resolve issues as quickly as possible to avoid unnecessary downtime or business interruptions. Both forms of management feature several recurring components that organizations should know.  

Incident management

• Incident identification:  To resolve an incident, you must first observe it. Organizations increasingly automate systems to detect and send notifications when incidents occur. But many also require a human to ensure that an incident is happening, determine whether it requires intervention and confirm the correct approach. For instance, a server crash is a common incident with digital-first organizations. When the server goes offline, an automated tool or employee may identify the incident, initiating the incident management process.
• Incident reporting:  This is the formal process for cataloging an incident record that a machine or human observed. It includes incident logging, the process by which an individual or system assigns a respondent to the issue, categorizes the incident and identifies the impacted business unit and the resolution date.
• Incident resolution prioritization:  Software and IT services are often interdependent in modern organizations, so one incident can have a knock-on effect on other services. Sometimes an incident occurs as part of a larger systematic failure, which can set off a catastrophic chain of events. For example, if multiple servers crash, the business analytics team may not be unable to access the data that they need, or the company’s  knowledge workers  may not be able to log in and access the software for their jobs. Or, if a company’s API fails, the organization’s customers may be unable to access the information they need to serve their end users. In both situations, the response team must assess the entire scope of the problem and prioritize which incidents to resolve to minimize the short-term and long-term effects on the business. They can prioritize based on which incident has the greatest impact on the organization.
• Incident response and containment:  A response team—potentially aided by automated software or systems—then engages in troubleshooting the incident to minimize business interruptions. The response team usually comprises internal IT team members, external service providers and operations staff, as needed.
• Incident resolution:  This is critical for IT operations to return to normal services. Potential resolutions to an IT incident include taking the incorrectly working server offline, creating a patch, establishing a workaround, or changing the hardware.
• Incident documentation and communication:  This is a crucial step of the incident lifecycle to help avoid future incidents. Many companies create knowledge bases for their incident reports where employees can search to help them solve an incident that may have occurred in the past. In addition, new employees can learn about what incidents the company has recently faced and the solutions that are applied, so they can more readily help with the next incident. Documentation is also critical for determining whether an issue is recurring and becoming a problem, increasing the need for problem management.

Problem management  

• Problem assessment:  The organization now must determine whether the incident should be categorized as a problem record or if it is just an unrelated incident. The former means that it now becomes a part of problem management.
• Problem logging and categorization:  The IT team must now log the identified problem and track each occurrence.
• Root cause analysis:  The organization should study the underlying issues behind these problems and develop a roadmap to create a long-term solution. One way to accomplish this is by asking recursive “how” questions at each step of the way until one can identify the original problem.
• Problem-solving:  An IT team that understands the problem and its root cause can now solve the problem. It might involve a quick or protracted response depending on the severity or complexity of the problem.
• Postmortem:  A postmortem where relevant employees discuss the incident(s), root causes and response to the problem is a critical component of any transparent organization that is interested in maintaining uptime and providing customers excellent service. Postmortems provide everyone an opportunity to discuss how to improve without judging any employee or casting blame for any issue. The purpose of the postmortem is to find out what happened and to define actions to improve the organization. It can also provide insights into how the team can better respond to future incidents. It can identify whether an organization requires change management to revitalize and streamline its incident and problem management. The best ideas and best results come from postmortem meetings that are open and honest. Team culture should assure all members that this is a way to discover how the team can improve IT services and not a way to find someone to blame. Teams will quickly understand if this is an honest and supportive exercise or not.

Organizations often assess incident managers and the incident management process based on several key performance indicators (KPIs):

• Mean time to take action:  An incident requires detection, response, and repair. Organizations judge the health of their incident management service by the mean time to alert or acknowledge (MTTA) and mean time to respond and  mean time to repair (MTTR) , all of which provide a clear picture of how the organization can respond to incidents.
• Mean time between failures (MTBF):  The time between incidents for any IT service.  MTBF , which happens more frequently than expected, might signify larger problems requiring a more proactive stance.
• Uptime:  The time your services are available and working as intended. Too little uptime can put an organization at risk of violating its SLA with end users and otherwise losing business to competitors.
• Incidents and problems reported:  The number of incidents an incident manager has reported in a given time frame. Increasing incidents reported may be a sign of a larger problem.

Companies with comprehensive problem and incident management plans can quickly respond to incidents and outperform their competition. The following are some benefits:

• Increased customer satisfaction and loyalty:  Customers expect that the services and products they pay for will work whenever needed. More and more products are software (or connected to software, like smart devices). A server crashing at a company making smart doorbells means that people cannot enter their homes or apartments. A hotel booking website having a DNS error issue loses revenue that day and potentially loses a lifetime customer to a competitor. The impact of incidents and problems can weigh heavily on an organization. The ones that respond to incidents quicker and minimize downtime will earn the loyalty of customers who are likely to switch providers if they’re unhappy. A robust incident management strategy saves companies money by decreasing downtime and the likelihood of a customer or employee leaving, both of which are associated with hard costs.
• Increased employee satisfaction:  A severe IT incident affects employees as much as customers. Employees that can’t access critical business software can’t do their jobs. Their work piles up as the company tries to get things back online. They may must work overtime or during the weekend to catch up, creating stress and threatening their morale.
• Meeting SLA requirements:  Organizations detail customer expectations for their products and services in an SLA. The organization might be at risk for legal action if they fail to withhold the terms of service in their SLAs and potentially lose customers to competitors.

IBM® Turbonomic®  integrates with your existing ITOps solutions, bridges siloed teams and data, and turns manual, reactive processes into continuous application resource optimization while safely reducing cloud consumption by 33%.

IBM Cloud Pak® for AIOps , the self-hosted option for incident management, achieves proactive incident management and automated remediation to reduce customer-facing outages by up to 50% and mean time to recovery (MTTR) by up to 50%.

Get our newsletters and topic updates that deliver the latest thought leadership and insights on emerging trends.

Read the Total Economic Impact™ of IBM Turbonomic study to learn more