ineffective leadership thesis

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• v.10(4); 2022

Impact of Toxic Leadership on Employee Performance

Christian wiradendi wolor.

1 Universitas Negeri Jakarta

Ardiansyah Ardiansyah

2 Politeknik Tempo

Rofi Rofaida

3 Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia

Ahmad Nurkhin

4 Universitas Negeri Semarang

Mahmoud Ali Rababah

5 Al-Balqa Applied University

Associated Data

The datasets generated and analysed in this study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

This research intends to shed additional light on the effects of toxic leadership on employee satisfaction, motivation, and performance. Such a study on toxic leadership is required since, to date, no research in Indonesia have sought to quantify the consequences of toxic leadership on organizational leaders. Using surveys and structural equation modeling, a quantitative strategy was adopted (SEM). The research sample amounted to 400 taken from 8 locations in Indonesia. Using Google Forms, questionnaires were distributed to 400 employees and analyzed using the Lisrel 8.5 program. The results show that toxic leadership has an effect on job satisfaction (p > 0.00), toxic leadership has an effect on work motivation (p > 0.00), toxic leadership has no effect on employee performance (p < 0.00), job satisfaction has an effect on work motivation (p > 0.00), job satisfaction has effect on employee performance (p > 0.00) work motivation has no effect on employee performance (p < 0.00). The consequences of the study findings for organizations range from the process of screening and selection of leaders to creating stress management and self-resilience training to help employees deal with their emotions in healthy ways and strengthen their defenses.

Introduction

To accomplish corporate objectives, individuals typically collaborate with one another. When there are more than two people working in the same space, there needs to be some kind of management system in place in order to get the job done. During this phase of the process, the manager or leader directs and controls the personnel in order to accomplish the desired goals of the company. Because leadership plays such a crucial role in determining whether a business will be successful or not, it is imperative that leaders possess the skills necessary to guide and inspire their people. However, some leadership approaches have a detrimental impact on employees and the work environment. 1 In point of fact, over the course of the past few years, there has been a rise in the prevalence of toxic leadership styles in businesses. 2

Toxic leadership phenomena will lead to moral crises such as the recent one, employee abuse at Amazon, mishandling and monetization of personal user data by Facebook and unrepentant discrimination at Uber. 3 This is in conjunction with the findings of a recent poll conducted by Life Meets Work Consulting, which revealed that as many as 56% of employees presently work for a toxic CEO whose behavior fosters an unhealthy work environment. In point of fact, around one third of all leaders are capable of exhibiting this unhealthy form of leadership. 2 Therefore, a number of employees have been put in situations where they have been exposed to leaders and managers whose behavior displays a toxic style.

Toxic leaders may be highly competent and effective in their work, but they contribute to creating an unhealthy environment among their subordinates and peers, with the consequences of their actions reaching more than just a few individuals. This was one of the early findings from research conducted on the topic. 2 Toxic leadership can occur for a number of reasons, one of which is when the leader’s own personal agenda is prioritized above the organization’s long-term success. 4 Reduced productivity as a result of increased absenteeism and illness; decreased employee performance as a result of a lack of commitment and dissatisfaction in their work. In addition, organizations lack the experience and ability to counteract the effects of toxic leadership. The impact on organizations has to pay for the hidden costs incurred by the dysfunctional behavior of toxic leaders. These costs include: reduced productivity; decreased employee performance; and decreased employee performance. work, legal fees, and other expenses. 5

The phenomenon of toxic leadership is becoming more and more widespread in the management literature, and it has intrigued a great deal of scholars in recent years. 6 Recent studies have looked into the negative aspects of leadership and the effects that toxic leadership has on the mental health of employees and the success of businesses. 7 A lack of effective leadership is not the only definition of toxic leadership; rather, it appears that toxic leadership is a leadership style in its own right. 2 For the purposes of this investigation, we made use of toxic leadership constructs. Toxic leadership is a major component of shadowy leadership, and it is similar to a poison in that it can spread covertly and unnoticed. Toxic leadership not only taints individuals, but it also has an effect on groups, and ultimately, the entire organization. 8

According to the research that has been conducted, toxic leadership is one of the potential antecedents of increased turnover intention, employee dissatisfaction, lack of commitment, and psychological stresses such as anxiety, burnout, depression, disengagement, low self-esteem, emotional exhaustion, and employee silence. According to academics, leaders’ displays of toxic behavior have a significant and profoundly negative impact on the organizational learning and performance of their organizations. 9 It is equally interesting to note that toxic leaders never regard their behavior as being negative, and they always believe that their behavior is socially acceptable. This is an interesting fact since it explains why toxic leaders continue to engage in such activity. 8,10

The purpose of this study is to provide a deeper understanding of the influence that toxic leadership has on the levels of happiness, motivation, and performance experienced by employees. A more in-depth examination of toxic leadership from an academic standpoint involves limited empirical investigation of the relationship between toxic leadership and work-related outcomes. 2 This is essential as an essential input for the resolution of general and individual issues pertaining to learning and performance. An research of this kind into toxic leadership is required since, to this day, no studies in Indonesia have sought to assess the impacts of toxic leadership on organizational leaders. This makes it imperative that such an inquiry take place.

When designing appropriate interventions to facilitate effective leadership and developing relevant policies to reduce the emergence of toxic behavior in organizations, it can be helpful to have knowledge of the various factors that cause toxic leadership behavior in managers. For example, knowing the various factors that cause toxic leadership behavior in managers can help. Because of this, the investigation of this characteristic will assist businesses in evaluating toxic leadership in the sector, and it will also contribute to the scant body of research that is presently accessible on the subject.

Literature Review

Toxic leadership.

A damaging form of leadership that may have a detrimental effect on both organizations and individuals is referred to as toxic leadership. However, the phrase is not defined in any specific manner in the relevant literature, and there is as of yet no general agreement on how to answer the topic of whether leadership actions are seen as unsuitable, damaging, and toxic to companies. 10 A leadership style that is toxic to its followers and, as a result, to the organization they work for is called toxic leadership. 11 Toxic leadership can be defined as a pattern of behaviors that are not only harmful but also encourage leaders to pursue their own personal objectives and benefits at the expense of the interests of their team members and the organization as a whole. The damaging behavior of leaders in the workplace has the potential to trickle down to lower-level personnel in the organization. 9

Scholars have defined toxic leadership as “a type of leadership characterized by abusive behavior used to bully or manipulate people.” 12 This type of leadership is also referred to as destructive leadership, dark leadership, or, more simply, poor leadership. Implicit behavior has a significant impact not only on individuals on a psychological, emotional, and economic level, but also on the organization itself – in the form of high staff turnover, increased cynicism, reduced loyalty to the organization, and counterproductive work behavior by employees. 12

Armitage defines toxic leaders as “managers that intimidate, threaten, shout, and whose mood swings define the office ambiance on any given workday, leading staff to talk in cubicles and halls; slandering, disparaging bosses,” among other characteristics. 13 To put it another way, when leaders cause significant harm to individuals as well as organizations, we call them toxic. 14 Adem describes the three basic elements of toxic leadership as “lack of concern for subordinates’ well-being, personality or interpersonal techniques that negatively affect organizational climate and subordinates’ belief that leaders are motivated primarily by self-interest”. 11 There are specific patterns of conduct that are exclusive to the idea of toxic leadership. For instance, presenting a toxic agenda as a noble vision, pitting in-group members against out-group members, and ostracizing/disarming employees are behavioral characteristics that are only associated with toxic leadership. On the other hand, demeaning/marginalizing, or demeaning, mocking/mocking, blaming others on the fault of the leader, and blaming others on the fault of the leader are behavioral characteristics that are associated with healthy leadership. 11,15 As a result, drawing the conclusion that toxic leadership practices create an environment in which unfavorable organizational behavior can flourish might not be an entirely incorrect assumption. It’s possible that bullying other employees will be easier to do in a hostile work atmosphere. This is due to the fact that a poisonous environment may tacitly allow for such behavior, despite the fact that it is undesirable. 10

Work Motivation

The level of motivation to work is the second factor. A circumstance or action that stimulates someone to accomplish a job or activity as much as possible to do, produce, work hard, and enthusiastically reach ideal results is referred to as work motivation. 16,17 Motivation is all the conditions of hard work from within, known as hopes, desires, drives and drives. Second, motivation is a combination of forces that directly initiate and sustain behavior toward goals. The performance component has a direct connection to the motivational factor, and if employees have a high level of motivation, it can also improve their level of high performance. Furthermore, the findings of his study indicate that the level of employee performance is influenced by the degree to which workers are motivated in their jobs. 17–19 However, toxic leaders reduce follower motivation and performance. 10 The research conducted by Indradevi demonstrates that toxic leadership can have repercussions at the individual level as well. Some of these repercussions include a loss of motivation, sexual harassment, and decreased job satisfaction. In addition, employees whose self-esteem is ignored show low self-confidence, which causes a drop in individual performance. This is a result of the employee’s lack of motivation. 20

Job Satisfaction

Job satisfaction is the third variable under consideration in this study. Job satisfaction is a mental state determined by the degree to which individuals perceive their work-related needs to be met. 21 When people talk about employees’ work attitudes, they refer to their job satisfaction. 22 The nature of the work, the level of supervision, the perks, the contingent rewards, the operating procedures, and the people one works with are some of the components that can be categorized as factors that contribute to job satisfaction. 23 Job-related satisfaction has become a robust research variable in organizational behavior because of its wide prevalence in individual employees’ personal and professional lives. Job satisfaction is more than just an attitude that explains a person’s internal state, both qualitatively and quantitatively, according to the findings of several studies that have been conducted by a variety of researchers who have emphasized the significance of job satisfaction and the factors that led up to it. 23 The emotional connection that an employee has towards his or her work is referred to as job satisfaction. One way to look at it is as an overarching sentiment regarding one’s job, while another is as a constellation of interconnected points of view regarding different facets of one’s job. 24 Satisfaction is a stepping stone to engagement; therefore, the organization needs to match the work’s goals with the employee’s individual goals to feel comfortable with his work. 25

Toxic leadership, on the other hand, has a detrimental effect on low levels of commitment and satisfaction (Croft 2016). Furthermore, toxic leadership has a negative impact on turnover, job dissatisfaction, and organizational commitment. 26 Paltu and Brouwers 2 showed that there is a statistically significant inverse association between toxic leadership and work satisfaction. On the other side, a person’s level of contentment in their job is the single most critical element in determining the motivation, efficacy, retention, and performance of their workforce.

Employee Performance

The performance of the employees is the fourth variable in our investigation. The extent to which an employee contributes to the success of their employer and the responsibilities that have been delegated to them both factor into their performance as employees. 27,28 Assessing an employee’s performance is determining whether or not they are effectively carrying out their duties within their organization. Additionally, it is a rating system that is utilized by the majority of businesses in order to ascertain and assess the capabilities of an individual. 29 Extensive literature reviews suggest that toxic behavior results in counter-productive work behavior. Previous research has found that toxic leadership behaviors lead to turnover intention, decreased satisfaction, lack of commitment, and low performance 11 and psychological stresses such as anxiety, depression, fatigue and detachment. Additionally, as a result of the abusive behavior of the leadership, employees exhibited signs of emotional tiredness and silence. 9 When their feelings of self-worth are attacked, employees’ self-confidence as well as their individual performance will decrease, is another study that supports our work in which the sub-dimensions of toxic leadership namely unappreciativeness, self-esteem and self-seeking have a negative correlation with job satisfaction and employee performance. 26

H1: Toxic leadership affects job satisfaction H2: Toxic leadership affects work motivation H3: Toxic leadership affects employee performance H4: Job satisfaction affects work motivation H5: Job satisfaction affects employee performance H6: Work motivation affects employee performance

The investigation was carried out in Indonesia. Indonesia is the fourth largest country in terms of population. The investigation was carried out between April and August of 2022. This research employs a quantitative methodology, utilizing questionnaires and structural equation modeling (Structural Equation Modeling). Due to the constraints imposed by the Indonesian government as a result of the COVID-19 outbreak, which hindered in-person interviews, we collected data using research instruments by delivering questionnaires to employees using Google Forms. After that, the application Lisrel 8.5 was utilized to get the desired results. The participants in this study are people working in the private sector in Jakarta. The researchers chose to employ a nonprobability sampling strategy in conjunction with a purposive sampling approach for the sampling technique. 400 samples were utilized in this study. The author divides 400 respondents into 8 locations in Indonesia.

The items were evaluated using a Likert scale with five points, with one representing strong disagreement and five representing strong agreement. 30 According to the recommendations made by Hair et al. 31 and Yamin and Kurniawan, 32 the null hypothesis H0 would be rejected if the t-value was higher than 1.96, but it would not be rejected if the t-value was lower than 1.96.

The questionnaire for this investigation had 32 questions, each of which was answered and returned by one of the study’s 400 participants. The university’s study ethics office gave its stamp of approval to the ethical requirements that were followed for this study on July 31st, 2022. This division is responsible for ensuring that the permission form adequately describes the goal of the study, encourages participants to participate voluntarily, and protects the confidentiality of their responses. Table 1 presents the sample statistics in a descriptive format for your perusal.

Respondents

This section describes the distribution of respondents in terms of their social status and demographic profile.

Table 2 shows the distribution of respondents based on social status and demographic profile. Of the 400 respondents, 260 (65%) are male, and about 140 (35%) are female. Furthermore, 266 (67%) of the respondents are married, about 134 (33%) respondents are single.

Likewise, 69 (17%) respondents’ age range was <26 years, about 109 (27%) 26-30 years, while 199 (50%) 31-35 years, then 23 (6%) were 36 -40 years. Furthermore, 86 (22%) reported having completed education up to high school, as many as 3 (1%) completed up to Diploma, while 310 (77%) to Under Graduate, then 1 (0%) completed up to Graduate.

Data Validity and Reliability Testing

The Convergent validity of each variable in terms of a t-value and standardized solution is displayed in Table 3 .

Twenty of the 32 statements in Table 3 are invalid and must be eliminated because their loading factors exceed the crucial value 1.96 and have a standardized factor loading (SLF) of 0.5. 31,32,35

These are: statement 1: “Denies responsibility for mistakes made in his unit” (t-value: 5.80; SLF: 0.31), statement 8: “Is inflexible when it comes to organizational policies, even in special circumstances” (t-value: 7.04; SLF: 0.37), statement 10: “I was given adequate rest time by the company for 1 hour” (t-value: -6.69; SLF: -0.59), statement 11: “I have good health insurance” (t-value: 0.25; SLF: 0.02), statement 13: “My boss always gives encouragement and solutions to me in completing work” (t-value: -5.18; SLF: -0.37), statement 14: “I enjoy working with co-workers” (t-value: 0.37; SLF: 0.02), statement 15: “Bosses give praise to employees who perform well” (t-value: 5.06; SLF: 0.36), statement 16: “The company gives awards to outstanding employees” (t-value: -3.58; SLF: -0.24), statement 17: “The company gave me the opportunity to be creative at work” (t-value: 2.55; SLF: 0.16), statement 18: “The company provides opportunities for employees to participate in training to improve work results” (t-value: 0.20; SLF: 0.01), statement 20: “Those workers who perform admirably in their jobs have a good opportunity to advance in the company” (t-value: -9.47; SLF: -0.75), statement 21: “I like my boss” (t-value: 1.35; SLF: 0.08), statement 23: “My boss is a reasonably competent worker when it comes to completing his or her job” (t-value: -5.92; SLF: -0.37), statement 24: “My job is enjoyable” (t-value: -0.94; SLF: -0.05), statement 25: “I take pleasure in the responsibilities that come with my job” (t-value: 5.07; SLF: 0.31), statement 26: “The benefits package that they offer is fair to all employees” (t-value: -2.26; SLF: -0.13), statement 27: “There are advantages that are not available to us that we ought to have” (t-value: -0.36; SLF: -0.02), statement 29: “I receive significant recognition for a job well done” (t-value: -8.28; SLF: -0.90), statement 30: “I meet the formal performance requirements of the job” (t-value: 4.47; SLF: 0.26), statement 32: “I take the initiative in doing my job” (t-value: -5.80; SLF: -0.35).

Table 4 demonstrates that the construct reliability values for all variables are satisfactory because the projected CR value is better than 0.7 and the AVE value is greater than 0.5 31,32,35 which are toxic leadership (CR: 1; AVE: 0.99), work motivation (CR: 0.76 ; AVE: 0.99), job satisfaction (CR: 0.91 ; AVE: 0.99), and employee performance (CR: 0.82; AVE: 1).

Hypothesis Testing

Table 5 shows that the goodness of fit value is acceptable as follows: P-Value for RMSEA (0.000), Parsimonious Normed Fit Index (0.57), Comparative Fit Index (0.70), Incremental Fit Index (0.70).

Table 6 shows the results of the study that in hypothesis 1, toxic leadership have effect on job satisfaction (p > 0.00), hypothesis 2 shows that toxic leadership have effect on work motivation (p > 0.00), hypothesis 3 shows that toxic leadership have no effect on employee performance (p < 0.00), hypothesis 4 shows that job satisfaction have effect on work motivation (p > 0.00), hypothesis 5 shows that job satisfaction have effect on employee performance (p > 0.00), hypothesis 6 shows that work motivation have no effect on employee performance (p < 0.00)

This study aimed to determine whether there is a correlation between toxic leadership, work satisfaction, motivation, and employee performance inside the organization. According to the findings of the first and second studies, toxic leadership has an impact on job satisfaction and work motivation. This is in line with Indradevi’s research 20 who revealed that toxic leadership reduces employee job satisfaction and motivation. Such as abusive supervisory factors and extrinsic work factors. 2 Toxic leadership can play a role in fostering the growth of toxic organizational culture, which in turn has the potential to pave the way for the emergence of other toxic leaders in the future. For individual workers, the experience of toxic leadership behaviors in the workplace is associated with unfavorable job outcomes such as decreased job satisfaction, decreased job involvement, job withdrawal, decreased attendance, decreased work motivation, low morale, and negligent behavior. —such as intention to leave the company and absenteeism. Working for a company that is led by toxic individuals almost always results in problems with quality, a terrible working environment, and a low degree of safety within the organization. 6

Even in military field studies, toxic leaders create contexts in which service members are less civilized to one another, which in turn will result in lower job satisfaction and organizational commitment. Toxic leaders create contexts in which toxic leaders create contexts in which service members are less civilized to one another. 36 Those who are negatively impacted by toxic leadership may also pass this negative effect on to their family, friends, and significant others in the form of attacking others and/or a lack of communication. This is the larger impact that toxic leadership has. 37 When looked at from another perspective, often the underlying principle of toxic leadership is that it is “viewed as a detractor of the motivation, alignment, and commitment to organizational goals that serve as hallmarks of good leadership”. 38 This will have an impact on justifying the actions of the toxic leader. 6 Numerous studies have shown that whatever the short-term benefits that toxic leaders bring to any organization, in the long run the hidden costs of their behavior are incomparable, leading to dysfunction and even destruction. 5 Therefore, employees who work with toxic leaders have only two choices: to fit in or leave.

According to the findings of the third study, toxic leadership has no influence on employee performance. This result contradicts previous research where toxic leadership affects employee performance. 37 Toxic leaders are those who aim to exert their influence over their followers by a variety of strategies and to exert control over them, which in turn impedes their job activities and decreases their performance. 10 Research done in the past has demonstrated a connection between toxic leadership and low morale among staff members, which in turn leads to lower levels of productivity. This process is similar to a slow-acting poison that slowly destroys its surroundings. Barriers to work performance along with helplessness and frustration isolate employees from one another, leading them to believe they are powerless. 39

However, research on the contrary suggests that toxic leadership is a good thing and follows voluntarily. This employee will probably be groomed to become the next generation of toxic leader. 4 Supporting this logic, toxic leaders are more likely to be described as creative and courageous than non-toxic leaders. 36 The authors argue that toxic leadership does not appear to affect their performance because employees try to neutralize the leader’s harmful effects through solutions and more importantly by learning. This is corroborated by the statement of Dobbs & Do 38 that followers can fight toxic environments by questioning suspicious dynamics, challenging accepted assumptions, and confronting the behavior of others.

The results of the fourth study and fifth study explain that job satisfaction have effect on work motivation and employee performance. Research conducted by Al Mehrzi 40 which states that satisfied employees will have good performance. Employees who are satisfied with their organization from such aspects of constant supervision and guidance can contribute to employee motivation and work performance. 2 While the opposite result is stated in the eighth hypothesis which shows that work commitment has no effect on employee performance. This result contradicts research conducted by Chandani 25 which states that employees who are committed to the company will have good performance. This may happen if the employee is already in a comfort zone, does not want to develop and try new challenges, it will not affect the employee’s performance.

The results of this study indicate that toxic leadership has an effect on job satisfaction and motivation. Similarly, job satisfaction influences employee motivation and performance. On the contrary, toxic leadership has little impact on staff performance. Similarly, work engagement has no bearing on employee performance. The results of the study have relevant implications for organizations that early detection and anticipation related to toxic leadership must be considered by organizations. There are several strategies that can be carried out by the organization. First, the process of screening and selection of leaders. The employee search and selection committee charged with recruiting, choosing, and promoting personnel must be able to recognize potentially dangerous applicants. Second, the establishment of ethical ideals and a toxic-behavior-free workplace culture. Promote healthy interactions and two-way communication through promoting collective decision-making and open communication between staff and bosses. Fourth, discretion in the process of evaluating performance and awarding leaders; if something goes wrong, it could result in the selection of the next toxin-producing leader. Fifth, build an anonymous channel for whistleblowing so that subordinates can report the toxic leader’s errors. Create stress management and self-resilience training to help employees regulate their emotions in a healthy manner and improve their defenses so that they can effectively avoid exhibiting toxic behavior.

Research Limitations and Future Research

This study only examines one area. Future research is expected to explore more areas with a larger sample. Then it can be investigated using other variables outside of this study to add to the treasures of knowledge.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Data availability statement

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12 How Bad Leaders Impact Organizational Effectiveness

• Published: May 2022
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This chapter examines the impact of bad leadership on organizational effectiveness. The authors first define bad leadership and then differentiate between its two forms, toxic and ineffectual. Looking more closely at toxic leadership, they discuss toxic leaders themselves and situational factors. Turning to ineffectual leadership, the authors describe its various forms, such as managerial incompetence, poor person/job fit, commitment to lost causes, a sense of invulnerability, one-hit wonders, overly generalized strategic decision-making, and entrenched heir apparents. The authors then discuss the macro-effects of bad leadership, focusing primarily on senior leaders but also middle and lower-level managers. The next topic discussed is why leaders may be bad, such as narcissism, hubris, and CEO predecessors. The next section describes how bad leaders are selected in the first place, such as political skills and impression management. The authors focus next on how organizations can avoid selecting, hiring, or promoting bad leaders. The chapter concludes by summarizing directions for future research.

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• Published: 04 January 2023

The relationship between toxic leadership and organizational performance: the mediating effect of nurses’ silence

• Sally Mohammed Farghaly Abdelaliem 1 , 2 &
• Mennat Allah G. Abou Zeid 3  

BMC Nursing volume  22 , Article number:  4 ( 2023 ) Cite this article

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To assess toxic leadership and organizational performance among nurses of a University Hospital, and explore the mediating effect of nurses ‘silence.

Toxic Leadership behaviours are hurtful to feelings, leading to emotive fatigue and nurses silence within the legislative framework. In fact, it is very harmful to all organizations. However, little emphasis has been paid to research on the mediating mechanism and border factors of their connection.

A cross-sectional design was applied. Data was collected from 750 nurses over the course of three months. The researchers employed structured equation modeling [SEM] to investigate the role of nurses’ silence in mediating the association between toxic leadership and organizational performance.

The toxic leadership level and Organisational performance level were both high. In addition to, the nurses’ silence level was moderate. The SEM revealed that toxic Leadership accounted for the prediction of 65% of the variance of nurses’ silence and 87% of the variance of organizational performance. Also, nurses silence as a mediating factor accounted for 73% of the variance of organizational performance.

Conclusions

This study emphasized on the importance of creating a work environment that encourages and promotes open communication, as well as eliminating toxic leadership behaviours from the organizational culture among nurses as it effects on the organizational performance.

Peer Review reports

Introduction

Every corporation, particularly health institutions, requires people with exceptional business performance to survive and prosper, adapt to changing external conditions, and maintain a competitive advantage. Leaders can try to improve employees' job performance by creating a positive work environment and fostering an optimistic organizational climate through arrangements that encourage individuals to be optimistic [ 1 ]. Effective leadership practices based on the values of respect, trust, and open communication are critical not only in providing high-quality care, but also in creating a quality work environment where nurses are respected and valued, which helps to keep them motivated, satisfied, and committed to the organization [ 2 ]. Ineffective leadership practices are becoming a growing concern in the healthcare and nursing fields, with negative implications for nurse job outcomes and performance. As nurses are the largest professional group in healthcare, it is critical to investigate the impact of their silence on the relationship between toxic leadership behaviours and organizational performance [ 3 , 4 ].

• Toxic leadership

Orukwowu, (2022) [ 5 ] defined leadership as the “process by which an individual influences a group of in which the leader affects his or her followers while also being affected by them, making it a transactional event. Furthermore, leadership entails “influencing followers” and is defined by the leader's ability to affect and influence their followers effectively. Toxic leadership, a type of ineffective leadership, is becoming more common in management literature and has piqued the interest of many researchers in recent years [ 6 , 7 ]. Toxic leadership is a negative leadership style in which a leader engages in systematic and destructive behaviours that harms individuals and organizations directly or indirectly [ 8 ]. Hoffman and Sergio (2020) [ 9 ] defined toxic leadership as disregarding employees' well-being and participating in actions and activities that demean, belittle, and discourage employees. They also micromanage, are rude, do not listen, and are threatening to their employees. Furthermore, they abuse their power, which lowers employee job satisfaction and morale. A few variables known to cause toxicity in leaders have been identified in the literature, including corporate culture, instability, perceived threat, and successful institutions. Toxic leaders thrive in organizations that promote high performance but lack mechanisms to assess how these goals and objectives are met [ 10 , 11 ]. Furthermore, some toxic workplace leadership behaviours include: criticizing subordinates for flaws, demanding job expectations, lambasting employees' work skills, insulting, demeaning an individual's triumphs, and considering others' work [ 12 ]. Toxic leaders, according to researchers, are harmful to employee and organizational performance because of disparaging and self-serving behaviours aimed at achieving personal goals and benefits by exploiting or compromising the needs and desires of subordinates, teams, and organizations [ 13 ]. Furthermore, toxic leadership has an impact on both organizational and individual performance.

Organizational performance

The organizational performance is determined by whether the specific leadership style is appropriate for the organization's specific situation [ 14 ]. Leaders' behaviours cause the emergence of positive behaviours and psychological conditions in employees [ 15 ], whereas toxic leadership is a threat to positive employee behaviour and performance [ 16 ]. Organizational performance is defined as “the indicator that assesses the organization’s effectiveness in achieving its objectives”. The efficiency and effectiveness with which the company achieves its goals can be used to evaluate its performance. It includes an organization’s current output or outcomes [ 17 ].

For nurses, there are two types of job performance: task performance and contextual performance [ 18 ]. The task performance assesses how well nurses carry out the activities and responsibilities outlined in the official job description [ 19 ]. Contextual performance, on the other hand, is individual effort that is not directly related to their primary task function, but is critical because it serves as a significant stimulus for task activities. Nursing performance in both forms contributes to the effectiveness of health care organizations [ 20 ]. Previous research has identified a few organizational elements that may improve the job motivation and performance of nurses. Empowerment, autonomy, engagement, supervision and management, nature of work, professional training and learning opportunities, supportive relationships and communication, contingent rewards, pay and financial benefits, promotion opportunities, equity and organizational justice, and working conditions were proposed by Baljoon et al., (2018) [ 21 ].

Employee silence

Employee silence is a result of toxic leadership [ 22 ], as employees prefer to remain silent, especially when confronted with self-centred and self-serving toxic leaders [ 23 , 24 , 25 ]. Employee silence is defined as “any truthful declaration of an individual’s behavioural, cognitive, and/or affective appraisal of his or her organizational conditions withheld from others deemed capable of influencing change” [ 26 ]. According to reports, employee silence is a barrier to openness, effective decision making, innovation, the change process, and continuous improvement [ 27 , 28 ]. Employees may become frustrated, dissatisfied with their jobs, and eventually leave [ 29 , 30 ]. Furthermore, employee silence has a negative impact on organizational outcomes such as ineffective decision-making, a lack of innovation, learning, and change adoption [ 27 ]. According to the study, regulatory reasons, anxiety about destroying relationships with coworkers, fear of fines, fear of being isolated, lack of management support, and fear of being ignored are all factors that contribute to nurses’ silence [ 30 , 31 , 32 ]. Previous research has found that nurses with more nursing and employment experience, as well as those who are older, have higher levels of quietness [ 33 ]. Organizational elements that encourage nurses to remain silent include an unfair culture, a lack of psychological safety, a quiet climate, a hierarchical structure, a negative leadership style and lack of confidence in supervisors, and a hostile nursing work environment [ 32 ].

The gap of knowledge and evidence on how toxic leadership and employee silence influence organizational performance in nursing professionals is very concerning. As a result, understanding these variables is critical when designing interventions or developing organizational policies to manage or prevent toxic behaviours, as well as to facilitate speaking-up behaviours and effective communication skills among nurses and their leaders. Furthermore, it is hoped that this research will untangle the tangled threads of toxic leadership and employee silence, and that there will be no more toxic leadership or employee silence among nursing professionals in the future. The expected reciprocal link between toxic leadership and organizational performance, as mediated by nurses’ silence, is depicted in Fig.  1 . The current study sought to investigate the relationship between toxic leadership and organizational performance among nurses, as well as the moderating role of nurses’ silence. The study’s research questions were, “Is there a link between toxic leadership and organizational performance among nurses?” and “What influence does nurses’ silence have on toxic leadership and organizational performance?”.

Reciprocal relationship between toxic leadership and organizational performance mediated by employee silence

Research design and setting

This is a cross-sectional, correlational, descriptive, quantitative study that was done at Alexandria Main University Hospital’s inpatient medical, surgical, and critical care units. The hospital had 1,825 beds, of which 952 were for medical treatment and its specialties, 773 were for surgical care and its specialties, and 100 were for critical care. Alexandria Main University Hospital is the city’s major teaching hospital. It had offered a comprehensive range of clinical acute treatments to the people of Alexandria and the surrounding governorates. Furthermore, it had provided chances for teaching and clinical training for medical and nursing students, as well as a venue for a range of scientific projects.

Participants

The researchers employed a whole-population sampling strategy [purposive sampling technique]. The participants were chosen from a population of 750 nurses with at least six months of experience working in the previously defined units and who were available at the time of data collection. And the study’s subjects expressed an interest in participating in this examination. Nurses in training were not permitted to take part. Out of the 750 eligible nurses, 750 responded, yielding a 100% response rate.

Study instruments

Gender, age, marital status, working unit, educational qualifications, years of nursing experience, years of experience in the present working unit, and working shift were among the demographic data collected. Toxic Leadership was assessed using the Toxic leadership scale [ 4 ]. This scale consisted of 30 items under four dimensions: intemperate (15 items; α = 0.868), narcissistic [9 items; α = 0.885], self-promoting (3 itemsα = 0.899), and humiliating behaviours (3 items; α = 0.877). Items on the intemperate behaviour subscale represent antagonistic actions or behaviours—verbal or nonverbal—repeated by nurse supervisors toward subordinates, indicating a lack of emotional intelligence. Items on the narcissistic behaviour subscale represented behaviours or acts that were largely motivated by personal goals and self-absorption. The self-promoting behaviour subscale included items that address activities or behaviours shown to improve one’s own personal or professional growth and advancement. Finally, the subscale of humiliating behaviour included items that represent activities that might disgrace or shame personnel. The participants rate each item on a 5-point scale (1 = not at all, 5 = frequently). The researchers computed the average score for each dimension as well as the overall scale score (α = 0.976) was the average of the four dimensions; higher scores indicate higher level of toxic leadership. The total score, which ranges from 20 to 150 points, can be regarded as essentially harmless (30–69 points), moderately harmful (70–110 points), or severely toxic (111–150 points). The concept validity, criteria validity, and internal consistency reliability of the scale were all determined to be adequate (0.975) [ 4 ].

To assess organizational performance, the researchers used the organizational performance questionnaire [ 34 , 35 ]. This questionnaire is made up of eleven items that offer information regarding the organization’s communication, policies, development and change, and organizational performance appraisal. Participants rated each item on a 5-point scale (1 = never satisfied, 5 = extremely satisfied). The average score for the entire scale score was calculated by the researchers (α = 0.956). The mean scores were then determined, and they were classified as follows: mean scores < 3 = unsatisfied, and mean scores ≥ 3 = satisfied; higher scores implied more satisfaction with organizational performance. Furthermore, the nurses silence scale [ 36 ] was used to measure nurses silence (2013). This scale had 12 items divided into four categories: acquiescent (3 items; = 0.856), quiescent (3 items; = 0.785), prosocial (3 items; = 0.859), and opportunistic silence (3 items; = 0.977). Participants rated each item on a seven-point scale (1 = never, 7 = very frequently). The average score for each component was obtained by the researchers, and the overall scale score (α = 0.892) was the average of the four dimensions; higher scores implied a higher level of nurses’ silence.

Validity and reliability

The three tools were adjusted, then translated into Arabic and back into English. The tools were then submitted to a panel of five experts (four Professors and one Lecturer from the Nursing Administration Department) who examined and assessed the content validity and offered feedback on the content, question types, and item clarity. Their comments were considered to ensure accuracy and to prevent possibly undermining the study. To examine the reliability of research tools, the internal consistency of items was measured using the Cronbach’s alpha coefficient test. At a statistical significance level of p  ≤ 05., the three tools were determined to be reliable, with = 0.97 for tool one, 0.95 for tool two, and 0.89 for tool three. The pilot study was done on 10% of the staff nurses ( n  = 75) from the previously mentioned context to assess item clarity and practicality, identify potential hurdles and concerns during data collection, and test the time necessary to complete the tools. Some aspects need clarification from researchers, but did not necessitate change. Participants in the pilot study were not included in the study sample.

Data collection

Data was gathered via survey questionnaires, which were distributed individually to nursing workers. Data was collected for three months, from November 1 st , 2021 to January 30 th , 2022. Due to their continuous presence at the hospital for training and instruction, nursing trainees were engaged to distribute and collect completed forms. Because they were commonly linked to particular healthcare professionals, they could quickly follow-up on distribution and collection. Participants received little presents in exchange for their participation. All participant questions were thoroughly answered and clarified.

Ethical considerations

The Institutional Review Board of Faculty of Nursing, Ethics Committee at Alexandria University in Egypt (SN: 2022–9-82, IRB00013620) excused the study from ethical assessment. The subjects gave informed consent after being told about the goal of the study. Confidentiality and anonymity were ensured by assigning a code number to each questionnaire. Nurses were assured that their information would be kept strictly confidential and used only for research purposes. The ability to exit the study at any time has been ensured.

Data analysis

SPSS version 23 was used to analyse the collected data. To quantify demographic and work-related characteristics, descriptive statistics (frequency, means, standard deviations, and percentages) were used, whereas inferential statistics such as the Student’s t test and analysis of variance (ANOVA) were used to compare toxic leadership, organizational performance, and nurses behaviour subscales between groups based on socio-demographic characteristics. To analyse the link between the variables in the study, the correlation coefficient was used. To predict the employee silence score and organizational performance in response to toxic leadership, a multiple regression analysis was undertaken. The variables included as independent variables in the multiple regression models were those that were statistically significant ( p -value ≤ 0.05) in the correlational analysis, with a correlation coefficient of 100. Employee silence and statistically significant related socio-demographic factors were included to investigate their role as mediators in the relationship between toxic leadership and organizational performance. The mediating effect of employee silence was investigated using structural equation modeling.

After following up with all participants, the response rate was 100%. The majority of participants (78.3%) were females, with more than three-fifths of them being above the age of 30. A little less than one-fifth were working in medical and critical care units. The majority of the nurse respondents ( n  = 522; 69.6%) had a bachelor’s degree in nursing. Table 1 showed the socio-demographic characteristics of the respondents.

According to Table 2 , the overall toxic leadership level was high (78.3%), with a mean score of 3.91 ± 0.51. In terms of individual subscales, the “Self-promoting behaviour” subscale had the greatest mean score (3.97 ± 0.19), while the “Humiliating behaviour” subscale had the lowest (3.56 ± 0.55). Furthermore, the total performance level of the organization was high (69.6), with a mean score of (4.22 ± 0.62). The “Humiliating behaviour” subscale had the highest proportion of respondents (47.9%) who rated it as “moderate-level”. Table 2 also demonstrated that the general degree of nurses’ silence was largely moderate (56.5%), with a mean score of 4.90 ± 0.72. In terms of individual subscales, the “Acquiescent silence” subscale had the highest mean score (5.52 ± 0.63).

Regarding the correlation analysis in Table 3 , a strong, negative, and significant correlation were noted not only between organizational performance and overall toxic leadership ( R -value = -0.666 and p -value = 0.001), but also with all subscales of toxic leadership which were intemperate behaviour ( R -value = -0.666 and p -value = 0.001), narcissistic behaviour ( R -value = -0.608 and p -value = 0.001), self-promoting behaviour ( R -value = -0.582 and p -value = 0.001), and humiliating behaviour ( R -value = -0.483 and p -value = 0.001). In addition, a strong, negative and significant correlation was noted between overall toxic leadership and overall nurses silence ( R -value = -0.769 and p -value = 0.001). There was a strong positive significant correlation was found not only between organization performance scale and overall nurses silence ( R -value = 0.524 and p -value = 0.001) but also with all subscales of employee silence scale which are acquiescent silence ( R -value = 0.527 and p -value = 0.001), quiescent silence ( R -value = 0.395 and p -value = 0.001), prosocial silence ( R -value = 0.433 and p -value = 0.001), and opportunistic silence ( R -value = 0.329 and p -value = 0.001). Table 4 revealed a strong, negative significant relation between toxic leadership and nurses silence ( r  = 0.415, p -value < 0.001) and organizational performance ( r  = 0.578, p -value < 0.001). In addition, Fig.  2 depicted the path analysis model created using SPSS-AMOS, which clarifies the structural equation modeling’s standardized regression weights (Model X2 = 621.4; p -value < 0.001); model fit parameters (CFI = 0.83; GFI = 0.85; RMSEA = 0.1918). Toxic Leadership predicted 65% of the variation in nurses’ silence and 87% of the variation in organizational performance. Furthermore, nurses’ silence as a moderating factor accounted for 73% of the variance in organizational performance. All observed variables in the studied model were highly significant at p-value < 0.001, and the study variables had strong estimates.

Standardized coefficients for path analysis of direct and indirect effect of toxic leadership on organizational performance mediated by nurses’ resilience

To validate the relation between organizational performance and toxic leadership, a regression analysis was performed, with organizational performance serving as the independent variable and toxic leadership serving as the dependent variable (Table 5 ). Because there was a difference in the dependent variable, demographic factors (age, educational background, years in the profession, and years of experience in the present unit) were put into the regression equation. According to the regression analysis, nurses’ perceptions of their nursing managers’ toxic leadership behavior, nurses’ age, educational background, years in the profession, and years of experience in the current unit could predict organizational performance ( p -value < 0.01) and explained 0.75% of the variance in organizational performance.

To validate the relation between Nurse Silence and Toxic Leadership, a regression analysis was performed, with Nurse Silence serving as the independent variable and Toxic Leadership serving as the dependent variable (Table 6 ). Because there was a difference in the dependent variable, demographic factors (educational background and years in the profession) were incorporated into the regression equation. The regression study revealed that nurses’ evaluations of their nursing supervisors’ toxic leadership style, educational background, and years in the profession may predict Nurse Silence ( p -value < 0.01) and explained 0.73% of the variation in nurse silence.

The current study investigated the relationship between toxic leadership and organizational performance, as well as the function of nurses’ silence in Egypt as a mediator. The findings confirmed that the participating nurses experienced toxic leadership. According to Abou-Ramadan and Eid (2020) [ 37 ], more than one-third of nursing staff judged their leaders to have a high and moderate degree of narcissism, as well as unpredictable toxic leadership behaviours. This finding contradicted the findings of Labrague et al., (2021) [ 38 ], who found that nurse managers believed their leadership behaviours to be “non-toxic”. For example, in research involving 1127 clinical nurses in China, nurse supervisors were rated as non-abusive leaders by staff nurses [ 39 ]. In the current investigation, the overall score for nurse silence was moderate. Indeed, this might be explained by the presence of toxic leadership at a high level. This finding was consistent with the findings of a research done at Jordanian capital health settings, which found that staff experience a moderate to high level of perceived general organizational silence [ 40 ]. Another survey done in the same university hospital in Egypt [ 33 ] found that the average perceived overall organizational silence level is moderate. The most unexpected conclusion in the current study was that nurses exhibit excellent levels of performance while working in a hazardous atmosphere and practicing silence. Indeed, Tepper (2007) [ 41 ] and Xu et al., (2015) [ 42 ] explained that negative leadership behaviors cause stress and emotional exhaustion among employees, and as a result, employees try to conserve their knowledge resources and physical resources in order to cope with the adverse climate created by the leaders, and instead of directing their efforts toward the achievement of organizational goals and performance, they waste their strenuous efforts. As a result, it might be claimed that they are trying hard to reduce the influence of their toxic leaders.

The study discovered a considerable negative correlation between toxic leadership and organizational performance. This finding was congruent with the findings of Kiliç and Günsel (2019) [ 43 ], who said that toxic leadership may lead to a drop in workplace performance, productivity, and output, as well as significant negative effects on workers. Khan et al., (2021) [ 44 ] and Saqib & Arif, (2017) [ 45 ] mentioned the same unfavourable associations. In contrast to this viewpoint, Ferris et al., (2007) [ 46 ] observed that dysfunctional CEOs can have good results for firms in the short run. The new findings may help nursing executives understand how to help and support mistreated personnel. Furthermore, there are demands to prevent toxic leadership behaviours, which may have a detrimental influence on nurses’ organizational performance.

The researchers discovered a high, negative, and significant correlation between overall toxic leadership and overall nurse silence in the current study. Contrary to popular belief, Saqib and Arif (2017) [ 45 ] demonstrated that toxic leadership behaviours have a considerable positive influence on nurse silence. Furthermore, Xu et al., (2015) [ 42 ] discovered a favourable relationship between toxic leadership and nurse silence. As a result, it can be concluded that toxic leadership not only impacts an individual’s job but also increases the quiet of nurses. The regression models used in the study demonstrated that toxic leadership has an influence on organizational performance as well as on nurses’ silence. As a result, the nurse’s silence served as a mediator.

Strengths and limitations

The findings of this study significantly added to existing research on toxic leadership, organizational performance, and nurses’ silence. The study, however, should be interpreted in light of its limitations. The participants were drawn from a specific setting for convenience, so the generalizability of the results is limited. Furthermore, because the current results were based on self-reported data, they were vulnerable to response bias and subjectivity. Furthermore, this study only showed correlations between study variables; no causal relationship can be established. In the future, longitudinal, experimental, and multi-site research may help to address these limitations. The current study had several advantages; as the cross-sectional method allowed for the simultaneous measurement of multiple variables in a population sample, resulting in more reliable data that was less susceptible to the potential biases of case series and case reports. A longer follow-up could had aided the investigation. Finally, no claim was made about the relationship between the variables in the study, its purpose was to look into the relationship between variables. Future research should focus on specific strategies or treatments for dealing with nurses’ silence and toxic leadership. Future research can also test job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and work engagement. Furthermore, researchers and practitioners will be more concerned with determining why leaders are toxic and advising on how to control and manage these behaviours.

Implications of the study

Toxic nursing leadership behaviours that endanger patient safety must be addressed organizationally. First, during their transition period, nurse managers and nurses, particularly those with less experience, may benefit from structured mentorship, coaching, and feedback from experienced nurse managers. While standalone nurse and nurse manager transition programs (for example, orientation programs, preceptorship and mentorship initiatives) can assist new nurses and nurse managers in making the transition to practice, a multifaceted nurse manager transition program may be required because it captures various essential elements of the transition experience [ 47 ]. When evaluating applicants for nurse management positions, use leadership assessment scales to assess the need for emotional intelligence and leadership qualities. Furthermore, frequent evaluation of nurse managers’ performance, whether through bottom-up performance assessments or the use of the 360-degree feedback method, may highlight both good and bad leadership techniques. A zero-tolerance policy for toxic and other similar behaviours, as well as a policy describing appropriate workplace behaviours, may help to reduce the spread of harmful workplace behaviours [ 48 ]. Nurse managers should create a safe and stress-free environment for healthcare workers to express their ideas without fear of being criticized by colleagues and superiors, and they should encourage their employees to express their opinions by providing proper mechanisms for free expression and constructive criticism. The negative attitude of senior managers toward employees’ comments and feedback further limits opportunities for communication and exchange between senior managers and employees, intensifying silent behaviours on their behalf [ 49 ].

This study was regarded as the research to evaluate toxic leadership and organizational silence and their impact on organizational performance among Egyptian nurses. According to the findings of this study, toxic leadership had a highly statistically significant negative relationship with organizational performance, as well as a highly statistically significant negative relationship with nurses’ silence. Nurses in various hospital units should receive targeted training to improve their understanding of toxic leadership and nurse silence predictors. Furthermore, the study’s findings emphasized on the importance of creating a work environment that encourages and promotes open communication, as well as eliminating toxic leadership behaviours from the organizational culture among nurses. It is critical that organizational leaders address and initiate programs to enable nurse involvement and reduce nurse silence, as well as encourage a culture of reporting and collaborative communication among nurses and their leaders, as well as reduce the negative impact of silence on their leaders’ negative and toxic behaviours, and train them on how to deal with various toxic behaviours that may affect their performance. Furthermore, the findings confirmed the importance of managerial caring in promoting nurse communication, collaboration, and performance, as well as building a motivating nursing workforce.

Availability of data and materials

The datasets generated and/or analysed during the current study are not publicly available due to data privacy but are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

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Acknowledgements

The authors acknowledge the participants for their acceptance to participate in the study.

The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship and/or publication of this article. 

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Associate Professor, Departement of Nursing Management and Education, College of Nursing, Princess Nourah bint Abdulrahman University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia

Sally Mohammed Farghaly Abdelaliem

Associate Professor at Nursing Administration Departement, Faculty of Nursing, Alexandria University, Alexandria, Egypt

Lecturer, Nursing Administration Department, Faculty of Nursing Ain Shams University, Cairo, Egypt

Mennat Allah G. Abou Zeid

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S.M.F.A: Conceptualization, Methodology, Validation, Investigation, Visualization, Supervision, Results preparation and writing, Reviewing the manuscript, Editing. M.A.G.A: Conceptualization, Methodology, Visualization, Supervision, Results revision, Writing- Original draft preparation, Reviewing the manuscript, Editing. The author[s] read and approved the final manuscript.

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Correspondence to Sally Mohammed Farghaly Abdelaliem .

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The Institutional Review Board of Faculty of Nursing—Ethics Committee at Alexandria University in Egypt (SN: 2022–9-82: IRB00013620) excused the study from ethical assessment. The subjects gave informed consent after being told about the goal of the study. Confidentiality and anonymity were ensured by assigning a code number to each questionnaire. Nurses were assured that their information would be kept strictly confidential and used only for research purposes. The ability to exit the study at any time has been ensured. Informed consent obtained from all the participants included in the study. All methods were carried out in accordance with relevant guidelines and regulations.

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Farghaly Abdelaliem, S.M., Abou Zeid, M.A.G. The relationship between toxic leadership and organizational performance: the mediating effect of nurses’ silence. BMC Nurs 22 , 4 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12912-022-01167-8

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DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/s12912-022-01167-8

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More From Forbes

Ineffective leadership and the devastating individual and organizational consequences.

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Have you ever been so stressed at the thought of continuing to work with an ineffective leader — a "bad boss" — that you become physically ill? If so, you are not alone. Let's examine the consequences and potential solutions.

The Problem Explained

The World Health Organization (WHO) recognizes "burnout" or workplace stress as a global occupational phenomenon.

As explained in "Mind the Workplace," a survey by Mental Health America: "Research has shown that one's ability to experience satisfaction in life is correlated with the opportunity to experience satisfaction in the workplace. When we consider that individuals will spend a quarter to a third of their life working, the state of workplaces and its impact on the workforce's mental and physical health is an area that cannot be overlooked."

One study , titled "Ineffective-Leader-Induced Occupational Stress," found that "Occupational stress has been linked to adverse individual health outcomes at the psychological levels (poor emotional and mental health) and physiological levels (poor physical health)."

According to Gallup's " State of the American Manager Report ," (download required), one in two employees has quit their job because of a bad boss at some point in their career. Seventy percent are thinking about and/or actively looking for a new job due to a lack of support and recognition.

In addition to the individual outcomes, it also leads to organizational issues of lost productivity, employee absenteeism, safety issues, turnover and increased healthcare costs."

Oftentimes, an ineffective leader will demonstrate behaviors such as low emotional intelligence, disrespect, bias, intimidation and a lack of empathy, support, recognition and self-accountability.

The individual consequences of employees dealing with behaviors like these can impact an employee's whole life and manifest as fatigue, irritability, anger, lack of motivation, headaches and heart attacks. In fact, one report examining the relationship between workplace stressors and mortality claims that "more than 120,000 deaths per year and approximately 5%–8% of annual healthcare costs are associated with and may be attributable to how U.S. companies manage their work forces."

Based on these devastating outcomes, organizations are finding it increasingly more difficult to attract and retain high-performing leaders who inspire others. This problem becomes more complex when we consider the Fourth Industrial Revolution and the four generations currently in the workforce: baby boomers, Generation X, millennials and Generation Z.

Many of us, across generations, are seeking more harmony in our work and personal commitments. Millennials and Generation Z employees have highlighted the need for meaning and balance in their lives. They are more selective about the work they choose and how it aligns with their personal values. In addition, their willingness to leave a job that causes excessive stress has been well-documented.

Personal Observations

During my 25-plus years in global corporate environments, I have experienced and observed the negative impact workplace stress can have on employees at all levels (including the ineffective leaders). As a coach and human resources business leader, I've coached many leaders through stressful situations with the goal of creating an environment that inspires employees to become their personal best. Unfortunately, many of those leaders were not committed to a growth mindset, healing emotional issues and developing the skills required to become inspirational leaders.

In spite of a leaders' negative impact on employees, it can be very difficult to influence an organization to remove leaders, especially when they achieve financial results. Ironically, studies show that teams with leaders who inspire often achieve and exceed financial results.

Further, there's a cascading effect of bad and good leadership (particularly when leaders have a team of new and/or emerging leaders). So basically, if you have inspirational leaders, they are generally supporting the development of other inspirational leaders, and if you have ineffective leaders, they are supporting the development of leaders in their image.

Potential Solution

Here is a plan to start addressing the critical issue — which has reached near epidemic levels — of ineffective leadership-induced stress in the workplace.

1. Clarify and acknowledge the problem. Senior leaders and organizations must accept the reality of the devastating consequences, request anonymous feedback from employees, respond appropriately and identify how the consequences are manifesting in their organizations (qualitatively and quantitatively).

2. Focus on leadership success principles and internal fitness. Create and/or update the success principles for all leaders. Develop internally or hire external subject matter experts to provide ongoing training for leaders. In addition to skills training, encourage the use of wellness, mindfulness, employee assistance programs and/or coaching services to provide ongoing support for leaders, address health and emotional issues and continue to develop overall leadership capability.

3. Secure senior leadership commitment. Ensure that leaders from the C-suite and throughout the organization are committed to role modeling and prioritizing objective assessments of their team's demonstration of the success principles throughout the year. And take appropriate action to remove ineffective leaders, when necessary.

4. Check and adjust. Build incremental progress check-ins with all employees and leaders to determine the effectiveness of the plan and adjust as necessary.

As we move into the Fourth Industrial Revolution, organizations must address ineffective leadership as a business imperative. When leaders and organizations align the words "employees are our greatest asset" to their leadership behaviors and expectations, they can begin to seriously address this critical issue.

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Evaluation of the state and causes of ineffective leadership in Africa

2021, The Fountain: Journal of Interdisciplinary Studies

Even though Africa is the richest continent in terms of natural resources, it is arguably the poorest in terms of development. The protracted economic challenges experienced around the continent have sometimes led to social unrest which has unfortunately given birth to migration with sometimes unintended consequences such as xenophobic attacks and people drowning while trying to reach Europe. For some time now scholars and policymakers have been trying to unravel the quagmire of Africa's problems without palpable success. With over sixty years since the first African country gained independence, effective and sound leadership continues to be evasive around the continent with a few notable exceptions. The study sought to find out who was responsible for the dearth of leadership prevalent on the continent. A secondary (desk) research was conducted focusing on all the 54 countries on the continent. The study found that although the continent should shoulder much of the blame for poor leadership, colonialism, post-colonial exploitation, and white monopoly capital cannot be absolved. Africa requires leaders who are not afraid to speak their minds and take bold, difficult, and unpopular decisions. The continent should shed the unfortunate tag of being a net importer of leadership theory and practice by developing African leadership based on the principles of ubuntu.

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Legislative leadership rejects Freedom Caucus call for special session

L awmakers will not meet for a special session to override Gov. Mark Gordon’s vetoes — at least not if it’s up to Speaker of the House Albert Sommers (R–Pinedale) or Senate President Ogden Driskill (R-Devils Tower). 

While they expressed disappointment in Gordon’s “liberal use of his veto authority,” a special session would be costly and ineffective, Sommers and Driskill wrote in an op-ed sent Monday morning to press outlets. 

“What is needed now is not to come into special session to rehash old ideas, but to charge our legislative interim committees with developing bills with input from all interested parties and address the needs of Wyoming,” leadership wrote. 

After Gordon rejected multiple controversial bills and signed the budget on Saturday with dozens of line-item vetoes, the hard-line Freedom Caucus swiftly called on legislative leadership to convene a special session to override the governor. Sen. Cheri Steinmetz (R-Lingle) also submitted a formal request that Senate leadership either hold a special session or poll membership on whether to convene. 

With leadership denying calls for a special session, such a poll is the last avenue available to lawmakers since the governor is not likely to use his authority for a cause against his own vetoes. Leadership must conduct a poll if at least 35% of members in both chambers request it, according to the Joint Rules Rules of the Wyoming Legislature. If a poll is conducted, a special session would require a simple majority. 

Requests and rejection

Both Steinmetz and the Freedom Caucus pointed not only to the governor’s action on the budget but also to several vetoed bills, including a property tax relief measure and legislation to repeal most gun-free zones . Gordon also vetoed a bill that would have created more regulations for abortion clinics while mandating ultrasounds for women before they could undergo the procedure.

“These are just a few of the actions taken by the chief executive in our absence that require our attention,” Steinmetz wrote. “Many sage legislators warned we should never leave town without the Governor completing his work and the legislative veto intact.”

No lawmaker — including Steinmetz and members of the Freedom Caucus — objected when floor leaders in either chamber motioned to adjourn “sine die” — a motion that ends the session “without date” for resumption. In the House, the motion was brought by Majority Floor Leader Chip Neiman (R-Hulett), a member of the Freedom Caucus. 

Sommers and Driskill pointed out this apparent contradiction.  

“We do not recall the legislators who are now clamoring for a special session formally asking us or the chambers to utilize our three extra days,” leadership wrote. Lawmakers met for the full 20 days as scheduled, but technically had three days available to them that were leftover from the 2023 session. 

“The very legislators who are asking for a special session created delay after delay during the budget session by asking for roll call votes, trying to resurrect zombie bills, bringing procedural motions, and filibustering debate,” leadership wrote. 

In response, Bear lobbed the filibustering accusation back at leadership. 

“They had this end result in mind and relied on the governor to veto bills they held their nose and voted for because it’s an election year,” Bear wrote in an email to WyoFile. 

Logistics and cost

Because lawmakers adjourned sine die and without a provision to return, overriding the governor’s vetoes is not as simple as returning to Cheyenne to cast a series of votes.

Unless the rules were suspended with a two-thirds vote, the Legislature would have to use existing rules to pass bills. In other words, bills would have to go through the standard legislative process starting at square one — first passing introduction and its assigned committee before being heard on three separate days in both chambers and any differences being reconciled in a conference committee. After sending legislation to the governor, lawmakers would need to remain in session in order to override any vetoes, lest they end up in the same position as now. 

For those reasons, leadership said a special session would likely require 8-10 days — or approximately half the length of a budget session. 

While estimated daily costs of a special session have varied, leadership in its op-ed said it would cost $35,000 a day. 

“Should we spend $350,000 of taxpayer money because we couldn’t get our job done within the calendar that we had agreed upon?,” leadership wrote. “This call for a special session appears to be political grandstanding for upcoming campaigns, not responsible governance.”

In response, Bear pointed to spending in the budget , which the Freedom Caucus voted against. 

“The decision to introduce bills late in the game and vote AYE while holding their noses is the only campaign trick I see,” Bear wrote. 

While the budget was introduced earlier than usual this session, Bear said leadership stalled by introducing “critical bills late in the game,” including one to ban gender-affirming care and one to create additional abortion restrictions. Gordon signed the former but vetoed the latter. 

Bear also pushed back on leadership for writing in its op-ed that it was too late to effectuate additional property tax relief for this year. 

Steinmetz did not respond to WyoFile’s request for comment by press time. 

The Legislature’s Management Council meets next Monday to discuss and decide on topics for lawmakers to tackle in the off-season known as the interim. 

The post Legislative leadership rejects Freedom Caucus call for special session appeared first on WyoFile .