causes and effects of the french and indian war essay

The French and Indian War (1754-1763): Its Consequences

The surrender of Montreal on September 8, 1760, signaled an end to all major military operations between Britain in France in North America during the French and Indian War. Although the guns had fallen silent in Canada and the British colonies, it was still yet to be determined just how or when the Seven Years’ War, still raging throughout the world, would end. What resulted from this global conflict and the French and Indian War shaped the future of North America.

By 1762, the Seven Years’ War, fought in Europe, the Americas, West Africa, India, and the Philippines, had worn the opposing sides in the conflict down. The combatants (Britain, Prussia, and Hanover against France, Spain, Austria, Saxony, Sweden, and Russia) were ready for peace and a return to the status quo . Imperialist members of the British Parliament did not want to yield the territories gained during the war, but the other faction believed that it was necessary to return a number of France’s antebellum holdings in order to maintain a balance of power in Europe. This latter measure would not, however, include France’s North American territories and Spanish Florida.

On February 10, 1763, over two years after the fighting had ended in North America, hostilities officially ceased with the signing of the Treaty of Paris between Britain, France, and Spain. The fate of America’s future had been placed on a new trajectory, and as famously asserted by 19 th century historian, Francis Parkman, “half the continent had changed hands at the scratch of a pen.” France’s North American empire had vanished.

The treaty granted Britain Canada and all of France’s claims east of the Mississippi River. This did not, however, include New Orleans, which France was allowed to retain. British subjects were guaranteed free rights of navigation on the Mississippi as well. In Nova Scotia, Fortress Louisbourg remained in Britain’s hands. A colonial provincial expeditionary force had captured the stronghold in 1745 during King George’s War, and much to their chagrin, it was returned to the French as a provision of the Treaty of Aix-la-Chappelle (1748). That would not be the case this time around. In the Caribbean, the islands of Saint Vincent, Dominica, Tobago, Grenada, and the Grenadines would remain in British hands. Another bug acquisition for His Majesty’s North American empire came from Spain in the form of Florida. In return, Havana was given back to the Spanish. This gave Britain total control of the Atlantic Seaboard from Newfoundland all the way down to the Mississippi Delta.

The loss of Canada, economically, did not greatly harm France. It had proved to be a money hole that cost the country more to maintain than it actually returned in profit. The sugar islands in the West Indies were much more lucrative, and to France’s pleasure, Britain returned Martinique and Guadeloupe. Although His Most Christian Majesty’s influence in North America had receded, France did retain a tiny foothold in Newfoundland for fishing. Britain allowed the French to keep its rights to cod in the Grand Banks, as well as the islands of Saint Pierre and Miquelon off the southern coast.

The inhabitants of the British colonies in North America were jubilant upon hearing the results of the Treaty of Paris. For nearly a century they had lived in fear of the French colonists and their Native American allies to the north and west. Now France’s influence on the continent had been expelled and they could hope to live out their lives in peace and autonomously without relying on Britain’s protection.

The consequences of the French and Indian War would do more to drive a wedge in between Britain and her colonists more so than any other event up to that point in history. During the Seven Years’ War, Britain’s national debt nearly doubled, and the colonies would shoulder a good portion of the burden of paying it off.  In the years that followed, taxes were imposed on necessities that the colonists considered part of everyday life—tea, molasses, paper products, etc.... Though proud Englishmen, the colonists viewed themselves as partners in the British Empire, not subjects . King George III did not see it this way. These measures were met with various degrees of opposition and served as the kindling that would eventually contribute to igniting the fires of revolution.

That tinder that would eventually be lit the following decade also came in the form of the land west of the Appalachian Mountains, which had been heavily fought over during the war. As British traders moved westward over the mountains, disputes erupted between them and the Native Americans (previously allied with French) who inhabited the region. Overpriced goods did not appeal to the Native Americans, and almost immediately tensions arose. For many in the British military and the colonies, this land had been conquered and rested within His Majesty’s dominion. Therefore, the territory west of the Appalachians was not viewed as shared or Native land—it was rightfully open for British trade and settlement. The Native Americans did not respond accordingly.

What transpired next has gone down in history as Pontiac’s Rebellion (1763-1764) and involved members of the Seneca, Ottawa, Huron, Delaware, and Miami tribes. The various uprisings and uncoordinated attacks against British forts, outposts, and settlements in the Ohio River Valley and

along the Great Lakes that occurred, ravaged the frontier. Although a handful of forts fell, two key strongholds, Forts Detroit and Pitt, did not capitulate. In an attempt to quell the rebellion against British authority, the Proclamation of 1763 was issued. The French settlements north of New York and New England were consolidated into the colony of Quebec, and Florida was divided into two separate colonies. Any land that did not fall within the boundaries of these colonies, which would be governed by English Law, was granted to the Native Americans. Pontiac’s Rebellion eventually came to an end.

The Royal Proclamation of 1763 further alienated the British colonists. Many sought to settle the west, and even Pennsylvania and Virginia had already claimed lands in the region. The proclamation prohibited the colonies from further issuing any grants. Only representatives of the Crown could negotiate land purchases with the Native Americans. Just as France had boxed the colonies into a stretch along the east coast, now George III was doing the same.

The French and Indian War had initially been a major success for the thirteen colonies, but its consequences soured the victory. Taxes imposed to pay for a massive national debt, a constant struggle with Native Americans over borders and territories, and the prohibition of expansion to the west fueled an ever-increasing “American” identity. As the years following the French and Indian War drug on, the colonists—already 3,000 miles away from Britain—grew further and further apart from the mother country.      

Further Reading:

• Crucible of War: The Seven Years' War and the Fate of Empire in British North America, 1754 - 1766 : Fred Anderson
• Bloody Mohawk: The French and Indian War & American Revolution on New York's Frontier : Richard J. Berleth
• The French and Indian War: Deciding the Fate of North America : Walter R. Borneman
• The Long Fuse: How England Lost the American Colonies 1760-1785 : Don Cook
• A Few Acres Of Snow: The Saga Of The French And Indian Wars : Robert Leckie
• Braddock's Defeat: The Battle of the Monongahela and the Road to Revolution : David Preston

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A Clash of Empires: The French and Indian War

Written by: Timothy J. Shannon, Gettysburg College

By the end of this section, you will:.

• Explain the causes and effects of the Seven Years’ War (the French and Indian War)

Suggested Sequencing

Prior to reading this Narrative, students should read the Albany Plan of Union Narrative. This Narrative should be followed by the Wolfe at Quebec and the Peace of 1763 Narrative.

The French and Indian War was the climactic struggle between Great Britain and France for imperial control of North America. The war began in 1754, when a young Virginia militia officer named George Washington engaged in a skirmish with a party of French soldiers, and it ended six years later when the governor-general of New France surrendered to a British army at Montreal. The conflict was part of a much larger global struggle known as the Seven Years’ War that began in 1756 and ended in 1763 among Britain, France, and several other European nations. Although the French and Indian War was only one of several Anglo-French conflicts in North America, it was exceptional for its scale and its influence on the lives of American Indians and colonists.

Unlike many earlier Anglo-French wars, the French and Indian War originated in North America, in a remote region known as the Ohio country. In the early 1750s, this land became the center of a three-way contest among American Indians, the French, and the British. A loose confederacy of Indian nations dominated by the Delawares, Shawnees, and Senecas populated the Ohio country after migrating from other regions taken over by colonists. There they found a new homeland rich with natural resources, especially the animals that supplied the fur trade. British and French traders competed with each other for this business. The Indians generally preferred British trade goods, which were cheaper and more plentiful, but they had better relations with the French because of New France’s effective missionary work and diplomacy among Indian nations living along the Great Lakes. Regardless of their preference for the French or British, the Ohio Indians shared a common desire to keep European soldiers and settlers out of their territory.

Tensions in the Ohio country heated up in 1753, when the French sent troops to fortify the passage from Lake Erie to the Ohio River. This move was intended to cement the French claim to the region and to open a route through the interior of the continent that would connect the French colonies in Canada and Louisiana. Virginia and Pennsylvania had their own designs on the Ohio country. Fur traders from both colonies were active there, and both claimed the Ohio country by right of their original royal charters. Pennsylvania, which lacked a militia because of its Quaker origins, was slow to mobilize against the French, but Virginia acted more forcefully. Its governor, Robert Dinwiddie, was an investor in the Ohio Company, a group of entrepreneurs who hoped to profit by opening western lands to settlers. When he learned that the French were occupying the Ohio country, he sent twenty-one-year-old militia officer George Washington to drive them out.

In his first mission to the Ohio country in 1753, Washington delivered a diplomatic warning to the French, telling them they were encroaching on British territory. The French officers he met politely rebuffed him, and he was disturbed by the efforts he witnessed among the French to win over the Ohio Indians, including his own guide, an influential Seneca named Tanaghrisson. In spring 1754, Governor Dinwiddie sent Washington back to the Ohio country, this time with an army of two hundred militiamen and orders to defend Virginia’s claim to the Forks of the Ohio (modern Pittsburgh). For a guide, Washington again relied on Tanaghrisson, who led him to a party of French soldiers near the British encampment.

In an ill-advised surprise dawn attack, Washington and his men killed several French soldiers and wounded their commander, Ensign Joseph Coulon de Jumonville. Washington believed he had prevented a French attack on his own men, but Jumonville insisted he had only been on a diplomatic mission, carrying a message from his commander at the French post Fort Duquesne. His protests were cut short when Tanaghrisson stepped forward and killed him with a tomahawk blow to his skull, a move likely intended to force the British into a more aggressive stance against the French.

After Jumonville’s death, a shaken Washington had his men build a stockade that he named Fort Necessity, in anticipation of a counterattack from Fort Duquesne. A superior force of French soldiers and Indian warriors soon surrounded the outnumbered and inexperienced Americans. The French and Indians fired on the garrison from covered positions, demoralizing Washington’s men and exhausting his supplies. Washington decided his only option was to surrender, and he claimed he unwittingly signed articles of capitulation, written in French, that described him as responsible for the “assassination” of Jumonville. This inadvertent admission became the basis for the French declaration of war against Britain.

This engraving by an unknown artist depicts an evening council of George Washington at Fort Necessity. Take a closer look at the details the artist includes. Who is attending the council? What resources are available to Washington and his men?

In 1755, the British returned to the Ohio country, this time with an army of regulars and colonists commanded by General Edward Braddock, whom Washington served as an aide-de-camp. Braddock intended to lay siege to Fort Duquesne and then move north to attack the French at Fort Niagara, which guarded the passage from Canada to the Ohio country. Encumbered by artillery and a supply train, Braddock’s troops slowly cut a road through dense wilderness from Fort Cumberland on the Potomac River toward Fort Duquesne. After crossing the Monongahela River on the morning of July 9, Braddock’s army collided with a French and Indian force that took advantage of high ground and cover provided by the surrounding forest to rain their fire on the British. Braddock suffered a fatal wound and Washington narrowly escaped death himself. The destruction of Braddock’s army left the Ohio country firmly in control of the French. Indians allied with the French launched a devastating war against settlements along the Appalachian frontier from Pennsylvania to Virginia.

This map depicts the events of the French and Indian War. How much did the war affect the relative strength of Great Britain and France in North America? (attribution: Copyright Rice University, OpenStax, under CC BY 4.0 license)

For the next three years, the British struggled to regain their position in the Ohio country. Promoted to colonel of a regiment of Virginia soldiers, Washington worked feverishly to build fortifications and restore security along the frontier. Like many other colonial Americans, he disliked the British policy that gave seniority to British army officers over American officers, regardless of their respective ranks. In 1758, he worked closely with British General John Forbes as Forbes planned a new expedition into the Ohio country. Washington wanted Forbes to follow Braddock’s route west, but Forbes decided instead to cut a new road west from the Susquehanna River. This route favored Pennsylvania’s claim to the Ohio country, and Washington resented Forbes for it.

In November 1758, Forbes’s army forced the French to abandon Fort Duquesne, but Washington took little pleasure in the victory and soon returned to his home at Mount Vernon to resume his civilian life. Over the course of five years, he had learned much about military leadership and frontier warfare, but his ambitions to become a commissioned officer in the British regular army had been thwarted more often than helped by his British superiors. He had also lost several battles in the early part of the war, but nonetheless, he emerged as a war hero with a growing continental reputation.

Shortly after Forbes’s victory, the British built Fort Pitt on the ruins of Fort Duquesne. This act, along with the British occupation of other French posts in the Great Lakes region, angered the Ohio Indians because they had been promised in 1758 that the British would evacuate their homelands after the war was won. The Indians were now entirely dependent on the British for their trade goods, and the roads built by Braddock and Forbes became routes for settlers to move into the region.

Violence erupted in 1763 when Indians throughout the Great Lakes attacked western British posts and settlements. This conflict, named Pontiac’s War after the Ottawa chief who led the siege of Detroit, caused the British to issue the Proclamation of 1763, which prohibited land sales and settlement west of the Appalachians and kept soldiers stationed on the frontier to restore peace between Indians and colonists. That policy compounded the frustrations of colonists such as George Washington, who believed the Crown was denying them access to the lands they had helped conquer and had been promised as a bounty for their war service. Britain had won the French and Indian War and driven the French out of North America, but as a result, its empire suffered internal tensions that were to lead to revolution. Great Britain also amassed a massive war debt during the conflict and expected the colonies to begin paying more taxes as a share of their defense.

Review Questions

1. To provide defense against a French counterattack, George Washington built a fort called

• Fort Necessity
• Fort Ticonderoga
• Fort Duquesne
• Valley Forge

2. Despite its name, the French and Indian War was fought between

• the French and Indians
• the French and the Spanish
• the French and the Dutch along with their respective American Indian allies
• the French and the British along with their respective American Indian allies

3. George Washington had his first experience of military authority when leading a group of soldiers from

• Pennsylvania
• Massachusetts

4. Another name for the French and Indian War is

• King George’s War
• the Glorious Revolution
• the War of Spanish Succession
• the Seven Years’ War

5. What natural resource was so abundant in the Ohio River Valley that the American Indians, the French, and the British all desired it?

• Fur-bearing animals

6. Why did the French send troops to secure the Ohio country in 1753?

• To connect their imperial strongholds in Canada and Louisiana
• To negotiate a treaty with the Indians
• To build forts to protect French settlers
• To clear the land for farming

Free Response Questions

• Explain the extent to which the French and Indian War was an imperial conflict, as well as a frontier conflict.
• Explain how the French and Indian War changed the relationship between the British and the American colonists.

AP Practice Questions

“[30 September 1759] Cold weather is coming on apace, which will make us look round about us and put [on] our winter clothing, and we shall stand in need of good liquors [in order] to keep our spirits on cold winter’s days. And we, being here within stone walls, are not likely to get liquors or clothes at this time of the year; and although we be Englishmen born, we are debarred [denied] Englishmen’s liberty. Therefore we now see what it is to be under martial law and to be with the [British] regulars who are but little better than slaves to their officers. And when I get out of their [power] I shall take care of how I get in again. . . . 31 [October]. And so now our time has come to an end according to enlistment, but we are not yet [allowed to go] home. . . November 1. The regiments was ordered out . . . to hear what the colonel had to say to them as our time was out and we all swore that we would do no more duty here. So it was a day of much confusion with the regiment.”

Massachusetts soldier’s diary, 1759

1. Which of the following best describes the point of view of the soldier based on the excerpt provided?

• He is dedicated to the cause of the British in the war.
• He resents that he has not received the benefits of Englishmen’s liberty.
• He will re-enlist at the first opportunity.
• He is comfortable that he has all the supplies he needs in the face of oncoming cold weather.

2. Which of the following most accurately describes the impact on the colonies of the conflict described?

• The colonies won their economic independence from England.
• The French gained permanent possession of the Ohio River Valley, ending English claims on the region.
• The English needed the colonies to help pay the cost of their defense and so increased taxation.
• The Great Awakening began to spread into the interior of North America.

Primary Sources

George Washington’s Letter to Governor Robert Dinwiddie: http://www.wvculture.org/history/frenchandindian/17560804washington.html

Virginia Gazette Advertisement: http://www.wvculture.org/history/frenchandindian/17550523virginiagazette.html

Suggested Resources

Anderson, Fred. Crucible of War: The Seven Years’ War and the Fate of Empire in British North America, 1754-1766 . New York: Vintage, 2001.

Clary, David A. George Washington’s First War: His Early Military Adventures . New York: Simon and Schuster, 2011.

Preston, David L. Braddock’s Defeat: The Battle of the Monongahela and the Road to Revolution . Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015.

Shannon, Timothy J. The Seven Years’ War in North America: A Brief History with Documents . Boston: Bedford, 2013.

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What caused the French and Indian War

The French and Indian War (also known as The Seven's Years' War) was sparked by the rivalry in Europe, between the French and the British in particular. Often events in Europe influenced the course of events in British, French, and Spanish North American colonies. To increase their political and economic power, the British and the French competed to acquire a better share of the available land and control over the new trading opportunities in the North American colonies.

What Triggered the French and Indian War?

At the same time, the European colonial governments tried to find ways to coexist with North America's original inhabitants, often making alliances with some tribes while alienating others. Sometimes, as in the French and Indian War (which in Europe was referred to as the Seven Years’ War), European politics regarding balances of power resulted in conflict in the colonies. As Europe's wars became more heated, fighting broke out between the French and the British in the American colonies.

Both sides called upon Native American allies to assist them, exacerbating tensions between the tribes and tensions between the tribes and colonists. Ultimately, the British Government found it necessary to pour additional troops and resources into protecting its possessions in the Americas and taxed their colonists to pay for these resources. These taxes eventually became a rallying cry for the American independence movement.

The French and Indian War, the North American phase of the larger Seven Years’ War, began after a series of incidents in the upper Ohio River valley. The French and British governments both claimed it as their territory. Military forces assembled by both imperial powers built forts in the region and attempted to capture each others’ forts. These skirmishes, which included an expedition led by George Washington, ultimately led to the escalation of a broader, full-scale war between Great Britain and France.

Why did the British attack Fort Le Boeuf?

Since the colony of Virginia also claimed this region, Virginian lieutenant governor Robert Dinwiddie sent Major George Washington with a small expedition to remove the French forts in late 1753. Washington arrived at Fort Le Boeuf, about 15 miles inland from present-day Erie, Pennsylvania, and delivered his message. The fort, Jacques Legardeur de Saint-Pierre, received Washington and his men courteously but denied the validity of English claims to the contested region.

Washington then returned hastily to Virginia, arriving in early 1754, and delivered the French reply to Governor Dinwiddie. Dinwiddie and the legislature agreed that French rejection of British demands constituted a hostile act and that the French must be driven from their frontier forts on British-claimed land. Dinwiddie sent Captain William Trent of the Virginia militia to construct a fort at the Ohio River's strategically essential forks and convince the local Indians to ally against the French. Dinwiddie also promoted Washington to the rank of Lieutenant Colonel and ordered an expedition to compel the French to surrender their forts.

While French and British officials maneuvered military forces, they also attempted to curry favor with American Indians living in the region. The most critical group, the Mingoes, were part of the Iroquois Confederation, allied with Great Britain. British officials claimed the Iroquois Confederacy had granted a Native American named Tanaghrisson the title of ‘Half-King’ over the Mingoes and other Native communities under Iroquois rule. However, many Indians in the upper Ohio Valley were concerned about British colonists encroaching upon their land and did not acknowledge either British or Iroquois authority. Although many of them also feared French power and bore grudges against the French from previous wars, the Indians of the upper Ohio valley believed a French alliance to be the lesser of two evils. Consequently, they were amenable to supplying French forces with additional men and intelligence about British movements.

Aided by such reports, the French soon learned of the British fort that William Trent and his small group of men were constructing, and French forces moved swiftly to compel its surrender on April 17, 1754. The French destroyed the unfinished fort, building in its place the much more formidable Fort Duquesne.

What was George Washington's role in the French and Indian War?

Further south, George Washington, accompanied by Tanaghrisson, surprised an encampment of French soldiers in southwestern Pennsylvania on May 24, 1754. A brief fight ensued. Afterward, the wounded French leader, Ensign Joseph de Jumonville, attempted to explain through translators that the French expedition was on a peaceful mission to warn British forces about their incursions of French-claimed territory. Although accounts of the incident differ, it seems that Tanaghrisson, who bore an intense personal hatred of the French stemming from earlier war experiences, intervened in the negotiations and killed Jumonville. Expecting further French incursions, Washington then hastily constructed a fort and prepared to defend his forces, but a combined French and Indian force forced his surrender on July 3.

Once he heard of Washington’s defeat, Lieutenant-Governor Dinwiddie immediately passed on the news to his superiors in London and called for aid from neighboring colonies. Only North Carolina responded but refused to make any expenditures outside its borders. However, British Prime Minister Thomas Pelham-Holles, Duke of Newcastle, reacted swiftly to the news and planned a quick strike against the French forts before they could be reinforced. King George II approved Newcastle’s plan to send General Edward Braddock to seize French frontier forts quickly.

Other political leaders wanted a bigger war, and so they publicly announced Newcastle’s plans and changed the original plan so that Braddock would command more forces and order the fractious North American colonies to provide additional support against the French. Once the plans had been publicly announced, the French government moved quickly to dispatch reinforcements to North America and further pursued negotiations to diplomatically isolate the British government by winning over its traditional European allies. Once military forces were underway, the war was inevitable.

Why did the British Deport French Colonists from Acadia during The Great Upheaval?

By 1755, the uneasy truce between the British ruling authorities and the French colonists living in Acadia was shattered . The French colonists began moving to Acadia (modern-day Nova Scotia) in 1604, and it remained in French hands until the signing of The Treaty of Utrecht in 1713. The treaty handed Acadia over to Great Britain. Despite the shift, the French colonists remained in Acadia. Despite handing over Acadia to the British, starting the 1830s, tensions between France and Britain begin to rise slowly. Both France and Britain begin building forts in the regions surrounding Acadia.

By 1755, British Governor Charles Lawrence decided that the French Acadians represented a significant risk to the British colony. After the French colonists refused to pledge an oath to Britain, Lawrence decided to deport the colonists from the territory. Lawrence seized all of the colonists' property, burned their crops, and forced the colonists at the point of bayonets to board ships bound for the southern British colonies. In the first wave of deportations, over 1,000 Acadians were deported. This forced exodus continued until 1763. Bu 1763, over 10,000 Acadians were forcibly deported by the British. Thousands of the Acadians died during this deportation .

The Acadians were scattered across the British colonies, and some made their way to Louisiana. The term Cajun is a reference to their original homes. By 1764, the British reversed their policy and allowed the French colonists to return to Acadia. Unfortunately, their previous homes and lands had already been seized and handed over to British colonists by this time. The ones that returned were forced to start over. This mass deportation has been referred to as both the Acadian Expulsion and the Great Upheaval.

Why did the French and Indian War escalate the Seven Years War?

British expeditions that sought to challenge French forts in the western frontier spiraled out of control. Instead of intimidating the French, Washington's expedition ended in disaster. Not only was he was forced to surrender to the French and allied Indian troops, but his actions also encouraged the British to escalate these minor skirmishes with France into an outright war that would eventually migrate to Europe.

Related Articles

• Why was the Jay Treaty so unpopular in the United States
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• Why did France side with the American Colonies during the American Revolution
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Republished from the Office of the Historian, United States Department of State

From the articles:

• 1750–1775: Diplomatic Struggles in the Colonial Period
• Incidents leading up to the French and Indian War, 1753–54

Updated December 7, 2020

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French and Indian War

By: History.com Editors

Updated: August 29, 2023 | Original: November 9, 2009

Also known as the Seven Years’ War, the French and Indian war marked another chapter in the long imperial struggle between Britain and France. When France’s expansion into the Ohio River valley brought repeated conflict with the claims of the British colonies, a series of battles led to the official British declaration of war in 1756. Boosted by the financing of future Prime Minister William Pitt, the British turned the tide with victories at Louisbourg, Fort Frontenac and the French-Canadian stronghold of Quebec. At the 1763 peace conference, the British received the territories of Canada from France and Florida from Spain, opening the Mississippi Valley to westward expansion.

Why Did the French and Indian War Start?

The Seven Years’ War (called the French and Indian War in the colonies) lasted from 1756 to 1763, forming a chapter in the imperial struggle between Britain and France called the Second Hundred Years’ War. 

In the early 1750s, France’s expansion into the Ohio River valley repeatedly brought it into conflict with the claims of the British colonies, especially Virginia. In 1754, the French built Fort Duquesne where the Allegheny and Monongahela Rivers joined to form the Ohio River (in today’s Pittsburgh), making it a strategically important stronghold that the British repeatedly attacked.

During 1754 and 1755, the French won a string of victories, defeating in quick succession the young George Washington , Gen. Edward Braddock and Braddock’s successor, Governor William Shirley of Massachusetts.

In 1755, Governor Shirley, fearing that the French settlers in Nova Scotia (Acadia) would side with France in any military confrontation, expelled hundreds of them to other British colonies; many of the exiles suffered cruelly. Throughout this period, the British military effort was hampered by lack of interest at home, rivalries among the American colonies and France’s greater success in winning the support of the Indians. 

In 1756 the British formally declared war (marking the official beginning of the Seven Years’ War), but their new commander in America, Lord Loudoun, faced the same problems as his predecessors and met with little success against the French and their Indian allies.

The tide turned in 1757 because William Pitt, the new British leader, saw the colonial conflicts as the key to building a vast British empire. Borrowing heavily to finance the war, he paid Prussia to fight in Europe and reimbursed the colonies for raising troops in North America. 

British Victory in Canada

In July 1758, the British won their first great victory at Louisbourg, near the mouth of the St. Lawrence River. A month later, they took Fort Frontenac at the western end of the river. 

In November 1758, General John Forbes captured Fort Duquesne for the British after the French destroyed and abandoned it, and Fort Pitt—named after William Pitt—was built on the site, giving the British a key stronghold. 

The British then closed in on Quebec, where Gen. James Wolfe won a spectacular victory in the Battle of Quebec on the Plains of Abraham in September of 1759 (though both he and the French commander, the Marquis de Montcalm, were fatally wounded). 

With the fall of Montreal in September 1760, the French lost their last foothold in Canada. Soon, Spain joined France against England, and for the rest of the war Britain concentrated on seizing French and Spanish territories in other parts of the world.

The Treaty of Paris Ends the War

The French and Indian War ended with the signing of the Treaty of Paris in February 1763. The British received Canada from France and Florida from Spain, but permitted France to keep its West Indian sugar islands and gave Louisiana to Spain. The arrangement strengthened the American colonies significantly by removing their European rivals to the north and south and opening the Mississippi Valley to westward expansion.

Impact of the Seven Years’ War on the American Revolution

The British crown borrowed heavily from British and Dutch bankers to bankroll the war, doubling British national debt. King George II argued that since the French and Indian War benefited the colonists by securing their borders, they should contribute to paying down the war debt.

To defend his newly won territory from future attacks, King George II also decided to install permanent British army units in the Americas, which required additional sources of revenue.

In 1765, parliament passed the Stamp Act to help pay down the war debt and finance the British army’s presence in the Americas. It was the first internal tax directly levied on American colonists by parliament and was met with strong resistance. 

It was followed by the unpopular Townshend Acts and Tea Act , which further incensed colonists who believed there should be no taxation without representation. Britain’s increasingly militaristic response to colonial unrest would ultimately lead to the American Revolution .

Fifteen years after the Treaty of Paris, French bitterness over the loss of most of their colonial empire contributed to their intervention on the side of the colonists in the Revolutionary War.

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French and Indian War: Causes

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In 1748, the War of the Austrian Succession came to a conclusion with the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle. During the course of the eight-year conflict, France, Prussia, and Spain had squared off against Austria, Britain, Russia, and the Low Countries. When the treaty was signed, many of the underlying issues of the conflict remained unresolved including those of expanding empires and Prussia's seizure of Silesia. In the negotiations, many captured colonial outposts were returned to their original owners, such as Madras to the British and Louisbourg to the French, while the trading rivalries that had helped cause the war were ignored. Due to this relatively inconclusive result, the treaty was considered by many to a "peace without victory" with international tensions remaining high among the recent combatants.

The Situation in North America

Known as King George's War in the North American colonies, the conflict had seen colonial troops mount a daring and successful attempt to capture the French fortress of Louisbourg on Cape Breton Island. The return of the fortress was a point of concern and ire among the colonists when peace was declared. While the British colonies occupied much of the Atlantic coast, they were effectively surrounded by French lands to the north and west. To control this vast expanse of territory extending from the mouth of the St. Lawrence down to the Mississippi Delta, the French built a string of outposts and forts from the western Great Lakes down to the Gulf of Mexico.

The location of this line left a wide area between the French garrisons and the crest of the Appalachian Mountains to the east. This territory, largely drained by the Ohio River, was claimed by the French but was increasingly filling with British settlers as they pushed over the mountains. This was largely due to the burgeoning population of the British colonies which in 1754 contained around 1,160,000 White inhabitants as well as another 300,000 enslaved people. These numbers dwarfed the population of New France which totaled around 55,000 in present-day Canada and another 25,000 in other areas.

Caught between these rival empires were the Native Americans, of which the Iroquois Confederacy was the most powerful. Initially consisting of the Mohawk, Seneca, Oneida, Onondaga, and Cayuga, the group later became the Six Nations with the addition of the Tuscarora. United, their territory extended between the French and British from the upper reaches of the Hudson River west into the Ohio basin. While officially neutral, the Six Nations were courted by both European powers and frequently traded with whichever side was convenient.

The French Stake Their Claim

In an effort to assert their control over the Ohio Country, the governor of New France, the Marquis de La Galissonière, dispatched Captain Pierre Joseph Céloron de Blainville in 1749 to restore and mark the border. Departing Montreal, his expedition of around 270 men moved through present-day western New York and Pennsylvania. As it progressed, he placed lead plates announcing France's claim to the land at the mouths of several creeks and rivers. Reaching Logstown on the Ohio River, he evicted several British traders and admonished the Native Americans against trading with anyone but the French. After passing present-day Cincinnati, he turned north and returned to Montreal.

Despite Céloron's expedition, British settlers continued to push over the mountains, especially those from Virginia. This was backed by the colonial government of Virginia who granted land in the Ohio Country to the Ohio Land Company. Dispatching surveyor Christopher Gist, the company began scouting the region and received permission from the Native Americans to fortify the trading post at Logstown. Aware of these increasing British incursions, the new governor of New France, the Marquis de Duquesne, sent Paul Marin de la Malgue to the area with 2,000 men in 1753 to built a new series of forts. The first of these was built at Presque Isle on Lake Erie (Erie, PA), with another twelve miles south at French Creek (Fort Le Boeuf). Pushing down the Allegheny River, Marin captured the trading post at Venango and built Fort Machault. The Iroquois were alarmed by these actions and complained to British Indian agent Sir William Johnson.

The British Response

As Marin was constructing his outposts, the lieutenant governor of Virginia, Robert Dinwiddie, became increasingly concerned. Lobbying for the building of a similar string of forts, he received permission provided that he first assert British rights to the French. To do so, he dispatched young Major George Washington on October 31, 1753. Traveling north with Gist, Washington paused at the Forks of the Ohio where the Allegheny and Monongahela Rivers came together to form the Ohio. Reaching Logstown, the party was joined by Tanaghrisson (Half King), a Seneca chief who disliked the French. The party ultimately reached Fort Le Boeuf on December 12 and Washington met with Jacques Legardeur de Saint-Pierre. Presenting an order from Dinwiddie requiring the French to depart, Washington received a negative reply from Legarduer. Returning to Virginia, Washington informed Dinwiddie of the situation.

First Shots

Prior to Washington 's return, Dinwiddie dispatched a small party of men under William Trent to begin building a fort at the Forks of the Ohio. Arriving in February 1754, they constructed a small stockade but were forced out by a French force led by Claude-Pierre Pecaudy de Contrecoeur in April. Taking possession of the site, they began constructing a new base dubbed Fort Duquesne. After presenting his report in Williamsburg, Washington was ordered to return to the forks with a larger force to aid Trent in his work. Learning of the French force en route, he pressed on with the support of Tanaghrisson. Arriving at Great Meadows, approximately 35 miles south of Fort Duquesne, Washington halted as he knew he was badly outnumbered. Establishing a base camp in the meadows, Washington began exploring the area while waiting for reinforcements. Three days later, he was alerted to the approach of a French scouting party.

Assessing the situation, Washington was advised to attack by Tanaghrisson. Agreeing, Washington and approximately 40 of his men marched through the night and foul weather. Finding the French camped in a narrow valley, the British surrounded their position and opened fire. In the resulting Battle of Jumonville Glen, Washington's men killed 10 French soldiers and captured 21, including their commander Ensign Joseph Coulon de Villiers de Jumonville. After the battle, as Washington was interrogating Jumonville, Tanaghrisson walked up and struck the French officer in the head killing him.

Anticipating a French counterattack, Washington fell back to Great Meadows and built a crude stockade known as Fort Necessity. Though reinforced, he remained outnumbered when Captain Louis Coulon de Villiers arrived at Great Meadows with 700 men on July 1. Beginning the Battle of Great Meadows , Coulon was able to quickly compel Washington to surrender. Allowed to withdraw with his men, Washington departed the area on July 4.

The Albany Congress

While events were unfolding on the frontier, the northern colonies were becoming increasingly concerned about French activities. Gathering in the summer of 1754, representatives from the various British colonies came together in Albany to discuss plans for mutual defense and to renew their agreements with the Iroquois which were known as the Covenant Chain. In the talks, Iroquois representative Chief Hendrick requested the re-appointment of Johnson and expressed concern over British and French activities. His concerns were largely placated and the Six Nations representatives departed after the ritual presentation of presents.

The representatives also debated a plan for uniting the colonies under a single government for mutual defense and administration. Dubbed the Albany Plan of Union , it required an Act of Parliament to implement as well as the support of the colonial legislatures. The brainchild of Benjamin Franklin, the plan received little support among the individual legislatures and was not addressed by Parliament in London.

British Plans for 1755

Though war with France had not been formally declared, the British government, led by the Duke of Newcastle, made plans for a series of campaigns in 1755 designed to reduce French influence in North America. While Major General Edward Braddock was to lead a large force against Fort Duquesne, Sir William Johnson was to advance up Lakes George and Champlain to capture Fort St. Frédéric (Crown Point). In addition to these efforts, Governor William Shirley, made a major general, was tasked with reinforcing Fort Oswego in western New York before moving against Fort Niagara. To the east, Lieutenant Colonel Robert Monckton was ordered to capture Fort Beauséjour on the frontier between Nova Scotia and Acadia.

Braddock's Failure

Designated the commander-in-chief of British forces in America, Braddock was convinced by Dinwiddie to mount his expedition against Fort Duquesne from Virginia as the resulting military road would benefit the lieutenant governor's business interests. Assembling a force of around 2,400 men, he established his base at Fort Cumberland, MD before pushing north on May 29. Accompanied by Washington, the army followed his earlier route towards the Forks of the Ohio. Slowly plodding through the wilderness as his men cut a road for the wagons and artillery, Braddock sought to increase his speed by rushing forward with a light column of 1,300 men. Alerted to Braddock's approach, the French dispatched a mixed force of infantry and Native Americans from Fort Duquesne under the command of Captains Liénard de Beaujeu and Captain Jean-Daniel Dumas. On July 9, 1755, they attacked the British in the Battle of the Monongahela ( Map ). In the fighting, Braddock was mortally wounded and his army routed. Defeated, the British column fell back to Great Meadows before retreating towards Philadelphia.

Mixed Results Elsewhere

To the east, Monckton had success in his operations against Fort Beauséjour. Beginning his offensive on June 3, he was in a position to begin shelling the fort ten days later. On July 16, British artillery breached the fort's walls and the garrison surrendered. The capture of the fort was marred later that year when Nova Scotia's governor, Charles Lawrence, began expelling the French-speaking Acadian population from the area. In western New York, Shirley moved through the wilderness and arrived at Oswego on August 17. Approximately 150 miles short of his goal, he paused amid reports that French strength was massing at Fort Frontenac across Lake Ontario. Hesitant to push on, he elected to halt for the season and began enlarging and reinforcing Fort Oswego.

As the British campaigns were moving forward, the French benefited from knowledge of the enemy's plans as they had captured Braddock's letters at Monongahela. This intelligence led to French commander Baron Dieskau moving down Lake Champlain to block Johnson rather than embarking on a campaign against Shirley. Seeking to attack Johnson's supply lines, Dieskau moved up (south) Lake George and scouted Fort Lyman (Edward). On September 8, his force clashed with Johnson's at the Battle of Lake George . Dieskau was wounded and captured in the fighting and the French were forced to withdraw. As it was late in the season, Johnson remained at the southern end of Lake George and began construction of Fort William Henry. Moving down the lake, the French retreated to Ticonderoga Point on Lake Champlain where they completed construction of Fort Carillon . With these movements, campaigning in 1755 effectively ended. What had begun as a frontier war in 1754, would explode into a global conflict in 1756.

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French and Indian War, the American Revolution, and the War of 1812 Essay

Thesis Statement: The American history has been characterized by many years of war through military struggles, before and after its independence, which includes the French and Indian War, the American Revolution, and the War of 1812.

The French Indian war was a struggle between the French and the Britons since 1754 to 1763. In the 1750s, the French and Britons rose against each other in Europe although the war extended to North America.

The British colonists were pursuing the French’s Northern American territory and conger fur trade in the region extending from Virginia up to Nova Scotia. In return, the French Governor-General, Roland-Michel Barrin de La Galissonière , commanded a military expedition in the region to mark their territory, evaluate the British powers and most importantly, astound the Indians through military show off (Cave, 2004).

The British military struggled against the French military as well as the Native Americans, who were afraid that they would lose their land to the Britons. The unrest concluded in 1759 after James Wolfe, British Major general seized Quebec. In the course of the war, a peace treaty was signed in 1763 where the Britons acquired most of the territory that belonged to the French.

Consequently, the Britons avenged against the French by colonists taxation. The war modified the social, political as well as economic interactions that existed among the European nations i.e. Spain, France and Great Britain, as well as the colonies and the Native Americans. Great Britain and France faced heavy financial costs which affected their economic growth (Cave, 2004).

On the other hand, the American Revolution was a political turmoil in the late eighteenth century where 13 North American colonies united to secede from British Empire to comprise the United States of America. It was as a result of social-political as well as intellectual changes better known as the American enlightenment.

Its importance in the American history cannot be underestimated since it led to the formation of the United States. Like the French and Indian War, it happened over a period of seven years, which was initiated by the thirteen colonies disregarding orders from Parliament of Great Britain to rule them from abroad with no representation in America. In 1774, the colonies had created provincial congress as autonomous states.

As a result, the British reacted by commanding their military to re-inflict direct rule (Wallenfeldt, 2009). The new states united to guard their self governance and control the British forces in 1775 and reject British monarchy or aristocracy. On October 1781, the Revolutionary War came to an end as Americans won and became a sovereign nation while the British surrendered under the Treaty of Paris signed in 1783.

Therefore, the result of the struggle was formation of democratically voted delegate administration to serve the interests of the majority population. Issues of national governance were handled to create a federal government through U.S constitution ratification in seventeen eighty eight and United States Bill of Rights in 1791, which offered natural rights and personal liberties to the citizens (Wallenfeldt, 2009).

The War of 1812- 1815 was the initial military struggle between the USA and Great British forces after the U.S its gained independence. It was announced by America in June 1812 since they wanted to expand northwest, trade barriers as a result of France unrest with Britain, British aid to American- Indian tribes to oppose American expansion among other reasons.

Until 1814, British forces were only defending their interests and repelled various invasions from American military in the Canadian border. Following the American revolutionary war, the British did not leave the American land surrounding great lakes, while imposing trade barrier and supporting Indians to resist expansion.

Therefore like the previous wars, the War of 1812 was due to socio-economic and political reasons. The American victory in 1814 led to the amendment of the American foreign policy, its recognition as a world power and its confirmation of independence through signing the Treaty of Ghent (Wallenfeldt, 2009).

In conclusion, French and Indian War, the American Revolution, and the War of 1812 were due to socio-economic and political reasons particularly the issue of land. All the three wars were fought within the American boundaries and notably, the Great Britain was involved in all the three wars. The wars are significant in establishment of a liberal republicanism in the U.S characterized by democracy, which formed the basis of a political tradition apparent today.

Cave, A. A. (2004). The French and Indian War . Westport, CT: Greenwood Publishing Group.

Wallenfeldt , J. (2009). The American Revolutionary War and the War of 1812: People, Politics, and Power . New York: The Rosen Publishing Group.

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IvyPanda . 2018. "French and Indian War, the American Revolution, and the War of 1812." September 11, 2018. https://ivypanda.com/essays/french-and-indian-war-the-american-revolution-and-the-war-of-1812/.

1. IvyPanda . "French and Indian War, the American Revolution, and the War of 1812." September 11, 2018. https://ivypanda.com/essays/french-and-indian-war-the-american-revolution-and-the-war-of-1812/.

Bibliography

IvyPanda . "French and Indian War, the American Revolution, and the War of 1812." September 11, 2018. https://ivypanda.com/essays/french-and-indian-war-the-american-revolution-and-the-war-of-1812/.

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Home — Essay Samples — History — French and Indian War — How Did the French and Indian War Lead to the American Revolution

How Did The French and Indian War Lead to The American Revolution

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Published: Sep 25, 2018

Words: 456 | Page: 1 | 3 min read

The American Revolution stands as one of the most significant turning points in the history of the United States, shaped by a multifaceted array of both direct and indirect factors. Rather than an abrupt conflict, it evolved over time through a sustained accumulation of grievances endured by the colonists under British rule. The revolution's origins lay in a series of British actions, viewed by the colonists as economic and political exploitation, which eroded their patience and loyalty to the monarchy. Concurrently, a growing disdain for monarchical principles fueled their desire for self-determination and autonomy. Eventually, this simmering discontent reached its boiling point, compelling the colonists to boldly assert their independence and embark on a protracted battle to secure their freedom.

The American Revolution underscores the profound impact of historical circumstances, grievances, and ideological shifts in shaping the destiny of a nation. It serves as a testament to the enduring human pursuit of liberty and self-governance, forever etched in the annals of American history.

Causes of The American Revolution Essay

Works cited:.

• Bhandari, R. (2019). Open Doors Report on International Educational Exchange: US Study Abroad Trends, 2018. Institute of International Education. Retrieved from https://www.iie.org/Research-and-Insights/Open-Doors/Data/US-Study-Abroad
• EducationUSA. (2022). Why Study in the USA. U.S. Department of State.
• Institute of International Education. (2021). Find Scholarships to Study in the USA. Retrieved from https://www.iie.org/en/Programs/USA-Study/Scholarships-to-Study-in-the-USA
• International Student. (2022). Study in the USA: Guide for International Students.
• Murphy, S. (2019). The benefits of studying abroad in the USA. World Education Services.
• National Center for Education Statistics. (2021). Fast Facts: Globalization of Higher Education. US Department of Education.
• Study in the USA. (2022). Top 10 Reasons to Study in the USA. Retrieved from https://www.studyusa.com/en/a/46/top-10-reasons-to-study-in-the-usa
• US News Education. (2022). Why Study in the US?

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